The Oxford Handbook of Industrial

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 T h e Ox f o r d H a n d b o o k o f

I N DU ST R IA L
A RC HA E OL O G Y
The Oxford Handbook of

INDUSTRIAL
ARCHAEOLOGY
Edited by
ELEANOR CONLIN CASELLA,
MICHAEL NEVELL,
and
HANNA STEYNE

1
 3
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 Preface

Industrialization: a Social,
Technological, Economic,
and Human Process

Representing the first substantial English-​language text on industrial archaeology in

a decade, this volume comes at a time when the global impact of industrialization is
being reassessed in terms of its legacy of climate change, mechanization, urbanization,
the forced migration of peoples, particularly enslaved Africans, and labour relations.
Critical debates around the beginning of a new geological era—​the Anthropocene—​
have emerged over the last decade. Their central focus interrogates the widespread
exploitation of natural resources that underpins industrialization from its early emer-
gence in eighteenth-​century northern Europe to its contemporary ubiquity in our
globalized world.
The rise of carbon-​based economies is at the heart of industrialization. With its em-
phasis on the physical remains of the human past—​from pots and knives to buildings
and landscapes—​archaeology is uniquely placed to provide both a broad and a detailed
understanding of how the processes of industrialization emerged and evolved. In 2007,
for the first time in human history, the majority of the world’s population were found to
be living in industrialized cities and towns, the largest urban areas being located in Japan,
India, China, Brazil, and Mexico (https://​our​worl​dind​ata.org/​urban​izat​ion#num​ber-​
of-​peo​ple-​liv​ing-​in-​urban-​areas). These population conglomerates have arisen through
more than three centuries of industrialization, with intricate networks of resource ex-
ploitation, labour organization, and goods trans-​shipment. Thus, understanding the
origins, processes, and development of industrialization through its physical remains,
and the consequences of this shift in human terms—​both the good and the bad—​is vital
for understanding our modern world of the third decade of the twenty-​first century.
The themes discussed in this volume extend and augment many of the issues raised
in previous publications (Palmer et al. 2012; Casella and Symonds 2005; Horning
and Palmer 2009), reflecting a vibrant diversity of research over the past decade,
which has expanded the scope and geographical focus of industrial archaeology. This
volume explores the dynamics of industrialization within European, American, and
Australasian worlds from the early eighteenth century through to the late twentieth
vi   Preface

century. Recognizing the original role of Britain as the world’s first industrial nation, our
volume seeks to document the historic influences and social/​economic realities of indus-
trial societies. We respectfully acknowledge the grim industrial past: the essential roles
of unfree and under-​waged labour; the commodification of humans, animals, and nat-
ural landscapes; the origins of modern prisons, workhouses, and asylums; and the stark
brutalities of African, Asian, and Indigenous slavery as the backbone of Europe’s capit-
alist global trade. This volume also explores the spectacular engineering achievements
of industrialization, especially its astounding improvements to basic living standards,
public health and sanitation, universal literacy, and poverty reduction. We ultimately
recognize the complex industrial legacy as an intricate story of production, distribution,
and consumption. It is one that travels from UNESCO World Heritage Sites to local sites
of significance, linking them all into the economic, political, social, and racial dynamics
that continue to forge our contemporary world.
Understanding the material remains of industrialization is the major aim of our
volume. As a social process, industrial archaeology is not something that can be boxed
off as a study of technological process or transfer. It crosses the traditional divides of his-
torical, post-​medieval, and contemporary archaeology, as well as the specialist subfields
of engineering, architectural, social, and economic histories. To address this broad
scope, this handbook is divided into three sections, beginning with a section on techno-
logical innovation, and then widening the study to include archaeologies of distribu-
tion and consumption. It concludes with a final section on the wider impacts on society
in terms of rural and urban landscapes, and the reshaping of the social structures of
communities, towns, cities, and landscapes. All the authors have taken explicitly arch-
aeological approaches to their subjects. This allows for a series of detailed case studies
on the many aspects of industrialization that should be applicable wherever the process
can be found.
The first classic wave of industrialization is reflected in the initial section on extrac-
tion and production, the core of the European and North American experiences of in-
dustrialization. This covers twenty-​one chapters including sections on power supplies
(coal, water, gas); mineral extraction and processing (iron and steel, slate, gold and
silver mining, non-​ferrous mining); manufacturing (ceramic, cotton processing, linen
and wool, glass, mechanical engineering, car production); food production (enclosure,
timber, whaling, food processing). It also includes studies of industrial waste, colo-
nial land settlement, and nuclear power, topics that illuminate the consequences of the
global carbon economy.
The second section explores the new patterns of distribution and consumption
that were needed to support the pivotal transition from a rural, agrarian society, to
an industrial, urban-​based one. Nine chapters explore the archaeology of moving
goods and people—​from the terrestrial roads, bridges, and railways, to the canals, in-
land waterways, ports, and maritime shipping routes that transported commodities
to ever-​expanding markets. The material nature and handling of these commercial
goods are covered in studies of warehouses, processed foods, ceramics, and domestic
 Preface   vii

storage containers. This section concludes with case studies on urban patterns of con-
sumption and telecommunications, the latter industry serving as the origin of today’s
digital world.
A final section explores industrialized worlds of society and space. Here, twelve
chapters detail the legacy of industrialization by showcasing new research on workers’
housing, churches and chapels, and burial landscapes. Themes of social ‘improvement’
are brought out with studies of public baths, mechanics institutes, bars and pubs, and
temperance institutions. The industrialization of conflict is reflected in a study of the
archaeology of the Cold War, while its broader implications are explored through a close
analysis of the everyday lives and livelihoods of coal miners. Closing with a chapter on
the material lives of women and children within industrial-​era communities, this final
section of the volume explicitly highlights the diverse legacies of industrialization to
help understand the prevailing engine of change within our modern world.
The links between industrial archaeology and industrial heritage (both the preser-
vation and maintenance of our industrial legacy) remain very strong. Nevertheless, the
archaeological study of industrialization is more than just one of engineering history
and museum displays. It is about the tracking of a social process—​a fundamental shift
from a rural, agrarian society to an urban-​based industrial one, as read through its phys-
ical remains. Although these revolutionary transformations began in early eighteenth-​
century Britain and northwestern Europe, industrialization has since spread around
the globe. It is the heart of our modern globalized economy. We hope that the research
covered in this handbook reflects the continuing vibrancy of discovery taking place in
industrial archaeological research of the early twenty-​first century.

Eleanor Casella (University of Tasmania, Australia)

Michael Nevell (Ironbridge Gorge Museum Trust
and the University of Salford, UK), and
Hanna Steyne (University of Manchester, UK)
October 2020.
 Acknowledgements

The current volume is the result of a collaborative project a decade in the making
whose writing and editing has spanned several continents. We would like to thank the
commissioning editors at Oxford University Press for their patience while this complex
project was pulled together. A work such as this inevitably relies upon the good will
and cooperation of not just the authors but many more individuals and institutions.
Therefore, the volume editors wish to thank a number of people, institutions, funding,
and scholarly bodies who have supported the creation of this publication in countless
ways. These include: the Association for Industrial Archaeology; the Society for
Historical Archaeology; the Council for British Archaeology; English Heritage/​Historic
England; the British Academy; and the Australasian Society for Historical Archaeology.
Special thanks are due to Marilyn Palmer, Paul Shackel, Paul Belford, Flor Hurley,
Catherine Mackey, Andy Myers, Richard Nevell, Norman Redhead, Tegwen Roberts,
Adam Thompson, John Walker, Ian West, and Denis Gojak. Their contributions are
warmly and gratefully acknowledged. Finally, we send our gratitude to the many chapter
authors who were patient participants in this grand project. Their work reflects the deep
significance of the industrial heritage that forges our contemporary world.
 Contents

List of Figures xv
List of Contributors xxvii

1. Introduction: The Past Made Public 1

Paul A. Shackel
2. Water Power 13
Colin Rynne
3. The Gas Industry 30
Ian West
4. An Archaeology of Nuclear Power: Monuments of the Atomic Age 45
Vicki Cummings and David Robinson
5. Slate Production 58
David Gwyn
6. The Archaeology of the British Coal Industry 74
Marilyn Palmer and Michael Nevell
7. Gold Rush Archaeology: Gold and Silver Mining Around the
Pacific Rim 95
Susan Lawrence
8. Non-​ferrous Metal Mining and Processing in Industrial Britain 110
Marilyn Palmer
9. Enclosure: A Living Historical Process 128
Chris Dalglish
10. Australian Colonial Land Settlement 142
Sean Winter and Alistair Paterson
xii   Contents

11. Timber 158

Peter Davies
12. Textiles: Cotton 174
Roger N. Holden
13. The Linen and Wool Industries in Britain and Ireland 188
Colin Rynne
14. Maritime Industry: Whaling 210
Martin Gibbs
15. ‘A Fruit of the Art of Fire’: The Glass Industry in Britain 227
Ian Miller
16. Food Processing 255
Amber Patrick and Hanna Steyne
17. Mechanical Engineering and the Integrated Engineering Works 274
Michael Nevell
18. Ceramic Production 291
Eleanor Conlin Casella
19. British Car Factories since 1896: An Industrial Archaeology Site
Type Survey Case Study 314
Paul Collins
20. The Archaeology of the Iron and Steel Industries in Britain 323
Michael Nevell
21. Butte and Anaconda, Montana: Industrial Waste as
Industrial Heritage 341
Fredric L. Quivik
22. Roads and Bridges 357
Geoff Timmins
23. Railways 373
David Gwyn
24. Canals and Inland Waterways 389
Hanna Steyne and Nigel Crowe
 Contents   xiii

