Green Pesticides Handbook: Essential

Oils for Pest Control 1st Edition Leo

M.L. Nollet
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://textbookfull.com/product/green-pesticides-handbook-essential-oils-for-pest-con
trol-1st-edition-leo-m-l-nollet/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...

Proteomics for Food Authentication 1st Edition Leo M.L.

Nollet (Editor)

https://textbookfull.com/product/proteomics-for-food-
authentication-1st-edition-leo-m-l-nollet-editor/

Essential Oils for Beginners Althea Press

https://textbookfull.com/product/essential-oils-for-beginners-
althea-press/

Handbook of essential oils science technology and

applications Second Edition Ba■er

https://textbookfull.com/product/handbook-of-essential-oils-
science-technology-and-applications-second-edition-baser/

Essential Oils Natural Remedies The Complete A Z

Reference of Essential Oils for Health and Healing
Althea Press

https://textbookfull.com/product/essential-oils-natural-remedies-
the-complete-a-z-reference-of-essential-oils-for-health-and-
healing-althea-press/
Essential Oils 101 Your Guide to Understanding and
Using Essential Oils Keniston-Pond

https://textbookfull.com/product/essential-oils-101-your-guide-
to-understanding-and-using-essential-oils-keniston-pond/

Essential Oils Aromatherapy Marlene Houghton

https://textbookfull.com/product/essential-oils-aromatherapy-
marlene-houghton/

Essential Oils and Nanotechnology for Treatment of

Microbial Diseases 1st Edition Derita

https://textbookfull.com/product/essential-oils-and-
nanotechnology-for-treatment-of-microbial-diseases-1st-edition-
derita/

Natural Remedies for Pest, Disease and Weed Control 1st

Edition Chukwuebuka Egbuna & Barbara Sawicka

https://textbookfull.com/product/natural-remedies-for-pest-
disease-and-weed-control-1st-edition-chukwuebuka-egbuna-barbara-
sawicka/

Handbook of essential oils, 3rd ed: science,

technology, and applications 3rd Edition Kemal Hüsnü
Can Ba■er

https://textbookfull.com/product/handbook-of-essential-oils-3rd-
ed-science-technology-and-applications-3rd-edition-kemal-husnu-
can-baser/
Green Pesticides Handbook
Essential Oils for Pest Control
http://taylorandfrancis.com
Green Pesticides Handbook
Essential Oils for Pest Control

Edited by
Leo M.L. Nollet
Hamir Singh Rathore
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

© 2017 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business

No claim to original U.S. Government works

Printed on acid-free paper

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4987-5938-0 (Hardback)

This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been made to
publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materi-
als or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material
reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained.
If any copyright material has not been acknowledged, please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint.

Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in
any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, micro-
filming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers.

For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.copyright.com (http://www​
.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-
8400. CCC is a not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users. For organizations that
have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged.

Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identifi-
cation and explanation without intent to infringe.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Nollet, Leo M. L., 1948- editor. | Rathore, Hamir Singh.

Title: Green pesticides handbook : essential oils for pest control / [compiled by] Leo M.L. Nollet and Hamir
Singh Rathore.
Description: Boca Raton : Taylor & Francis, CRC Press, 2017. | Includes bibliographical references.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016052776 | ISBN 9781498759380 (print : alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Natural pesticides--Handbooks, manuals, etc. | Essences and essential oils--Handbooks,
manuals, etc. | Green chemistry--Handbooks, manuals, etc.
Classification: LCC SB951.145.N37 G74 2017 | DDC 628.9/6--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016052776

Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at

http://www.taylorandfrancis.com

and the CRC Press Web site at

http://www.crcpress.com
Contents

Preface...............................................................................................................................................ix
Editors...............................................................................................................................................xi
Contributors.................................................................................................................................. xiii

Section I Essential Oils as Green Pesticides

1. Green Pesticides for Organic Farming: Occurrence and Properties

of Essential Oils for Use in Pest Control............................................................................ 3
Hamir Singh Rathore

2. Commercialization of Insecticides Based on Plant Essential Oils:

Past, Present, and Future...................................................................................................... 27
Murray B. Isman and Jun-Hyung Tak

Section II Essential and Vegetable Oils

3. Eucalyptus Oil: Extraction, Analysis, and Properties for Use in Pest Control.........43
Hamir Singh Rathore and Leo M.L. Nollet

4. Mentha Oil.............................................................................................................................. 59
Hamir Singh Rathore, Shafiullah, and Raveed Yousuf Bhat

5. Basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) Oil: As a Green Pesticide................................................ 73

N.C. Basantia

6. Lemongrass Oil: As a Green Pesticide.............................................................................. 93

N.C. Basantia

7. Cinnamon Oil....................................................................................................................... 117

Khalid Haddi, Lêda R.A. Faroni, and Eugênio E. Oliveira

8. Citronella Oil........................................................................................................................ 151

Valentina Aristizábal Marulanda, Christian David Botero Gutiérrez,
and Carlos Ariel Cardona Alzate

9. Marigold Oil......................................................................................................................... 185