25. Ports and Shipping 407

Richard Newman and Hanna Steyne
26. Global Communications, 1561 to 2016 425
Nigel Linge
27. Warehouses c.1770 to 1914 445
Michael Nevell
28. Ceramics and Pottery: The Enduring Appeal of the
Willow Pattern Print 457
Nigel Jeffries
29. Food Storage 473
Eleanor Conlin Casella and Samantha Bolton
30. Commodities and Consumption 489
Penny Crook
31. Industrial Workers’ Housing in Britain 507
Michael Nevell
32. Churches and Chapels 529
Angela Connelly
33. The Industrial Archaeology of the Burial Landscape 544
Julie Rugg
34. A Celebration of Growth, Independence, and Worth: Symbolism
and Functionality in Swimming Pools for Developing Industrial
Communities 558
Gordon S. Marino
35. Mechanics’ Institutes in Britain and Ireland 571
Maria Elena Turk
36. Bars, Public Houses, and Saloons 585
Andrew Davison
37. Temperance 600
Andrew Davison
38. Social Welfare Institutions 619
Eleanor Conlin Casella and Katherine Fennelly
xiv   Contents

39. Industrialized Conflict 634

Wayne D. Cocroft
40. The Cold War: Archaeologies of Protest and Opposition 649
John Schofield
41. They Were Here Too: Women and Children in
Industrial Communities 663
Marika Hyttinen and Titta Kallio-​Seppä
42. The Social Life of Coal Mining 682
Karin Larkin
43. Conclusion: Industrial Archaeology: Past, Present, and Future 700
Marilyn Palmer

Index 719
 List of Figures

Figure 2.1 Plan of Ballincollig Gunpowdermills, County Cork, Ireland

(1794–​1903), showing the extent of mill races and the installations
serviced by them. 15
Figure 2.2 Reconstruction of early medieval horizontal-​wheeled mill
(c.ad 833) at Cloontycarthy, County Cork, Ireland. 17
Figure 2.3 Waterwheel types. 18
Figure 2.4 Poncelet-​type waterwheel (c.1860) at Glanworth Woollen Mills,
County Cork, Ireland. 19
Figure 2.5: All-​iron suspension waterwheel at Dyan Mills, County Tyrone,
Northern Ireland, c.1829. 21
Figure 2.6 Surviving axle of the earliest-​known suspension waterwheel by
Thomas Cheek Hewes of Manchester (c.1802), at Overton Cotton
Mills, near Bandon, County Cork, Ireland. 22
Figure 2.7 All-​iron suspension waterwheel of 1852 by William Fairbairn of
Manchester, at Midleton Distillery, County Cork, Ireland. 23
Figure 3.1 Gas works plant built by Samuel Clegg in 1809 for Ackerman’s Print
Works, The Strand, London. In the background are two circular
retorts, in the foreground are the purifier, tar well, and rectangular
gas holder (King’s Treatise on Gas Manufacture, 1878, p. 25). 32
Figure 3.2 Flame Gas Works Museum, Carrickfergus, Northern Ireland.
In the centre is the tank of a demolished gas holder; behind this,
left, is the coal store and, in the centre, three retort houses, with
distinctive ventilated roofs. The elevated tank in front of the
right-​hand retort house held tar (©Ian West). 35
Figure 3.3 Two gas-​holder houses, Dresden, Germany. The one on the right,
dating from 1908, houses a panorama visitor attraction; the one
on the left, built in the 1920s, is disused (©Ian West). 43
Figure 4.1 Timeline of Sellafield in the 1940s and 1950s in relation
to world events. 50
Figure 5.1 Slate quarry remains at Llanberis (National Slate Museum), Wales.
Copyright Michael Nevell. 70
xvi   List of Figures

Figure 6.1 Pillar and stall workings, Sharlston Colliery, Wakefield. Image
courtesy and copyright of Oxford Archaeology North. 75
Figure 6.2 The early twentieth-​century headgear at Pleasley Pit, Derbyshire.
Copyright Marilyn Palmer. 76
Figure 6.3 Dul Michal Mine, Ostrava, Moravia, in the Czech Republic showing
the miners’ dry architecture. Copyright Marilyn Palmer. 77
Figure 6.4 A line of bellpits to the east of Monyash in Fern Dale, Derbyshire,
showing the typical upcast with a central depression. These are for
lead prospecting. Copyright: Michael Nevell. 79
Figure 6.5 The mid-​nineteenth-​century Jane Pit Pumping Engine House,
Workington. Copyright: Michael Nevell. 81
Figure 6.6 The excavated remains of the 1770s colliery pumping engine and
boiler house of c.1800 at Fairbottom Bobs, Ashton-​under-​Lyne,
Greater Manchester. 82
Figure 6.7 The surviving wooden headstocks at Caphouse Colliery.
Copyright Marilyn Palmer. 83
Figure 6.8 The mid-​twentieth-​century Clipstone Colliery headstocks.
Copyright Marilyn Palmer. 84
Figure 6.9 Worsley Delph, Bridgewater Canal, showing the recently renovated
entrance from the 1760s into the underground coal mines.
Copyright Michael Nevell. 87
Figure 6.10 The late eighteenth-​century Park Bridge Colliery tramway,
Ashton-​under-​Lyne, during excavation in 2001.
Copyright Michael Nevell. 87
Figure 6.11 Old Row Elsecar. Copyright Marilyn Palmer. 90
Figure 6.12 New Bolsover colliery workers’ housing, 1890s.
Copyright Marilyn Palmer. 91
Figure 7.1 Stamp battery, Kawerau Gorge, Otago,
New Zealand (S. Lawrence). 98
Figure 7.2 Chinese pig-​roasting oven, Palmer River Goldfield, Australia
(photo courtesy Gordon Grimwade). 103
Figure 8.1 Allihies Copper mine, County Cork. Copyright Marilyn Palmer. 112
Figure 8.2 Laxey Waterwheel, Isle of Man. Copyright Marilyn Palmer. 115
Figure 8.3 Circular horse-​powered lead-​crushing wheel, Odin Mine,
Derbyshire. Copyright Marilyn Palmer. 116
Figure 8.4 Water-​powered lead-​crushing wheel, Kilhope Mine, Weardale.
Copyright Marilyn Palmer. 116
 List of Figures    xvii

Figure 8.5 La Tortilla Mine, Linares, Spain. Copyright Marilyn Palmer. 119
Figure 8.6 Reconstruction of an early tin-​stamping mill from Dartmoor.
The crushed ore from the water-​powered stamps fed directly into
wooden buddles inside the building and then into a stone-​built
buddle outside (image courtesy of Philip Newman). 121
Figure 8.7 East Pool Winding Engine, Cornwall. Copyright Marilyn Palmer. 122
Figure 8.8 Arsenic calciner, Botallack, Cornwall. Copyright Marilyn Palmer. 123
Figure 8.9 Rørøs Copper-​mining Settlement, Norway.
Copyright Marilyn Palmer. 124
Figure 9.10 Scores Burn, Perthshire, Scotland; a ruined upland farmstead.
North is to the top of the image. Structures A and B may represent a
small farm of pre-​Improvement date; structures C and D represent
an early Improvement-​era farmstead showing several phases of
development but probably only occupied for a few generations
before abandonment. (Survey plan of Scores Burn Farmstead,
Perthshire, Scotland © University of Glasgow). 131
Figure 9.11 An extract from the first edition Ordnance Survey map of the
County of Perthshire, Scotland, 1866. This extract captures the
character of enclosure in Scotland. The lower ground towards the
north (top) and west (left) is characterized by a pattern of rectilinear
enclosures, breaking the land into individual units. The higher
ground towards the south (bottom) remains largely open but has,
by this date, been privatized and turned over to extensive single-​
tenancy grazings. There is one boundary visible: a straight line
running north–​south over the high ground. This is a ‘march dyke’
separating one estate from another. (Extract for Ordnance Survey
first edition Sheet CXVIII, published 1866 © Crown Copyright and
Landmark Information Group Limited (2014). All rights reserved.) 135
Figure 10.1 Map of locations referred to in text. 144
Figure 10.2 Australian workers: a) Afghan cameleer escorts Mrs Walter
Lawrence Silver on the wallaby track c.1904; b) Miners outside
the Garrick Tunnel Bowen Consolidated Coal Mines c.1920; c)
Workers on the Rockhampton to Marlborough railway line c.1920;
d) Timber cutting and an Aboriginal Family c.1870 in Queensland.
All images courtesy of the State Library of Queensland. 146
Figure 11.1 Remains of steam-​powered logging winch in the headwaters
of the Yarra River, Victoria, Australia (P. Davies 2006). 161
Figure 11.2 Bridge on logging tramway, Little Ada River, Victoria, Australia
(P. Davies 2005). 163
xviii   List of Figures