Cuthbert Katsvanga

10. Clove Oil................................................................................................................................ 199

A. Onur Girisgin

v
vi Contents

11. Sandalwood Oil (Santalum album L.): Source of a Botanical Pesticide—

Present Status and Potential Prospects........................................................................... 217
Somnath Roy, Gautam Handique, Ranjida Ahmed, and N. Muraleedharan

12. Lavender Oil......................................................................................................................... 231

Irshad Ul Haq Bhat and Zakia Khanam

13. Pine Needle Oil.................................................................................................................... 245

Aikaterini Koutsaviti, Efstathia Ioannou, Olga Tzakou, Panos V. Petrakis,
and Vassilios Roussis

14. Turpentine or Pine Oil....................................................................................................... 269

Emma Mani-López, Ana C. Lorenzo-Leal, Enrique Palou, and Aurelio López-Malo

15. Orange Oil............................................................................................................................ 291

Rosaria Ciriminna, Francesco Meneguzzo, and Mario Pagliaro

16. Essential Oil of Cinnamomum cassia for Pest Control............................................... 303

Abhishek Niranjan, Alok Lehri, and S.K. Tewari

17. Essential Oil of Thymus vulgaris L. for Pest Control.................................................. 319

Abhishek Niranjan, Alok Lehri, and S.K. Tewari

18. Castor Oil.............................................................................................................................. 333

R.T. Gahukar and Sheetal Mital

19. Chamomile Oil..................................................................................................................... 365

Ompal Singh, Zakia Khanam, and Leo M.L. Nollet

20. Neem Oil............................................................................................................................... 377

Zakia Khanam, Hanan M. Al-Yousef, Ompal Singh, and Irshad Ul Haq Bhat

21. Pyrethrum Oils.................................................................................................................... 399

Basil K. Munjanja

22. Pennyroyal Oil as a Green Pesticide................................................................................ 417

N.C. Basantia and Hamir Singh Rathore

23. Pesticidal Activity of Different Essential Oils.............................................................. 431

Leo M.L. Nollet

Section III Different Aspects of Essential Oils

24. Essential Oils and Synthetic Pesticides.......................................................................... 449

Vasakorn Bullangpoti
Contents vii

25. Essential Oils and Their Constituents as Novel Biorational Molluscicides

for Terrestrial Gastropod Pests......................................................................................... 479
Rory Mc Donnell

26. Perspectives on Essential Oil–Loaded Nanodelivery Packaging Technology

for Controlling Stored Cereal and Grain Pests............................................................. 487
Farah Hossain, Peter Follett, Stephane Salmieri, Khanh Dang Vu, Majid Jamshidian,
and Monique Lacroix

27. Essential Oil Mixtures for Pest Control.......................................................................... 509

Leo M.L. Nollet and Hamir Singh Rathore

Index.............................................................................................................................................. 523
http://taylorandfrancis.com
Preface

This book explores one series of biopesticides, essential oils. The number of essential oils
with pesticidal possibilities or activities is large—too large to comment on all in this book.
The authors made a selection of essential oils. These are discussed in depth. Other inter-
esting properties of essential oils are also considered (in some chapters of Section III). Both
editors would like to cordially thank all of the authors for their excellent work. They spent
a lot of time and hard work, and the result is superb. We would also like to thank the edito-
rial team of CRC Press/Taylor & Francis for their patience. Finally, Dr. Nollet gives a word
of thanks to and expresses his appreciation for his coeditor, Professor Rathore. The idea of
this book originated in his head.
Two heads are better than one.