Figure 12.1 Kirk Mill, Chipping, Lancashire. Probably the most complete
surviving Arkwright-​type mill in Lancashire. Built in 1785, it ceased
to be used for spinning in 1866 and was subsequently used for chair-​
making until 2010. The photograph was taken when it was still
being used for chair-​making (R. N. Holden 2006). 177
Figure 12.2 Scholefield Mill, Nelson, Lancashire. A room and power weaving
mill with space for 2000 looms built 1906–​1907. The single-​storey
weaving shed, with north-​light roof, is in the foreground with the
multistorey warehouse and preparation block behind. Weaving at
the mill ceased in 1934. In 1941 it was requisitioned for wartime use
and it continued in use as a Government document store until 2013
(R. N. Holden 2010). 182
Figure 13.1 Scutch mill at Grillagh Bridge, near Upperlands, County Derry,
Northern Ireland (After McCutcheon 1980). 191
Figure 13.2 Late nineteenth-​century beetling engines at Orr’s Linen Mill, near
Benburb, County Tyrone, Northern Ireland. 196
Figure 13.3 Power looms for linen weaving at Orr’s Linen Mill, near Benburb,
County Tyrone, Northern Ireland. 201
Figure 13.4 Carding machine, from Rees’ Cyclopaedia, 1819. 204
Figure 13.5 Slubbing billy, from Rees’ Cyclopaedia, 1819. 205
Figure 14.1 Illustration of whaling from small boats. Published by R. V. Hood,
Hobart, 1848. Reproduced by permission of the W. L. Crowther
Library, Tasmanian Archive and Heritage Office. 214
Figure 14.2 A Whaling Station on the California Coast 1877 (Harpers Weekly: A
Journal of Civilization, Saturday June 23, 1877 [Volume XXL—​No.
1069, page 1]. New York). 216
Figure 15.1 The dominating townscape character of three early eighteenth-​
century glass cones on the River Avon in Bristol, captured in
watercolour painting A View of Glasshouses in St. Philips, by
H. O’Neill c.1821. Braikenridge Collection (M2777), Bristol City
Council. 228
Figure 15.2 The interior of a crown glass works published by William Cooper in
1835 (Reproduced from the Crown Glass Cutter and Glaziers manual). 229
Figure 15.3 Casting plate glass in the 1880s (reproduced from The Popular
Science Monthly, 1889). 231
Figure 15.4 A woodcut of the glass-​making process produced by Georgius
Agricola in the sixteenth century, and published originally in 1556
in his De Re Metallica. Agricola describes an oven-​shaped fritting
furnace, a melting furnace, and an oblong annealing furnace with a
small heath below the floor 233
 List of Figures    xix

Figure 15.5 Reconstructed plan of the Rosedale glass furnace at working level. 234
Figure 15.6 The remains of the Shinrone furnace in County Offaly, Ireland, is
the only upstanding example of a wood-​fired glass furnace known
in Ireland, Britain, or the Lorraine region of France, where the
family that established the furnace originated. 235
Figure 15.7 The glass cone was one of the very few examples of British
manufacturing technology that was mentioned specifically in
Diderot’s acclaimed Encylopedie of the mid-​eighteenth century. 237
Figure 15.8 An engraving of the Percival, Vickers, & Co. Glass Works printed
in 1902, featuring the warehouse and office range along the street
frontage, with the three furnaces to the rear. The lehr extended from
the two furnaces of 1844 to the warehouse, with a materials store
and the cutting and engraving workshops on either side. The later
furnace and associated lehr are shown to the left on the engraving. 239
Figure 15.9 Two of the furnaces excavated at the Percival, Vickers, & Co. Flint
Glass Works in Manchester. The furnace on the left was built in
1844, while that on the right had been added by the 1880s and
incorporated design improvements that included mechanical
stoking of the furnace and an improved air flow that also allowed
some combustion air to be pre-​heated. 240
Figure 15.10 Excavated remains of part of a tank furnace at Greener & Co. Wear
Flint Glassworks in Sunderland, showing two vertical regenerative
chambers and their distinctive brick chequer-​work. Archaeological
excavations frequently encounter the remains of subterranean
regenerators, even when the entire furnace superstructure has been
demolished (© Suave Air Photos). 242
Figure 15.11 Excavated remains of the eighteenth-​century glass cone that was
adapted to house the early regenerative furnaces at Powell & Rickets
Glass Works. 243
Figure 15.12 Plan and section view of a continuous tank furnace from William
Siemens’ patent of 1872 (British Patent 1513, 1872). 244
Figure 15.13 ‘Pomona’ glass with luminous green colouration solidified in the
lower part of a failed crucible from the Percival, Vickers, & Co.
glass works. 247
Figure 15.14 Engraving of glassmakers replacing an open-​top crucible in the
furnace, shown in Denis Diderot and Jean Le Rond d’Alembert’s
Encyclopédie of 1751–​1765. 248
Figure 15.15 Catcliffe Glasshouse. 249
xx   List of Figures

Figure 15.16 The importance of the Pilkington No. 9 Tank House is reflected in
its designation as a Grade II* listed building. It lies adjacent to the
Sankey Canal in St Helens, and forms part of the World of Glass
Exhibition Centre. 250
Figure 15.17 The Cannington Shaw No. 7 Bottle-​Making Shop in 2010. 250
Figure 16.1 Frank Coney Dukeries Flour Mill, Worksop, Nottinghamshire.
Demolished 1985 (Photograph A. Patrick 1980). 258
Figure 16.2 J. & B. Stevenson Battersea Bakeries, London, now converted for
residential use (Photograph H. Steyne 2016). 260
Figure 16.3 Gleadells Maltings, Kirton-​in-​Lindsey, Lincolnshire, UK. Built 1897
(Photograph: A. Patrick 1996). 262
Figure 16.4 Pneumatic ABM/​Pauls Malting, Louth, Lincolnshire. In use 1952–​
1998. (Photograph: A. Patrick 1998). 262
Figure 17.1 Nineteenth-​century wrought-​iron rolling mill at Ironbridge.
Copyright Michael Nevell. 278
Figure 17.2 Late nineteenth-​and early twentieth-​century erecting shop at Hick
Hargreaves Engineering Works, Bolton. Copyright Michael Nevell. 279
Figure 17.3 The early twentieth-​century factory floor at Budenberg’s
gauge manufacturing works, Broadheath, Altrincham.
Copyright: Michael Nevell. 280
Figure 17.4 The excavated remains of Ashbury’s Railway Carriage Works,
Gorton, Manchester, in 2012. Reproduced courtesy of
Suave Aerials. 287
Figure 18.1 Coarse earthenware jar with clear lead glaze on interior
and exterior, early twentieth-​century, north Cheshire (UK).
(Photo: Eleanor Conlin Casella, Alderley Sandhills Project). 293
Figure 18.2 Fine redware plate fragments with white clay slip and yellow lead
glaze, early eighteenth-​century, Newton Hall, east Lancashire (UK).
(Photo: Mike Nevell, Centre for Applied Archaeology, Salford
University). 294
Figure 18.3 Contemporary blue hand-​painted, tin-​glazed earthenware
flowerbud vase, Delft Potteries, The Netherlands, 2011.
(Photo: Eleanor Conlin Casella). 295
Figure 18.4 Blue transfer-​printed whiteware plate, maker’s mark printed
on base ‘Mortlock’s Oxford Street,’ London retailer, c.1885–​1930
(Godden 1964: 452, mark number 2788). (Photo: Eleanor Conlin
Casella, Alderley Sandhills Project). 297
Figure 18.5 ‘Bartmann’ (from German ‘bearded man’) or ‘Bellarmine’
salt-​glazed stoneware jug, moulded floral medallion on mid-​body,
Cologne, Germany, late sixteenth-​century (Gaimster 1997:
208–​211). (Photo: Eleanor Conlin Casella). 300
 List of Figures    xxi

Figure 18.6 Black transfer-​printed stoneware jar, Frank Cooper’s Oxford

Marmalade, maker’s mark stamped on base ‘MALING ENGLAND’,
Sunderland potteries, c.1800–​1890 (Godden 1964: 408–​409, marks
number 2484 and 2486). (Photo: Eleanor Conlin Casella, Alderley
Sandhills Project). 301
Figure 18.7 Blue hand-​painted Chinese export porcelain toiletry bottles,
archaeologically recovered from the wreck of the Sydney Cove
(1797), Preservation Island, Australia, late eighteenth-​century (Nash
2001). (Photo: Mike Nash, Tasmanian Parks & Wildlife Service). 303
Figure 18.8 Overglaze polychrome transfer-​printed porcelain plate, purple
rim, and gold gilt flowers and borders hand-​painted along interior,
Blackpool tourist souvenir, late nineteenth to mid twentieth
century. (Photo: Eleanor Conlin Casella, Alderley Sandhills Project). 304
Figure 18.9 Clay pipe assemblage recovered from excavation of the Hagg
Cottages, Cheshire (UK), late seventeenth to early twentieth
century. (Drawing: Eleanor Conlin Casella, Alderley
Sandhills Project). 306
Figure 19.1 Company offices at Crossens Car Works, Southport, 1907.
Copyright Michael Nevell. 315
Figure 20.1 Abraham Derby’s 1709 coke iron furnace, Coalbrookdale,
Ironbridge. Copyright Michael Nevell. 327
Figure 20.2: The eighteenth-​to twentieth-​century iron furnace at Backbarrow,
Cumbria. Copyright Michael Nevell. 328
Figure 20.3 The early nineteenth-​century rolling mill building at the Elsecar
Ironworks, West Yorkshire. Copyright: Michael Nevell. 336
Figure 21.1 Silver Bow Creek entering a canyon of slag at the site of the former
Butte Reduction Works in Butte. In the left background is another
portion of the slag impoundment that once contained tailings from
the smelter’s concentrator. The site presently houses construction
equipment being used in the remediation of hazardous materials in
and around Butte. The local government has plans to interpret the
site once remediation is complete (Photograph F. Quivik). 345
Figure 21.2 When built in 1918, the stack at the Washoe smelter in Anaconda
was the world’s tallest chimney. It provided the draft necessary to
draw smelter smoke through Cottrell electrostatic precipitators
located at the base of the stack, where the two tall vertical openings
are visible. The stack discharged smoke from the smelter until it
closed in 1980. Although the rest of the smelter was demolished
shortly thereafter, citizens of Anaconda advocated for preservation
of the stack. ARCO agreed to let it stand and donated it and its
hilltop site to the State of Montana. The stack now stands as a state
monument (Photograph F. Quivik). 348
xxii   List of Figures