Leo M.L. Nollet

Hamir Singh Rathore

ix
http://taylorandfrancis.com
Editors

Leo M.L. Nollet, PhD, received an MS (1973) and PhD (1978) in biology from the Katholieke
Universiteit Leuven, Belgium. He is an editor and associate editor of numerous books. He
edited for M. Dekker, New York—now CRC Press/Taylor & Francis—the first, second, and
third editions of the books entitled Food Analysis by HPLC and the Handbook of Food Analysis.
The last edition is a two-volume book. He also edited the Handbook of Water Analysis (first,
second, and third editions) and Chromatographic Analysis of the Environment, Third Edition
(CRC Press). With F. Toldrá, he coedited two books published in 2006 and 2007: Advanced
Technologies for Meat Processing (CRC Press) and Advances in Food Diagnostics (Blackwell
Publishing—now Wiley). With M. Poschl, he coedited the book Radionuclide Concentrations
in Foods and the Environment, also published in 2006 (CRC Press).
Dr. Nollet has coedited several books with Y.H. Hui and other colleagues: the Handbook
of Food Product Manufacturing (Wiley, 2007); Handbook of Food Science, Technology and
Engineering (CRC Press, 2005); Food Biochemistry and Food Processing (first and second edi-
tions; Blackwell Publishing [Wiley], 2006, 2012); and the Handbook of Fruits and Vegetable
Flavors (Wiley, 2010). In addition, he edited the Handbook of Meat, Poultry and Seafood Quality
(first and second editions; Blackwell Publishing [Wiley], 2007, 2012). From 2008 to 2011,
he published with F. Toldrá five volumes on animal product–related books, namely, the
Handbook of Muscle Foods Analysis, the Handbook of Processed Meats and Poultry Analysis,
the Handbook of Seafood and Seafood Products Analysis, the Handbook of Dairy Foods Analysis,
and the Handbook of Analysis of Edible Animal By-Products. Also in 2011 with F. Toldrá, he
coedited for CRC Press two volumes: Safety Analysis of Foods of Animal Origin and Sensory
Analysis of Foods of Animal Origin. In 2012, they both published the Handbook of Analysis of
Active Compounds in Functional Foods. In a coedition with Hamir Rathore, the Handbook of
Pesticides: Methods of Pesticides Residues Analysis was marketed in 2009, Pesticides: Evaluation
of Environmental Pollution in 2012, and the Biopesticides Handbook in 2015.
Other finished book projects include Food Allergens: Analysis, Instrumentation, and Methods
(with A. van Hengel; CRC Press, 2011) and Analysis of Endocrine Compounds in Food (Wiley-
Blackwell, 2011). Dr. Nollet’s recent projects include Proteomics in Foods with F. Toldrá
(Springer, 2013) and Transformation Products of Emerging Contaminants in the Environment:
Analysis, Processes, Occurrence, Effects and Risks with D. Lambropoulou (Wiley, 2014). In
the series, CRC Food Analysis & Properties, Dr. Nollet edited with C. Ruiz-Capillas Flow
Injection Analysis of Food Additives (CRC Press, 2015) and Marine Microorganisms: Extraction
and Analysis of Bioactive Compounds (CRC Press, 2016).

Hamir Singh Rathore, PhD, is a retired professor and chairman, Department of Applied
Chemistry, Zakir Husain College of Engineering and Technology, Aligarh Muslim
University, Aligarh, India. His research work is in the area of applied/industrial chemis-
try, with more emphasis on synthetic inorganic ion exchangers, pesticides, and develop-
ment of analytical techniques. He received MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees from Aligarh
Muslim University in 1967, 1970, and 1971, respectively. He worked as a postdoctoral fellow
on biosensors with Professor Marco Mascini in the Second University of Rome, Italy, on a
fellowship awarded to him in 1987 by the Third World Academy of Sciences, Trieste, Italy.
Professor Rathore taught several courses of applied chemistry to the students of
BTech and MTech. After retirement, he became actively engaged in teaching modern

xi
xii Editors

instrumental techniques to MSc students (industrial chemistry), writing a book, and con-
ducting research work in the university.
His research work has been published in the form of 125 papers in journals of interna-
tional repute. Twenty students have been awarded MPhil and an equal number of PhD
degrees under his supervision. Professor Rathore has presented his research work and
delivered lectures and invited talks in several national and international conferences held
in India and abroad (United States, Italy, Spain, Finland, Hungary, Brazil, etc.). He has
attended a dozen summer schools and short-term courses at different institutes, universi-
ties, and research laboratories. He is a member of several national and international scien-
tific bodies. He is the editor or referee of some national and international journals.
Professor Rathore has contributed to the following books: Basic Practical Chemistry
(1982) and Experiments in Applied Chemistry (1990), both of which were edited by Ishtiaq
Ali and H.S. Rathore and published by AMU, Aligarh; Handbook of Chromatography: Liquid
Chromatography of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (CRC Press, 1993), edited by Joseph
Sherma and Hamir S. Rathore; and Handbook of Pesticides: Methods of Pesticide Residues
Analysis (2009), Pesticides: Evaluation of Environmental Pollution (2012), and Handbook of
Biopesticides (2014), all edited by Leo M.L. Nollet and H.S. Rathore and published by CRC
Press/Taylor & Francis.
He has contributed six chapters in the following handbooks: the Handbook of Food
Analysis (1996), Handbook of Water Analysis (2000), and the revised and enlarged edition of
the Handbook of Food Analysis (2004). All three books were edited by Leo M.L. Nollet and
published by Marcel Dekker.
Contributors

Ranjida Ahmed Rosaria Ciriminna

Department of Entomology Istituto per lo Studio dei Materiali
Tocklai Tea Research Institute Nanostrutturati
Tea Research Association CNR
Jorhat, Assam, India Palermo, Italy

Hanan M. Al-Yousef Lêda R.A. Faroni

Department of Pharmacognosy Departamento de Engenharia Agrícola
College of Pharmacy Universidade Federal de Viçosa
King Saud University Viçosa, Brazil
Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
Peter Follett
Carlos Ariel Cardona Alzate USDA-ARS
Instituto de Biotecnología y Agroindustria U.S. Pacific Basin Agricultural Research
Departamento de Ingeniería Química Center
Universidad Nacional de Colombia Hilo, Hawaii
Manizales, Colombia
R.T. Gahukar
N.C. Basantia Arag Biotech Pvt. Ltd.
Cavinkare Research Centre Nagpur, Maharashtra, India
Cavinkare Private Limited
Chennai, Tamilnadu, India A. Onur Girisgin
Department of Parasitology
Irshad Ul Haq Bhat Faculty of Veterinary Medicine
Faculty of Earth Science Uludag University
Universiti Malaysia Kelantan Bursa, Turkey
Kelantan, Malaysia
Christian David Botero Gutiérrez
Raveed Yousuf Bhat Instituto de Biotecnología y Agroindustria
Chemistry Department Departamento de Ingeniería Química
Aligarh Muslim University Universidad Nacional de Colombia
Aligarh, India Manizales, Colombia

Vasakorn Bullangpoti Khalid Haddi

Department of Zoology Entomology Department
Faculty of Science Federal University of Viçosa
Kasetsart University Viçosa, Brazil
Bangkok, Thailand

xiii
xiv Contributors

Gautam Handique Aikaterini Koutsaviti

Department of Entomology
Tocklai Tea Research Institute
Tea Research Association
Jorhat, Assam, India
Farah Hossain
Research Laboratories in Sciences Applied
to Food
Canadian Irradiation Centre
INRS-Institute Armand-Frappier
Québec, Canada
Efstathia Ioannou
Department of Pharmacognosy
and Chemistry of Natural Products
Faculty of Pharmacy
School of Health Sciences
National and Kapodistrian University
of Athens
Athens, Greece
Department of Pharmacognosy
and Chemistry of Natural Products
Faculty of Pharmacy
School of Health Sciences
National and Kapodistrian University
of Athens
Athens, Greece
Monique Lacroix
Research Laboratories in Sciences Applied
to Food
Canadian Irradiation Centre
INRS-Institute Armand-Frappier
Québec, Canada
Alok Lehri
Council of Scientific and Industrial
Research
National Botanical Research Institute
Lucknow, India

Murray B. Isman Aurelio López-Malo

Faculty of Land and Food Systems Departamento de Ingeniería Química,
University of British Columbia Alimentos y Ambiental
Vancouver, Canada Universidad de las Américas Puebla
Puebla, Mexico
Majid Jamshidian
Research Laboratories in Sciences Applied Ana C. Lorenzo-Leal
to Food Departamento de Ingeniería Química,
Canadian Irradiation Centre Alimentos y Ambiental
INRS-Institute Armand-Frappier Universidad de las Américas Puebla
Québec, Canada Puebla, Mexico

Cuthbert Katsvanga Emma Mani-López

Department of Environmental Science Departamento de Ingeniería Química,
Faculty of Agriculture and Environmental Alimentos y Ambiental
Science Universidad de las Américas Puebla
Bindura, Zimbabwe Puebla, Mexico

Zakia Khanam Valentina Aristizábal Marulanda

Faculty of Agro Based Industry Instituto de Biotecnología y Agroindustria
Universiti Malaysia Kelantan Departamento de Ingeniería Química
Kelantan, Malaysia Universidad Nacional de Colombia
Manizales, Colombia
Contributors xv

Rory Mc Donnell Enrique Palou

Department of Crop and Soil Science Departamento de Ingeniería Química,
Oregon State University Alimentos y Ambiental
Corvallis, Oregon Universidad de las Américas Puebla
Puebla, Mexico
Francesco Meneguzzo
Istituto di Biometeorologia Panos V. Petrakis
CNR H.A.O. DEMETER
Firenze, Italy Institute of Mediterranean Forest
Ecosystems and Forest Products
Sheetal Mital Technology
Applied Sciences Athens, Greece
Krishna Institute of Engineering &
Technology Somnath Roy
Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh, India Department of Entomology
Tocklai Tea Research Institute
Basil K. Munjanja Tea Research Association
Department of Chemistry Jorhat, Assam, India
Faculty of Natural and Agricultural
Sciences Vassilios Roussis
University of Pretoria Department of Pharmacognosy
Pretoria, South Africa and Chemistry of Natural Products
Faculty of Pharmacy
N. Muraleedharan School of Health Sciences
Department of Entomology National and Kapodistrian University
Tocklai Tea Research Institute of Athens
Tea Research Association Athens, Greece
Jorhat, Assam, India
Stephane Salmieri
Abhishek Niranjan Research Laboratories in Sciences Applied
Council of Scientific and Industrial to Food
Research Canadian Irradiation Centre
National Botanical Research Institute INRS-Institute Armand-Frappier
Lucknow, India Québec, Canada
Eugênio E. Oliveira Shafiullah
Departamento de Entomologia Chemistry Department
Universidade Federal de Viçosa Aligarh Muslim University
Viçosa, Brazil Aligarh, India
Mario Pagliaro
Ompal Singh
Istituto per lo Studio dei Materiali
Chemical Research Unit
Nanostrutturati
Department of Research in Unani Medicine
CNR
Aligarh Muslim University
Palermo, Italy
Aligarh, Uttar Pradesh, India
xvi Contributors

Jun-Hyung Tak Khanh Dang Vu

Faculty of Land and Food Systems
University of British Columbia
Vancouver, Canada
S.K. Tewari
Council of Scientific and Industrial Research
National Botanical Research Institute
Lucknow, India
Research Laboratories in Sciences Applied
to Food
Canadian Irradiation Centre
INRS-Institute Armand-Frappier
Québec, Canada