Figure 22.1 Diagrammatic representation of reducing summit heights and

raising valley heights (After Law 1855). 360
Figure 22.2 Fleet Valley relief map (After Law 1855). 361
Figure 22.3 Summit height reduction at Cadshaw, c.1800 (After Timmins 2003). 363
Figure 22.4 Longitudinal profiles of old and new sections of road at Cadshaw
(After Timmins 2003). 364
Figure 23.1 The Rocket—​an experimental locomotive design that won the
Rainhill Trials for the Liverpool and Manchester Railway in 1829.
Copyright Michael Nevell. 374
Figure 23.2 St Pancras Station and hotel, London, after restoration. Copyright
Michael Nevell. 383
Figure 24.1 Foxton lock flight, Leicestershire (Photograph Canal & River Trust). 396
Figure 24.2 Turnover bridge at the junction of the Macclesfield and Peak Forest
Canals at Marple, Greater Manchester (Photograph H. Steyne 2017). 398
Figure 24.3 Marple Aqueduct carrying the Peak Forest canal over the Goyt
Valley, Greater Manchester (Photograph H. Steyne 2017). 398
Figure 25.1 The Royal Albert Dock, Liverpool, designed by Jessie Hartley and
Philip Hardwick and opened in 1846. Copyright Michael Nevell, 409
Figure 25.2 The sugar warehouses of 1802, West India Dock, Isle of Dogs,
London, now converted to the Museum of London Docklands,
Copyright Michael Nevell. 414
Figure 26.1 The 1929 Cable House, Porthcurno which was the landing point
for fourteen undersea international telegraph cables. This building
is now preserved as part of the Telegraph Museum, Porthcurno
(Photograph: N. Linge). 431
Figure 26.2 The ‘T’-​shaped antenna array forming the Tetney Beam Station
near Grimsby which provided a communications link between the
UK and Australia and India from 1927. (Courtesy of BT Heritage), 433
Figure 26.3 The 26 metre (85 ft) diameter ‘Arthur’ satellite dish built at
Goonhilly Downs to provide communications with the world’s first
telecommunications satellite, Telstar. (Courtesy of BT Heritage). 438
Figure 28.1 A pearlware plate with the blue transfer-​printed Willow Pattern
print applied: from Sydenham Brewery (site code SYB92: context
[27]) (photograph Andy Chopping: copyright MOLA). 458
Figure 28.2 The Popular Service Suits All Tastes, 1913. Double Royal standard
poster format, W 625mm x H 1010mm. Printed by Johnson, Riddle
& Company Ltd, Published by Underground Electric Railway
Company Ltd. London Transport Museum Number: 1983/​4/​370
(photograph Emily Aleev-​Snow, 2013). 470
 List of Figures    xxiii

Figure 29.1 Stoneware porter bottle, J. Bourne Potteries, Derbyshire (UK),

1833–​1850s (Photo: Eleanor Conlin Casella,
Alderley Sandhills Project). 474
Figure 29.2 Examples of hole in cap can lids: a) round; and b) rectangular
(Photos: S. Bolton). 477
Figure 29.3 Groves & Whitnall green glass mineral water bottle, Salford (UK),
1900–​1930s. Drawing shows diagnostic markings, embossing, and
finishes. (Drawing by Eleanor Conlin Casella, Alderley Sandhills
Project). 483
Figure 30.1 Wedgwood and Byerley showroom, York Street, St James’s Square,
London as depicted in Rudolph Ackermann’s The Repository of
Arts, Literature, Commerce, Manufactures, Fashions and Politics. As
Blaszczyk (2000: 9) notes, showrooms such as these were a keystone
of Wedgwood’s marketing strategy. (Ackermann 1809: Plate 7;
Source: Internet Archive, https://​archive.org). 492
Figure 30.2 Interior of Burlington Arcade, London, in the 1840s. (Dugdale 1845;
Source: author’s collection). 493
Figure 30.3 The examiners’ room, third floor, Montgomery Ward & Co. as
depicted on the back of their 64-​page 1878 catalogue. The caption
cheerily notes: ‘Should any errors occur in this department, you
may blame the gentleman with blonde mustache [sic] at Examiners’
counter’ (Montgomery Ward & Co. 1878, back; Source: author’s
collection). 494
Figure 32.1 Ground floor and first floor plan of the South London Wesleyan
Mission in Bermondsey, London. (Source: Wesleyan Chapel
Committee Annual Report, 1899). 537
Figure 32.2 Exterior image of the former YMCA building, Peter Street,
Manchester. (Source: Author). 539
Figure 33.1 Extract from a burial inspection report for the establishment of a
new burial ground under the Burial Acts of 1852 & 1853 at Thirsk,
North Yorkshire in 1878. Copyright: North Yorkshire County
Record Office 548
Figure 34.1 The Angel of Purity stained glass window at Victoria Baths,
Manchester (Photo: G. Marino). 564
Figure 34.2 Sharston pool, Wythenshawe, Manchester (Photo: G. Marino). 567
Figure 35.1 Bessbrook College Square, the Institute (Turk 2011, Figure A1.11). 575
Figure 35.2 Distribution of Mechanics’ Institutes and sister societies in Britain
and Ireland in the nineteenth century. (Compiled from lists and
references in various sources including Walker 2010, Stockdale
1993, Roderick 1991 and Phythian Tylecote 1957). 578
xxiv   List of Figures

Figure 35.3 Sion Mills Institute (Turk 2011: 279). 581

Figure 36.1 During the 19th Century, the English urban public house adopted a
distinctive external style, typically with large ground-floor windows
advertising the owning brewery’s products, and with the ground
floor highlighted by tiling (as here at the Lower Angel, Buttermarket
Street, Warrington, Cheshire), or other decorative finishes 590
Figure 36.2 The distinctive external styles for 19th century English urban public
houses included ground floor wooden panelling as here at the
Oliver Twist, North Market Road, Great Yarmouth, Norfolk. 590
Figure 36.3 During the period between about 1880 and 1905, brewers rushed
to buy up public houses, particularly in urban areas, frequently
registering as limited companies and issuing shares in order to
raise funds to do so. During this period, the competition for trade
led to the appearance of magnificent new pub buildings in major
cities such as London, Liverpool and Birmingham, decorated with
fancy tilework, engraved mirrors, polished woodwork and stained
glass. The Bartons Arms, High Street, Newtown, Birmingham,
constructed in 1901 to the designs of James and Lister Lea, is one of
the most impressive surviving examples. 594
Figure 37.1 The Temperance Hall at Laceby, Lincolnshire, dating from 1872,
is typical of the halls erected in many small towns and villages
in England during the mid-19th Century. The influence of the
Nonconformist chapel is clear. 603
Figure 37.2 The Bee-Hive, Streatham, Greater London, was built in 1879 to the
designs of the architect Ernest George. It was one of many hundreds
of cocoa and coffee taverns which appeared from the late 1870s
onwards, intended to compete directly with the public house in
terms of design and facilities – everything but the sale of alcohol. 609
Figure 37.3 The Railway Cocoa Rooms, the Chester Cocoa Tavern Company’s
premises near Chester railway station. Dating from c1880, it was
one of many hundreds of cocoa and coffee taverns which appeared
from the late 1870s onwards, intended to compete directly with the
public house in terms of design and facilities – everything but the
sale of alcohol. 610
Figure 37.4 Billiards was an extremely popular pastime in late Victorian and
Edwardian England, and was widely played in public houses and
licensed billiard halls. Temperance Billiard Halls Ltd was one of
a number of companies which provided a teetotal alternative to
the licenced halls. The Cheetham Hill Temperance Billiard Hall,
Manchester, is typical of the distinctive buildings erected around
Manchester and in south London to the designs of its architect,
Norman Evans. 613
 List of Figures    xxv