Olga Tzakou
Department of Pharmacognosy
and Chemistry of Natural Products
Faculty of Pharmacy
School of Health Sciences
National and Kapodistrian University
of Athens
Athens, Greece
 Section I

Essential Oils as Green Pesticides

http://taylorandfrancis.com
1
Green Pesticides for Organic Farming:
Occurrence and Properties of Essential
Oils for Use in Pest Control

Hamir Singh Rathore

CONTENTS
1.1 Introduction.............................................................................................................................4
1.2 Definitions...............................................................................................................................4
1.3 Plants and Essential Oils....................................................................................................... 5
1.4 Technology of Using Eucalyptus Oil...................................................................................6
1.5 Aromatherapy.........................................................................................................................6
1.5.1 History of Modern Aromatherapy........................................................................... 6
1.5.2 Mechanisms of Aromatherapy.................................................................................7
1.6 Pharmacological Properties of Essential Oils.....................................................................7
1.6.1 Antiseptic.....................................................................................................................7
1.6.2 Expectorant and Diuretic........................................................................................... 7
1.6.3 Spasmolytic and Sedative..........................................................................................7
1.6.4 Other Related Properties........................................................................................... 7
1.7 Pesticidal Properties...............................................................................................................8
1.8 Chemical Composition of Essential Oils.............................................................................9
1.8.1 Volatile Fraction..........................................................................................................9
1.8.1.1 Hydrocarbons............................................................................................... 9
1.8.1.2 Terpenes........................................................................................................9
1.8.1.3 Alcohols....................................................................................................... 10
1.8.1.4 Aldehydes.................................................................................................... 11
1.8.1.5 Acids............................................................................................................ 11
1.8.1.6 Esters............................................................................................................ 11
1.8.1.7 Ketones........................................................................................................ 11
1.8.1.8 Lactones....................................................................................................... 11
1.8.1.9 Oxides.......................................................................................................... 12
1.9 Mode of Action of Essential Oils........................................................................................ 12
1.9.1 Insecticidal Action.................................................................................................... 12
1.9.2 Repellent Action........................................................................................................ 13
1.9.3 Fumigant Action....................................................................................................... 13
1.10 Phytotoxicity and Safety...................................................................................................... 13
1.11 Indoor Reactions................................................................................................................... 14
1.12 Synergistic Formulations..................................................................................................... 14
1.13 Structure–Activity Relationships....................................................................................... 15
1.14 Essential Oil–Based Commercial Products....................................................................... 15

3
4 Green Pesticides Handbook

1.15 Prospects of Essential Oils.................................................................................................. 16

1.16 Global Essential Oil Pesticide Market................................................................................ 16
1.17 Registration of Green Pesticides......................................................................................... 17
1.18 Extraction Methods.............................................................................................................. 17
1.19 Methods of Analysis............................................................................................................. 20
1.19.1 Gas Chromatography............................................................................................... 20
1.19.2 Thin-Layer Chromatography.................................................................................. 20
1.19.3 High-Performance Liquid Chromatography........................................................ 20
1.19.4 Current Methods....................................................................................................... 21
1.20 Advantages of Essential Oil–Based Pesticides................................................................. 21
1.21 Limitations of Essential Oil–Based Pesticides.................................................................. 21
1.22 Conclusion.............................................................................................................................22
References........................................................................................................................................22

1.1 Introduction
Green pesticides, also called ecological pesticides, are pesticides derived from organic
sources that are considered environmentally friendly and cause less harm to human and
animal health, to habitats, and to the ecosystem. Green revolution is defined as an increase
in crop production because of the use of new varieties of seeds, the use of pesticides, and
new technologies and improved management.
Organic farming, “originally grown food,” is food grown and processed using no syn-
thetic fertilizers or pesticides. Pesticides derived from natural sources (such as biological
pesticides) may be used in producing organically grown food. Botanical insecticides are
becoming a key element for pest control in organic agriculture and stored products. The
use of essential oils or their components adds to this natural concept, owing to their vola-
tility, limited persistence under field conditions, and several of them having exemption
from regulatory protocols.
Essential oil–based insecticides started two decades ago but have not reached their full
potential.

1.2 Definitions
Essential oils are naturally occurring, pleasant-smelling, highly volatile liquids that are
widely distributed in several plants. Eucalyptus oil, clove oil, and turpentine oil are a
few examples of this class. Essential oils are produced in different parts of plants, such
as buds, flower petals, bark, leaves, stems, seeds, roots, and resin or fruit rinds. They are
concentrated volatile aromatic compounds that contain different functional groups, such
as the alcoholic group in linalool (sandalwood oil and lavender oil), aldehyde group in citral
(lemongrass oil), ester group in eucalyptus oil (wintergreen), hydrocarbon group in cymene,
and phenolic group in eugenol (bay oil). An individual functional group or a set of func-
tional groups imparts a peculiar, specific scented smell to an essential oil. A plant can be
recognized or grouped on the basis of its specific scenting odor. Each and every plant spe-
cies originates in a certain region of earth, acquiring particular environmental conditions,
so the oil extracted from a given species possesses its own characteristic scenting smell.
Green Pesticides for Organic Farming 5

Essential oils are colorless in pure state but light yellow in crude state. They are soluble
in organic solvents in all proportions. They are steam volatile, with decomposition in some
cases. They impart stain on paper that disappears upon warming or solvent washing.
Essential oils are frequently referred to as the “life force” of plants. A large amount (tons)
of plant material is required to collect just a few hundred kilograms of oil, as each plant
contains a low percentage of oil (0.01%–10%). Essential oils possess a wide range of thera-
peutic constituents, and these are often used for flavor, therapeutic purposes, or odorifer-
ous characteristics in foodstuffs, beverages, medicines, and cosmetics. Pure oil is a complex
mixture of certain molecules, and it cannot be duplicated. Recent investigations indicate that
some chemical constituents of these oils interfere with the octopaminergic nervous system
in insects. As this target site is not shared with mammals, most essential oil chemicals are
relatively nontoxic to mammals and fish in toxicological tests, and they fulfill the criteria
for “reduced-risk” pesticides. As these oils are used in food and beverages, they are even
exempt from pesticide registration. This special regulatory status, combined with the easy
availability of essential oils from plant parts, has made it possible to fast-track commercial-
ization of oilbased pesticides. Besides their use against home and garden pests, these green
pesticides may also prove effective in agricultural situations, particularly for organic food
production.
It is a fact that synthetic chemical pesticides have been very effective, but the continu-
ous resistance development is an issue for many of them. It is likely that resistance may
develop more slowly to essential oil–based pesticides owing to the complex mixtures of
many constituents of different functional groups. In developing countries that are rich in
endemic plant biodiversity, the green pesticides may ultimately have their great impact in
coming days in integrated pest management (IPM) programs due to their safety to nontar-
get organisms and the environment.

1.3 Plants and Essential Oils

Essential oils are present in different parts of plants. A brief description of oil-containing
plant parts is as follows:

• Leaves: Basil, bay leaf, cinnamon, eucalyptus, lemongrass, melaleuca, oregano,

patchouli, peppermint, pine, rosemary, spearmint, tea tree, wintergreen, thyme,
and so forth
• Flowers: Chamomile, clary sage, clove, geranium, hyssop, jasmine, lavender,
manuka, marjoram, orange, rose, ylang-ylang, and so forth
• Peel: Bergamot, grapefruit, lemon, lime, orange, tangerine, and so forth
• Seeds: Almond, anise, celery, cumin, nutmeg, and so forth
• Wood: Camphor, cedar, rosewood, sandal, and so forth
• Berries: Allspice, juniper, and so forth
• Bark: Cassia, cinnamon, and so forth
• Resins: Frankincense, myrrh, and so forth
• Rhizome: Ginger, and so forth
• Root: Valerian, and so forth
6 Green Pesticides Handbook

Essential oils are significantly different from fatty oils, which are also found in parts of vari-
ous plants. Essential oils are used by the plants and humans for very similar purposes, such as
fighting infection, initiating cellular regeneration, and working as a chemical defense against
fungal, viral, and animal foes. They also contain hormone-like compounds. Despite their foliar
origins, the chemical structure of essential oils is similar to that of some of the compounds
found in blood and tissues, which allows them to be compatible with our own physiology.

1.4 Technology of Using Eucalyptus Oil

Eucalyptus oil can be applied externally and internally (inhalation) both ways. Inhalation
is more effective than external use, but great care is required during inhalation to avoid
harmful effects (skin irritation, etc.) caused by the excess concentration of vapors of the oil.
The oil is used in body oils, compresses, cosmetic lotions, baths, hair rinses, perfumes, and
room sprays, and for inhalation by steam.
For example, generally, 1%–10% solutions of eucalyptus oil are used in base oils like
almond, jojoba, or kernel. A very pleasant method of inhalation may be created by using a
diffuser or oil lamp for releasing eucalyptus oil vapors into a given atmosphere.

1.5 Aromatherapy
Aromatherapy may be defined as “the treatment of anxiety or minor medical conditions
by rubbing pleasant-smelling natural oils into the skin or breathing in their smelling
vapors.” For example, nose infection due to cold can be cured by smelling jasmine flowers.
In other words, aromatic essential oils are used to benefit the body in emotional and physi-
cal health and beauty. It has been investigated that our sense of smell plays a significant
role in our overall health.
Many essential oils have medicinal properties, and they have been used in medicines
since ancient times until today. Essential oils are complex mixtures, so different essential
oils have diverse medicinal properties. For example, a great number of essential oils pos-
sess antiseptic properties.

1.5.1 History of Modern Aromatherapy

The distillation of rose essential oil was carried out first by the Persian philosopher
Avicenna (980–1037 AD). He extracted the essence of rose petals through the “enfleurage
process.” This pioneering work and subsequent use of rose oil in perfume led him eventu-
ally to contribute a book on the healing properties of essential oil of rose [1].
In the early twentieth century, a French chemist, Rane-Maurice Gattefosse, began a new
chapter in science, which he called “aromatherapy.” He was struggling with his studies,
and his arm was suffering after a burning accident in his laboratory. After several acciden-
tal burnings, he thrust his arm into the nearest available liquid, which happened to be a
tub full of lavender oil. The quick healing of his arm by this oil surprised and impressed
Green Pesticides for Organic Farming 7

Dr. Gattefosse, so he spent his life in researching the value of essential oils [2]. His work
made aromatherapy popular and well known in Europe.