Figure 37.5 Drinking fountains were an obvious way for the Temperance
movement to provide an alternative to drinking alcohol in the
public house. This example was erected in 1900 at Malvern Link,
Worcestershire, paid for by the local branch of the British Women’s
Temperance Association. 614
Figure 37.6 Memorials to activists helped to spread the Temperance message.
Preston held a special place in the story of the movement, and the
Preston Teetotal Monument , erected in 1859 in the newly laid out
Preston General Cemetery was intended to act as the focal point for
the commemoration of the movement, its founders and activists. 616
Figure 38.1 Ground plan of Hanwell Lunatic Asylum, showing strict spatial
boundaries. (Redrawn from Weale 1854 by K. Fennelly). 623
Figure 38.2 Ground plan of south wing of St Bartholomew’s Hospital, London,
showing execution of double-​ward plan. Redrawn from Burdett
1893. Image by K. Fennelly. 625
Figure 38.3 William Blackburn’s influential designs for reformed prison
architecture. (Redrawn from Brodie et al. 2002 by E. C. Casella). 629
Figure 38.4 Cell Block ‘A,’ Alcatraz Island Federal Penitentiary, California.
Library of Congress, Historic American Buildings Survey—​
California (HABS CAL, 38-​ALCA, 1-​A-​17). 631
Figure 39.1 The Royal Arsenal Woolwich, early twentieth century, large gun-​
boring shop (Author’s collection). 638
Figure 39.2 Rolls-​Royce, Derby, assembly of a Tyne turbo prop-​jet engine in
1961 in an open, steel-​framed factory shop that was probably built
during the 1930s (Image courtesy of Rolls-​Royce). 646
Figure 40.1 Painted fence post near the Green Gate peace camp, Greenham
Common. (Photo: John Schofield). 654
Figure 40.2 Fence surrounding the GAMA site, and also now denoting the
boundary of the Scheduled Monument. (Photo: John Schofield). 655
Figure 40.3 Spiral arrangement, one of many spirals made of rocks and pebbles
at Peace Camp, Nevada. (Photo: Harold Drollinger). 658
Figure 40.4 Ceramic mask in situ inside the outer margins of a stone circle at
Peace Camp, Nevada. (Photo: Harold Drollinger). 659
Figure 41.1 Plan of the town Oulu (in Swedish Uleåborg) drawn by Henrik
Holmbom at the end of the eighteenth century (1784–​1786).
Pikisaari Island is shown in the centre of the map marked with letter
‘N’. Letter ‘a’ stands for the Pikisaari pitch mill area which borders
the sea. Courtesy National Archives of Sweden (RA), (Lantmät. lev.
1892 nr. 46 [kartavd. m. form.]. 666
xxvi   List of Figures

Figure 41.2 The fire insurance map illustrating the Pikisaari pitch mill area
in 1834. The pitch mill (Nos. 1–​2) and decks (Nos. 21–22). Deck
No. 22 was situated on the shoreline. Housing for mill workers
and their families was built beside the mill as well as warehouses,
workshops (Nos. 4–12, 14–20), and cowshed (No. 13). Buildings
marked with letters are outside the pitch mill area, except house ‘O’
and warehouse ‘N’ which possibly had a private owner. Keskinäisen
Vakuutusyhtiö Tarmon arkisto/​The Mutual Insurance Company
Tarmo’s archives. Courtesy National Archives of Finland (KA). 668
Figure 41.3 Excavation map of a worker’s house and adjacent household
midden in the Pikisaari pitch mill area. Drawing: T. Ikonen/​
alterations Marika Hyttinen. Courtesy Finland’s National Board of
Antiquities (Helsinki). 673
Figure 41.4 A doll’s head and a horse-​shaped figure. Photo by Marika Hyttinen. 675
Figure 42.1 Miner-​built housing in southern Colorado, 1900–​1920. Photo by
Otis Altman, courtesy of History Colorado CHS.A799. 684
Figure 42.2 CF&I company housing at Berwind, Colorado. Photo courtesy of
Steelworks Museum, Bessemer Historical Society, Pueblo, Colorado. 685
Figure 42.3 Berwind House #249 first prize winner in 1924. Photo courtesy of
Steelworks Museum, Bessemer Historical Society, Pueblo, Colorado. 689
Figure 42.4 Portrait of children, women, and men, at the UMW camp for coal
miners on strike against CF&I in Ludlow, Las Animas County,
Colorado. Courtesy of Denver Public Library, Western History
Collection, X-​60458. 692
Figure 42.5 Ludlow Tent Colony map, courtesy of Colorado Coalfield War
Archaeology Project. 694
Figure 43.1 Reconstructed rectangular buddle for lead-​dressing at Killhope,
Country Durham. Copyright Marilyn Palmer. 705
Figure 43.2 Derby railway roundhouse conversion. Copyright Marilyn Palmer. 711
Figure 43.3 Excavations at Somertown Goods Yard, London, by MOLA.
Copyright MOLA. 712
 List of Contributors

Samantha Bolton is an independent archaeologist

Eleanor Conlin Casella is a Professor in the School of Humanities at the University of
Tasmania
Wayne Cocroft is a Senior Archaeological Investigator at Historic England
Paul Collins is an independent archaeologist
Angela Connelly is a Senior Lecturer at Manchester School of Architecture
Penny Crook is a Research Fellow in the Department of History and Archaeology,
Macquarie University, Sydney
Nigel Crowe is the former Head of Heritage at the Canal and River Trust, UK
Vicky Cummings is Professor of Neolithic Archaeology at the University of Central
Lancashire
Chris Dalglish is a Lecturer in Archaeology at the University of Glasgow
Andrew Davison is an Inspector of Ancient Monuments at Historic England
Katherine Fennelly is a Teaching Associate in Cultural Heritage Management at the
University of Sheffield
Martin Gibbs is a Professor in the Department of Archaeology, University of New
England
David Gwyn is an independent archaeologist, historian, and heritage consultant
Roger N. Holden is an independent archaeologist
Marika Hyttinen is a historical archaeologist who recently defended her PhD disserta-
tion at the University of Oulu on industrial archaeology.
Nigel Jeffries is a medieval and post-​medieval pottery, glass, and clay tobacco pipe spe-
cialist at the Museum of London Archaeology
Titta Kallio-​Seppä is a postdoctoral researcher at the University of Oulu, Finland
Karin Larkin is Assistant Professor and Curator for the Department of Anthropology
at the University of Colorado, Colorado Springs
xxviii   List of contributors

Susan Lawrence is a Professor of Archaeology at La Trobe University, Melbourne

Nigel Linge is Professor of Telecommunications at the University of Salford
Gordon Marino is an independent archaeologist
Ian Miller is Senior Planning Archaeologist at the Greater Manchester Archaeological
Advisory Service, the University of Salford
Michael Nevell is the Industrial Heritage Support Officer for England and Honorary
Research Fellow in Industrial Archaeology at the University of Salford
Richard Newman is Principal Archaeologist at Humber Archaeology Partnership
Marilyn Palmer is Emeritus Professor of Industrial Archaeology at the University of
Leicester
Alistair Paterson is a Professor in the School of Social Sciences at the University of
Western Australia
Amber Patrick is a Council Member and Planning Casework Officer with the
Association for Industrial Archaeology
Frederic L Quivik is a Professor of History (retired) at Michigan Technological
University
David Robinson is a Reader in the School of Natural Sciences at the University of
Central Lancashire
Julie Rugg is Senior Research Fellow in the Centre for Housing Policy at the University
of York
Colin Rynne is Senior Lecturer in the Department of Archaeology at University
College Cork
John Schofield is Professor of Archaeology and Cultural Heritage at the University
of York
Paul A. Shackel is a Professor in the Department of Anthropology at the University of
Maryland
Hanna Steyne is a PhD research student at the University of Manchester
Geoff Timmins is Emeritus Professor at the University of Central Lancashire
Maria Turk is an independent archaeologist, researcher and heritage consultant
Ian West is a Visiting Scientist at Southampton University
Sean Winter is an Adjunct Lecturer in Archaeology, University of Western Australia /
Archaeologist, Snappy Gum Heritage.
Another random document with
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Otoconcha is peculiar. The fresh-water Mollusca, besides the Isidora
characteristic of the sub-region, are partly related to New Caledonia
through the occurrence of Melanopsis, partly to Tasmania through
Potamopyrgus, while the peculiar Latia is possibly akin to
Gundlachia (Tasmania). The land operculates number only 5 genera
and 14 species in all, excluding a doubtful Diplommatina.[374]
Land and Fresh-water Mollusca of the Neozealanian Province
Schizoglossa 1
Paryphanta 5
Rhytida 6
Rhenea 2
Helicarion 1
Otoconcha 1
Microcystis 1
Trochonanina 1
Phacussa 3
Thalassohelix 5
Gerontia 2
Allodiscus 10
Pyrrha 1
Therasia 7
Phenacohelix 3
Suteria 1
Flammulina 13
Laoma 23
Endodonta 10
Charopa 28
Placostylus 1
Carthaea 1
Tornatellina 1
Janella 3
Latia 2
Ancylus 2
Limnaea 5
Amphipeplea 2
Planorbis 1
Isidora 7
Melanopsis 2
Potamopyrgus 4
Paxillus 1
 Lagochilus 7
Omphalotropis 1
Realia 4
Hydrocena 1
Unio 9
Sphaerium 1
Pisidium 2
Lord Howe’s I. is remarkable as containing a Placostylus, which
thus links the island with this province. The remainder of the fauna is
Polynesian, with the exception of a species (common to the Fijis) of
Parmella, a slug akin to Helicarion, Parmacochlea, and Cystopelta.
(3) The Polynesian Sub-region includes all the island groups of
the central and southern Pacific (except those classified in the
Papuan and Australian sub-regions), from the Pelews and Carolines
in the west to the Marquesas and Paumotus in the east, and from
the Tonga group in the south to the Sandwich Is. in the north. It may
be subdivided into (a) the Polynesian province proper, and (b) the
Hawaiian province, which includes the Sandwich Is. only.