1.5.2 Mechanisms of Aromatherapy
An essential oil, either inhaled or taken by the olfactory system directly, goes to the lim-
bic system of the brain. The brain responds to the particular scent and then affects our
emotions and chemical balance. The essential oils are absorbed by the skin and carried
throughout the body parts (internal organs) via the circulatory system. Due to the unique-
ness of each person’s system, one particular oil sample may not suit all people; that is, the
benefits depend on the unique nature of an individual’s response to an aromatic stimulus.
Thus, by choosing one or more oils, one can experience beneficial effects promoting overall
health and even specific targets.

1.6 Pharmacological Properties of Essential Oils

Essential oils possess many pharmacological properties. Some properties are discussed
briefly in the following sections.

1.6.1 Antiseptic
Essential oils are active against a wide range of bacteria and also against antibioresistance
strains. They are also known to control fungi and yeasts (Candida). Cinnamon, thyme, clo-
ver, Eucalyptus, culin savory, lavender, citral, geraniol, linalool, and thymol are well-known
antiseptics. They are much more potent than phenol.

1.6.2 Expectorant and Diuretic

The external application of essential oils like “L’essence de terebenthine” increases micro-
circulation and provides a slight local anesthetic action. Some essential oils are used in
ointments, creams, and gels that are effective in relieving sprains and other articular
pains. Eucalyptus or pine oils are administered orally to stimulate ciliated epithelial cells
to secrete mucus. They are known to affect the renal system in order to increase vasodila-
tation and, as a result, bring about a diuretic effect.

1.6.3 Spasmolytic and Sedative

The essential oils from the Umbelliferae family (Mentha species and Verbena) are docu-
mented to decrease or eliminate gastrointestinal spasms. They are known to increase
secretion of gastric juices. They are reported to be effective against insomnia.

1.6.4 Other Related Properties

Some essential oils are known to be anti-inflammatory and cicatrizing and acts as
cholagogues.
8 Green Pesticides Handbook

1.7 Pesticidal Properties
A literature survey points out that the plants of the Myrtaceae, Lamiaceae, Asteraceae,
Apiaceae, and Rutaceae families are thoroughly investigated for anti-insecticide activi-
ties against specific insect orders like Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, Diptera, Isoptera, and
Hemiptera [3]. The following essential oils have been reported for their insecticidal activi-
ties: essential oils of Artemisia species are reported for vapor toxicity and repellent activi-
ties against coleopteran beetle, and essential oils of Cinnamomum camphora, C. cassia, and
C. zeylanicum for repellent action against mosquitoes. The toxic effect of essential oil of
Curcuma zedoaria (with an LC50 of 5.44–8.52 μg/mg) was determined against mosquito
adults. Both field and laboratory experiments showed that β-ocimene is a good repellent
to the leaf cutter ant and Atta cephalotes. The aphid can be captured in traps baited with
carvone, which occurs in the essential oils of several plants of the Apiaceae. Linalool is
reported to be a good repellent of aphids. A monoterpene, β-Thujaplicin is toxic to larvae of
the old house borer. Cineole, geraniol, and piperidine extracted from bay leaves are good
repellents of cockroaches. Linalool extracted from sour oranges is toxic to adult bean wee-
vils, but it is attractant to male Mediterranean fruit flies.
There is a growing interest in this area. Koul et al. [4] have reported that many plant
essential oils show a broad spectrum of activity against pest insect and plant pathogenic
fungi, including insecticidal, antifeedant, repellent, oviposition deterrent, growth regula-
tory, and antivector activities. These oils also have a long tradition of use in the protection
of stored products. Some constituents of these oils also interfere with the octopaminergic
nervous system in insects. As this target site is not shared with mammals, most essential
oil chemical constituents are relatively nontoxic to mammals and fish in toxicological tests,
and meet the criteria for reduced-risk pesticides. Some of these oils are widely used as fla-
voring agents in foodstuffs and beverages and are even exempt from pesticide registration.
This special regulatory status, combined with the wide availability of essential oils from
the flavor and fragrance industries, has made it possible to fast-track commercialization
of essential oil–based pesticides. They may be an integral part of future integrated pest
management programs due to their safety to nontarget organisms and the environment.
A team of researchers [5] working on biofertilizers and biopesticides has published a
very clear-cut point of opinion. They have reported that the loss during growing crops and
postharvest handling, processing, storage, and distribution is 20%–60% of oil, depending
on the facilities available, such as technical know-how provided by the government and
the skill of users. Three major groups of enemies are fungi, insects, and rodents. Many
synthetic insecticides are in use for the protection of stored cereals and pulses. The grow-
ing awareness of environment pollution and health hazards due to synthetic pesticides
has prompted a search for alternative pesticides. Researchers and users are trying green
pesticides and biopesticides for grain storage purposes, that is, for organic farming. One of
the alternatives is oils from plant origin that have been found to possess pesticidal prop-
erties. They are easy to apply, leave harmless residues, and are safe to natural enemies of
pests. However, a serious disadvantage of oil pesticides is they have an adverse effect on
the germination power of the treated seeds.
Pugazhvendan et al. [6] have tested the insecticidal and repellent activities of five plant
oils, Citrus autantium, Cinnamomum zeylanicum, Gaultheria fragrantissima, Lavandula offici-
nalis, and Ocimum sanctum, against Tribolium castaneum by using a standard protocol in
vitro. The maximum repellent activity was found to be in tulsi oil (0.5 μg). Wintergreen
oil and lavender oil give a good response at a higher concentration (10 μl). The maximum
Green Pesticides for Organic Farming 9