Fig. 216.—Characteristic
Polynesian Mollusca: A,
Achatinella vulpina Fér.,
Sandwich Is.; B, Partula
planilabrum Pease, Society
Is.
(a) The general features of the Polynesian province are very
similar throughout, although the Mollusca of each island group are in
the main peculiar. The species are mostly small and obscure. Helix
scarcely occurs, its place being taken by small Zonitidae
(Microcystis, Charopa, Trochomorpha, etc.), and by groups of so-
called Patula (Endodonta, Pitys, etc.), the exact position of which is
not yet settled. Libera, remarkable for its method of ovipositing (p.
128), is peculiar to the Society and Hervey Is.; Partula is almost
universal, attaining its maximum (40 sp.) in the Society Is.;
Tornatellina, Pupa, and Vertigo occur throughout.
The land operculates consist chiefly of Omphalotropis, Pupina,
Realia, and Helicina. Diplommatina and Palaina are abundant on the
Pelews, and a Moussonia occurs in the Samoa Is. Ostodes, a small
form of Cyclophorus, is found in some of the southern groups. The
fresh-water operculates are Melania, Neritina (including Clithon, a
sub-genus furnished with spines), and Navicella; there are no
Unionidae, while fresh-water Pulmonata are very scarce.
(b) The land Mollusca of the Hawaiian province are distinguished
by the possession of four entirely peculiar genera—Achatinella,
Leptachatina, Carelia, and Auriculella. More than 300 of the two
former genera have been described, every mountain valley of some
of the islands having its own peculiar species. The destruction of the
indigenous herbage by goats is rapidly extinguishing many forms.
Partula, and the small land operculates, so characteristic of the other
groups, are, with the exception of Helicina, entirely wanting. The
occurrence of one of the Merope group of Helix (Solomon Is.) is
remarkable, and there is a rich development of Succinea. “Patula,”
Microcystis, Tornatellina, and the other small Polynesian land
Pulmonata are well represented. The presence of Isidora, absent
from the central Pacific groups, is remarkable, and Erinna is a
peculiar genus belonging to the Limnaeidae.
 CHAPTER XI
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF LAND MOLLUSCA (continued)—THE
ETHIOPIAN, NEARCTIC, AND NEOTROPICAL REGIONS

D. The Ethiopian Region

The Ethiopian region includes the whole of Africa south of the
Great Desert, and Southern Arabia, together with the outlying
islands, excepting those of the Atlantidean province (p. 297).
Regarded as a whole, the Ethiopian is poorest in land Mollusca of
all the tropical regions. And yet its characteristics are very
remarkable. The entire Achatina group is peculiar, and takes,
especially in W. Africa, some curious forms (Columna, Perideris,
Pseudachatina). Carnivorous Mollusca (Ennea, Gibbus, etc.) are
highly developed, especially in the south and east, the largest known
helicoid form (Aerope) being from Natal. In the possession of these
types of the Agnatha, Africa is more closely related to the
Australasian than to the Oriental region. The true Cyclostoma are
entirely peculiar to the region, but are absent from West Africa.
Fresh-water Mollusca are abundant and characteristic, especially
in and near the Great Lakes. Lanistes, Cleopatra, and Meladomus,
among the operculates, together with Mutela and Aetheria
(Unionidae), Galatea and Fischeria (Cyrenidae), are peculiar.
In its negative, as well as its positive features, the Ethiopian
region is markedly isolated. Helicidae and Naninidae are equally
deficient, the former, indeed, attaining some numerical
predominance in the extreme south, but the species are nearly all
insignificant in size and colouring. It is only in Madagascar that Helix
asserts itself. Arion, Limax, Hyalinia, Clausilia, and a number of other
genera abundant along the Mediterranean, are either altogether
absent, or are very scantily represented. Land operculates, so
characteristic of other tropical countries, are almost entirely wanting.
If we disregard the Malagasy sub-region, there are scarcely forty
species of land operculates on the whole African continent.
 The Ethiopian region may be divided into three sub-regions: (1)
the Central African; (2) the South African; (3) the Malagasy.
(1) The Central African Sub-region is bounded on the north by
the Great Desert, on the east and west by the ocean, and on the
south by a line roughly drawn between the mouth of the Orange
River and Delagoa Bay; it also includes S. Arabia. No natural
features exist which tend to break up this vast district into areas of
independent zoological development. The absence of long and lofty
mountain ranges, the enormous size of the great river basins, and
the general uniformity of climate, equalise the conditions of life
throughout. It will be convenient to break the sub-region up into
provinces, but in most cases no precise line of demarcation can be
laid down.
(a) The Senegambian Province may be regarded as extending
from the mouth of the Senegal River to Cape Palmas. Only 8 genera
of land Mollusca are known, including 4 Limicolaria and 3 Thapsia,
with 1 small Cyclophorus. Fresh-water genera are abundant, and
include most of the characteristic Ethiopian forms.
(b) The West African Province extends from Cape Palmas to the
mouth of the Congo, and is rich in Mollusca. The great Achatina,
largest of land snails, whose shell sometimes attains a length of 6½
in., Limicolaria, Perideris, and Pseudachatina are the characteristic
forms. The Agnatha are represented by Ennea, Streptaxis, and
Streptostele. Rachis and Pachnodus, sub-genera of Buliminus, occur
also on the east coast. A special feature is the development of
several peculiar slug-like genera, e.g. Oopelta, perhaps a form of
Arion; Estria, a slug with an external shell, akin to Parmacella; and
Aspidelus, a form intermediate between Helicarion and Limax.
Claviger, a handsome group akin to Cerithium, is peculiar to the
estuaries of West African rivers.
About sixteen species are known from the Cameroons District, but
no peculiar genera occur. The French Congo District has not yet
been well explored. Tomostele, a genus allied to Streptostele, is
peculiar, and Pseudachatina attains its maximum.
 Fig. 217.—Columna
flammea Müll., Princes I.
St. Thomas and Princes Is., in the Gulf of Guinea, are well known.
Princes I. has 22 species, 14 peculiar, and 2 common to St. Thomas
only, one of the latter being the great sinistral Achatina bicarinata
Chem. The remarkable genus Columna (Fig. 217) is peculiar, and
Streptostele (4 sp.) attains its maximum. Peculiar to St. Thomas are
Pyrgina, a turreted form of Stenogyra; Thyrophorella, a sinistral form
of Zonites; and Atopocochlis, a large bulimoid shell, whose true
relationships are not yet known. Homorus, a group of Achatina with
an elongated spire, occurring also in the Angola District and on the
east coast, has 4 species. No fresh-water species have as yet been
discovered in either of the islands.
The Angola and Benguela District, extending from the Congo to
the Cunene R., probably belongs to the West African Sub-region, but
until its fauna is better known it is advisable to consider it apart.
Achatina continues abundant, but the other characteristic West
African forms (Pseudachatina, Streptostele, Perideris) diminish or
are absent altogether. No Helix and only 1 Cyclophorus occur.
Ovampo, Damara, and Great Namaqualand, lying between the
Cumene and Orange rivers, seem to form a transition district
between the West and South African faunas. Helix reappears, while
the characteristic West African genera are almost entirely wanting.
 (c) The East African Province extends from about Delagoa Bay to
the Abyssinian shores of the Red Sea. In general out-line the
province consists of a flat marshy district, extending inland for many
miles from the sea; this is succeeded by rising ground, which
eventually becomes a high table-land, often desolate and arid,
whose line of slope lies parallel to the trend of the coast. The
Mollusca are little known, and have only been studied in isolated
districts, usually from the discoveries of exploring expeditions.
The Mozambique District, from Delagoa Bay to Cape Delgado,
includes no genus which does not occur on the west coast, except
Cyclostoma (2 sp.). Trochonanina (4 sp.), Urocyclus, a characteristic
African slug (2 sp.), Rachis (6 sp.), Pachnodus (2 sp.), and Achatina
(5 sp.), are the principal groups.

Fig. 218.—Urocyclus comorensis Fisch., Comoro Is.:

G, Generative orifice; M, mucous gland; O,
orifice leading to internal shell; P, pulmonary
orifice; T, tentacles. (After Fischer.)
The Zanzibar District, from Cape Delgado to the Somali country,
has the same general features. Meladomus, a large sinistral
Ampullaria, is characteristic, while Cyclostoma (5 sp.) becomes more
abundant. Helix is still absent, but the carnivorous forms (Streptaxis
2 sp., Ennea 7 sp.) are rather numerous.
The Somali District is characterised by operculate groups of the
Otopoma type (Georgia, Rochebrunia, Revoilia) whose generic value
is rather doubtful. Petraeus, in an Arabian type, supplants Rachis
and Pachnodus. Achatina is nearly wanting, but Limicolaria has 9
species. A few Helix, said to be of the Pisana group, occur.
 The District between the Great Lakes and the coast region is fairly
well known through recent explorations, especially those associated
with Emin Pasha. Streptaxis (6 sp.) and Ennea (24 sp.) are
numerous, Helix is wanting, and the Naninidae are represented by
Trochonanina (7 sp.), and other forms at present grouped under
Nanina or Hyalinia. On the high ground Buliminus, Cerastus, and
Hapalus replace, to some extent, the Achatina and Limicolaria of the
marshy plains. Land operculates (Cyclophorus 1, Cyclostoma 8) are
more numerous; among fresh-water genera we have Lanistes (5
sp.), Cleopatra (3 sp.), Meladomus (1 sp.), and Leroya, a sinistral
form with the facies of a Littorina. The characteristic African bivalves
(Mutela, Spatha, etc.) are few in number.
(d) Province of the Great Lakes.—The Mollusca of the four great
lakes of Eastern Central Africa—Lakes Albert Nyanza (Luta Nzige,
2720 ft.), Victoria Nyanza (Oukéréwé, 3700 ft.), Nyassa (1520 ft.),
and Tanganyika (2800 ft.)—are well known, and supply an
interesting problem in distribution. Those of the three first mentioned
lakes differ in no way from the rest of tropical Africa, but the Mollusca
of Tanganyika include, in addition to the ordinary African element, a
number of peculiar operculate genera, belonging principally to the
Melaniidae and Hydrobiidae. Several of these possess a solidity of
form and compactness of structure which is unusual in fresh-water
genera, and has led to the belief, among some authorities, that they
are the direct descendants of marine species, and that Tanganyika
represents an ancient marine area. This view appears untenable.
The Victoria Nyanza and Nyassa are part of the same system as
Tanganyika, and it is not easy to see how, if Tanganyika were once
an arm of the sea, they were not equally so, especially as they are
several hundred miles nearer the Indian Ocean as at present
defined. Nor, as will be seen from the figures given above, is there
anything in the altitudes which would make us expect anything
exceptional in Tanganyika. The similar case of L. Baikal must be
compared (p. 290), where again a number of specialised forms of
Hydrobia occur.
Of the genera concerned, Paramelania and Nassopsis are forms
of Melaniidae; Tiphobia (Fig. 219), which is allied to Paludomus, is a
compact shell with angulated spinose whorls; Lacunopsis,
Ponsonbya, Limnotrochus, and Tanganyicia are probably forms of
Lithoglyphus, some, as their names denote, being of decidedly
marine facies; Syrnolopsis and Turbonilla (?) look like
Pyramidellidae, Horea and Reymondia like Rissoina; Bourguignatia
appears to belong to Vivipara, with which has now been merged the
genus Neothauma. Recently discovered forms from the adjacent L.
Mweru are evidently of kindred origin.
(e) The Afro-Arabian Province includes Abyssinia, with S. Arabia,
the African shores of the Gulf of Aden, and Socotra. The province
contains a singular mixture of types. The high ground of Abyssinia
stands like a lofty European island in the midst of a tropical plain,
with Palaearctic genera flourishing like hardy northern plants on a
mountain in low latitudes. Helix, Vitrina, and Pupa abound, with a
few Clausilia and even a Limax. On the lower levels occur
Limicolaria (3 sp.), Subulina (7 sp.), Helicarion, and Homorus, but
land operculates are entirely wanting. Characteristic of the province
as a whole are various forms of Buliminus, which in Socotra are
represented by two peculiar sub-genera, Achatinelloides and
Passamaiella. In S. Arabia the mixture of types produces curious
results: the Helix, Clausilia, and Vitrina being Palaearctic, the
Limicolaria and all the operculates Ethiopian, while the single
Trochomorpha is Indian. Indian influence, indeed, comes out
unmistakably throughout the province. Thus in Socotra there are two
Cyclotopsis, in Abyssinia two Africarion (closely related to the Indian
Girasia), two Microcystis, and a Glessula, and in the Scioa district
there is a Sitala. The fresh-water Mollusca of Socotra are Indian
forms.
 Fig. 219.—Tiphobia Horei E.
A. Smith, L. Tanganyika.

Fig. 220.—Mollusca
characteristic of L.
Tanganyika: A, Nassopsis
nassa Woodw.; B, Spekia
zonata Woodw.; C,
Syrnolopsis lacustris E. A.
Smith.
 Fig. 221.—Achatina zebra
Lam., S. Africa. × ½.
(2) The South African Sub-region.—The principal characteristic
of the Mollusca of S. Africa is the occurrence of numerous small
species of Helicidae, belonging chiefly to the groups Pella, Phasis,
Dorcasia, and Sculptaria, all of which are practically peculiar.
Carnivorous genera are also prominent, Ennea here attaining its
maximum. Rhytida (to which several species still regarded as Pella
belong) is common only to the S. Pacific and Australasia, and forms,
with Isidora among the fresh-water pulmonates, a remarkable link of
connexion. Aerope, the largest of all helicoid carnivorous genera,
and Chlamydephorus, a carnivorous slug with an internal shell, are
peculiar. Achatina is still abundant, but Limicolaria is wanting.
Livinhacea, a form with a continuous peristome, perhaps akin to
Bulimus; Apera, a form of slug; and Coeliaxis, a genus perhaps akin
to the Papuan and Queensland Perrieria, are all peculiar. The land
operculates, which are not numerous, are of the East African type.
Land Mollusca of the S. African Sub-region
Chlamydephorus 1
Ennea 31
Aerope 5
Rhytida 3
Helicarion 3
Trochonanina 1
Trochozonites 1
Limax 1
Apera 1
 Vitrina 7
Nanina 6
Conulus 2
Patula 2
Pella 44
Dorcasia 8
Phasis 1
Sculptaria 2
Helix (inc. sed.) 4
Rachis 1
Pachnodus 3
Buliminus (?) 4
Pupa 20
Vertigo 2
Achatina 18
Livinhacea 1
Stenogyra 4
Coeliaxis 1
Succinea 3
Vaginula 2
Cyclophorus 1
Cyclostoma 7
Cyclotus (?) 1
Blanfordia 1
St. Helena.—The Molluscan fauna of St. Helena is perhaps the
most puzzling, as regards its geographical affinities, of any in the
world. It consists of 29 peculiar species of land Mollusca (fresh-water
species being unknown), 19 of which are recently extinct, partly
owing to the destruction of the forest, but are found in considerable
abundance in a state of good preservation.[375] The genera are—
Hyalinia 1
Patula 4 (3 extinct)
Endodonta 10 (7 extinct)
Bulimulus 7 (5 extinct)
Pachyotus 1 (extinct)
Tomigerus (?) 1 (extinct)
Pupa 2 (extinct)
Succinea 3
The 5 genera which concentrate our attention are Patula,
Endodonta, Pachyotus (Fig. 222), Tomigerus, and Bulimulus, all of
which appear utterly strange to an oceanic island in the middle of the
S. Atlantic. Patula and Endodonta are essentially Polynesian forms,
occurring abundantly on all the island groups in the Central Pacific.
Pachyotus, Tomigerus (assuming its correct identification), and
Bulimulus are all S. American forms, the two former being especially
characteristic of Brazil. How this mixture of genera now confined to
regions so widely distant, not only from St. Helena itself, but from
one another, became associated here, is a problem obviously not
easy of solution. The fauna is probably a remnant of a very ancient
type, possibly at one time much more widely distributed. Endodonta
(an essentially insular form, like Omphalotropis) actually occurs on
Fernando Noronha, off the Brazil coast, and we shall see how an
Indian and even a Polynesian element is present off the eastern
coasts of Africa.
Ascension I.—One indigenous species, a so-called Limax, is all
that has ever been discovered.
(3) The Malagasy Sub-region includes Madagascar with its
attendant satellites Bourbon, Mauritius, and Rodriguez, and the
Seychelles and Comoro groups. No land Mollusca are known from
the Amirantes, the Chagos, or from Aldabra. The special
characteristics of the sub-region are the great development of the
carnivorous land Mollusca (Ennea, Gibbus), the occurrence of a
considerable number of true Helicidae of great size and beauty, and
the prominence of the genus Cyclostoma.
(a) The Madagascan Province.—The land Mollusca of
Madagascar, although as yet imperfectly known, possess a striking
individuality. Two of the chief characteristics of the Ethiopian region
are the paucity of its land operculate and of its Helix fauna;
Madagascar is especially distinguished by the rich development of
both these groups. For size, colouring, and beauty of shape, the
Helicidae of the two sub-genera Ampelita and Helicophanta rival, if
they do not surpass, any in the world. They are quite peculiar to this
sub-region, not a trace of them occurring on the Mascarenes,
Seychelles, or even on the Comoros. Helicophanta is distinguished
by the enormous size of its embryonic shell, which persists in the
adult (Fig. 223), and in this respect the group appears to be related
to Acavus (Ceylon, Fig. 204) and Panda (N.E. Australia). As is usual
when Helix is well developed, Nanina (about 12 sp.) is
proportionately scanty.
The African Bulimini (Pachnodus and Rachis) are represented by
two species, but Achatina, so abundant on the mainland, is scarce.
Two other groups of Buliminus, Leucotaenia and Clavator, are
peculiar. The presence of a single Kaliella, specifically identical with
a common Indian form, is very remarkable.
Cyclostoma proper, of which Madagascar is the metropolis, is
richly developed (54 sp.). Many of the species are of great size and
of striking beauty of ornamentation. Unlike its Helicidae, this genus is
not restricted to Madagascar; several species occur on the mainland,
6 on the Comoros, one on the Seychelles, and 16 in Mauritius. The
sub-genera Acroptychia and Hainesia are peculiar.

Fig. 222.—Pachyotus auris

vulpina Desh., St. Helena (sub-
fossil).
 Fig. 223.—Helix (Helicophanta)
Souverbiana Fisch.,
Madagascar, showing
embryonic shell. × ⅔.

Fig. 224.—Cyclostoma
campanulatum Pfr., Madagascar.
The fresh-water Mollusca of Madagascar contain further traces of
Indian relationship. Thus we find two species of Paludomus, a genus
whose metropolis is Ceylon, India, and Further India, and which is
barely represented on the Seychelles and in the Somali district.
Melanatria, which is peculiar to Madagascar, has its nearest affinities
in the Cingalese and East Indian faunas. Several of the Melania and
the two Bithynia are of a type entirely wanting in Africa, but common
in the Indo-Malay sub-region. Not a single one of the characteristic
African fresh-water bivalves (Mutela, Spatha, Aetheria, Galatea, etc.)
has been found in Madagascar. On the other hand, certain African
Gasteropoda, such as Cleopatra and Isidora, occur, indicating, in
common with the land Mollusca, that an ultimate land connexion with
Africa must have taken place, but at an immeasurably remote period.
Land and Fresh-water Mollusca of Madagascar
Ennea 9
Urocyclus 2
Helicarion (?) 1
Macrocyclis (?) 1
Kaliella 1
Nanina (inc. sed.) 9
Ampelita 35
Helicophanta 17
Pachnodus 2
Rachis 2
Leucotaenia 2
Clavator 2
Achatina 3
Opeas 2
Subulina 3
Vaginula 4
Limnea 2
Planorbis 3
Isidora 3
Melania 7
Melanatria 4
Paludomus 2
Vivipara 1
Bithynia 2
Cleopatra 2
Ampullaria 6
Cyclophorus 2
Cyclotus (?) 1
Cyclostoma 54
Otopoma 5
Lithidion 1
Acroptychia 3
Hainesia 3
Unio 1
Corbicula 2
Sphaerium 1
Pisidium 1
 The Comoro Islands.—This isolated group possesses about 100
species, almost all of which are peculiar. The principal feature is the
rich development of Ennea (30 sp.). On the whole the group shows
more relationship to Madagascar than to the mainland. Thus we
have six species of true Cyclostoma, and only one Achatina, while
among the fresh-water genera is Septaria, which is characteristic of
the whole Malagasy Sub-region, but is absent from the mainland.
The Helicidae are all of insignificant size. Peculiar to the group is the
remarkable genus Cyclosurus (Fig. 152, p. 247).
(b) The Mascarene Province (Mauritius, Bourbon, Rodriguez, and
the Seychelles).—The percentage of peculiar species, which is very
high, can only be paralleled in the case of some of the West Indian
islands, and sufficiently attests the extreme isolation of the group
from Madagascar. We have—
Total sp. Land sp. Fresh-water Peculiar Peculiar to
sp. group
Mauritius 113 104 9 78 102 (90 p.c.)
Bourbon 45 40 5 19 38 (84 p.c.)
Rodriguez 23 19 4 15 21 (95 p.c.)
Seychelles 34 27 7 24 30 (90 p.c.)
The Mollusca of the group exhibit three distinct elements, the
Indigenous, the Madagascan, and the Indian and Australasian.
The genus Pachystyla (Naninidae) is quite peculiar, forming the
main portion of the land snails proper. It attains its maximum in
Mauritius (17 sp.), with 5 sp. in Bourbon and one sub-fossil sp. in
Rodriguez, while in the Seychelles it is absent. But the principal
feature of the Mascarene group is the extraordinary development of
the carnivorous genus Gibbus, which has 27 sp. in Mauritius, 8 in
Bourbon, 4 in Rodriguez; in the Seychelles, it is replaced by
Edentulina and Streptostele. The principal link with Madagascar is
found in a part of the operculate land fauna. Cyclostoma is present
(with Otopoma) in several fine living forms, and the number of sub-
fossil species is a clear indication that this group was, not long ago,
much more abundant, for of the 16 Cyclostoma known from
Mauritius 10 are sub-fossil. The operculates form a decided feature
of the land fauna; thus in Mauritius there are 32 species, or more
than 28 per cent of the whole.

Fig. 225.—Characteristic Mauritian land

shells: A, Gibbus palanga Fér.; A´,
young of same; B, Gibbus
lyonetianus Pall.
Indian and Australasian affinities are unmistakably present. Thus
Omphalotropis, a genus characteristic of small islands, is profusely
represented, but it does not occur in Madagascar or Africa. Two
Helicina (Mauritius and Seychelles) and a single Leptopoma
(possibly a Leptopomoides) are also of eastern relationship.
Cyclotopsis, Cyathopoma, and Geostilbia are markedly Indian
genera. Microcystis, Patula, and Tornatellina are Polynesian.
Hyalimax—and this is a very striking fact—occurs nowhere else but
in the Andamans and Nicobars, and on the Aracan coast. The
nearest relation to the Seychelles Mariaella appears to be the
Cingalese Tennentia. Not a single representative of these eleven
genera has been found even in Madagascar.
The fresh-water Mollusca (omitting the Neritidae) are: Mauritius 9
species, Bourbon 5, Rodriguez 4, Seychelles 6, with only 15 species
in all. The one Planorbis and the Vivipara, the Paludomus and two of
the Melania are of Indian types. The Lantzia (peculiar to Bourbon) is
probably allied to the Indian Camptonyx. Owing to the paucity of
permanent streams, no fresh-water bivalves occur. Among the
Neritidae is a single Septaria, a genus which, though occurring in
Madagascar, is entirely strange to Africa, and is abundant in the
Oriental and Australasian regions.
It would seem probable that when the closer connexion which at
one time undoubtedly existed between India and Eastern Africa
began to be less continuous,[376] the Mascarene group was first
severed from what ultimately became Madagascar, while the
Seychelles, and perhaps the Comoros, still continued united to it.
The Comoros, which lack the great Helices, separated off from
Madagascar first, while the Seychelles continued in more or less
direct union with that island sufficiently long to receive the
progenitors of Stylodonta (a peculiar group of Helix), but became
disunited at an exceedingly remote period.

E. The Nearctic Region

The southern boundary of this region may be regarded as roughly

corresponding to that of the United States, i.e. Lower California and
Mexico are excluded. The southern portion of Florida belongs to the
Antillean sub-region.
The principal characteristic of the Nearctic Region is the
remarkable poverty of its land Mollusca. No district in the world of
equal extent is so poor in genera, while those which occur are
generally of small size, with scarcely anything remarkable either in
colouring or form. The elongated land shells (Clausilia, Buliminus),
so characteristic of Europe, are entirely wanting, but a few
Bulimulus, of Neotropical origin, penetrate Texas, and from the same
sources come a few species of Glandina (as far north as S.
Carolina), Holospira (Texas), and Helicina.
The region falls into two well-marked sub-regions, the N.
American and the Californian, with the Rocky Mountain district as a
sort of debatable ground between them. The Californian sub-region
consists of the narrow strip of country between the Sierra Nevada,
the Cascade Mountains and the coast-line, from San Diego to
Alaska; the N. American sub-region consists of the remainder of the
region.
(1) The N. American Sub-region.—The Carnivorous genera are
represented solely by the few Glandina mentioned above, and by the
indigenous genus Selenites, a form midway between Testacella and
Limax, whose metropolis is on the Pacific slope, but which spreads
eastward into the Antilles. Among the Limacidae, Limax is common
to both sub-regions, but Tebennophorus (4 sp., 3 of which belong to
the genus Pallifera), a genus found also in China and Siam, and
Vitrinozonites do not occur in the Californian. Hyalinia (Zonites) is
fairly abundant, especially in the groups Mesomphix and
Gastrodonta (peculiar to this sub-region), and Hyalinia proper. Patula
is well represented. The Helicidae belong principally to the groups
Mesodon, Stenotrema, Triodopsis, Polygyra, and Strobila, only 6 of
which, out of a total of 84, reach the Pacific slope. Land operculates
are conspicuous for their almost complete absence (see map,
frontispiece).

Fig. 226.—Characteristic North American Mollusca. A,

Helix (Mesodon) palliata Say, Ohio. B, Helix
(Polygyra) cereolus Mühlf., Texas. C, Patula
alternata Say, Tennessee.
The poverty of the land fauna is atoned for by the extraordinary
abundance and variety of the fresh-water genera. A family of
operculates, the Pleuroceridae, with 10 genera and about 450
species, is quite peculiar, a few stragglers only reaching Central
America and the Antilles. The nucleus of their distribution is the
Upper Tennessee River with its branches, and the Coosa River.
They appear to dislike the neighbourhood of the sea, and are never