percentages of mortality were found in tulsi oil and wintergreen oil at 76%–92% and 86%,
respectively. These results suggest the presence of active principles in the plant oils.
From another part of Asia, Tariq et al. [7] studied the Pakistanian Acorus calamus (Araceae),
a locally available plant. The common name of A. calamus is sweet flag. They analyzed
the essential oil obtained from A. calamus and found that it is a complex mixture of seven
major compounds. This oil prevents cuts and wounds from fungal growth, and cuts and
wounds heal rapidly compared with a control. Systematic control of root knot nematode
was also recorded in cotton and brinjal plants by using 0.25% solution. The scale insects
were also controlled by the same systematic method by using 0.5% solution in the infected
cotton plants. Control of mealy bugs on cotton brinjal and Abutilon indicum was achieved
by a 0.5% solution spray, repeated weekly for 1 month in Sindh and Baluchistan. They rec-
ommended this oil as a biopesticide in the agriculture and health sectors.

1.8 Chemical Composition of Essential Oils

A pure essential oil is a complex mixture of more than 200 chemical compounds. Normally,
it is a mixture of terpenes or phenylpropanic derivatives, in which structural differences
between compounds are minimal. The components of an essential oil can mainly be clas-
sified into two groups:

1. Volatile fraction. Essential oil (90%–95% by weight) consists of hydrocarbons and

terpenes and their oxygenated derivatives, such as camphor, along with acids, ali-
phatic aldehydes, ketones, alcohols, and esters.
2. Nonvolatile residue. Essential oil consists of hydrocarbons, fatty acids, carotenoids,
sterols, waves, and flavonoids. They comprise at maximum 10% weight of the oil.

1.8.1 Volatile Fraction
1.8.1.1 Hydrocarbons
Essential oils consist of chemical compounds containing hydrogen and carbon as their
building blocks. The basic hydrocarbon found in plants is isoprene, CH2=C(CH3)CH=CH2.
It is also called hemiterpene. A fascinating area of research linking organic chemistry and
biology is the study of the biogenesis of natural products: the detailed sequence of reactions
by which a compound is formed in living systems, plant or animal. All the isoprene units
in nature, it appears, originate from the same compound, “isopentenyl” pyrophosphate.

1.8.1.2 Terpenes
When two molecules of an isoprene unit join head to tail, the result is a monoterpene. Similarly,
when three units join, it is a sesquiterpene, and when four units join, a diterpene [8–10].

1.8.1.2.1 Monoterpenes
Monoterpenes are naturally occurring compounds consisting of 10 carbon hydrocarbons,
the majority of which are unsaturated. Oxygenated derivatives of monoterpenes, such as
alcohols, ketones, and carboxylic acids, are known as monoterpenoids. Monoterpenoids
10 Green Pesticides Handbook

are the most representative molecules, constituting 90% of the essential oils, and allow a
great variety of structures with diverse functions. The branched-chain 10 carbon hydro-
carbons are composed of two isoprene units and are widely distributed in nature. More
than 400 naturally occurring monoterpenes have been identified. Monoterpenes are linear
derivatives, such as geraniol and citronellol; they can be cyclic molecules, such as men-
thol (monocyclic), camphor (bicyclic), pinenes, and (α,β)-pinene genera, as well. Thujone
(monoterpene) is a toxic agent found in Artemisia absinthium (wormwood) from which the
liqueur absinthe is made. Boreol and camphor are two common monoterpenes. Borneol,
derived from pine oil, is used as a disinfectant and deodorant. Camphor is used as a coun-
terirritant, anesthetic, expectorant, and antipruritic. Camphene and pinene are present in
cypress oil. Similarly, camphene, pinene, and thujene are available in black pepper.

1.8.1.2.2 Sesquiterpenes
The sesquiterpenes (sesqui- = “one and a half”) are hydrocarbons of formula C15H24, or
derivatives of them, which are very common in essential oils of plants. Sesquiterpenes
are biogenetically derived from farensyl pyrophosphate and in structure may be linear,
monocyclic, or bicyclic. They constitute a very large group of secondary metabolites;
some of them are reported to be stress compounds formed as a result of disease or injury.
Sesquiterpenes are anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, analgesic, and antiallergic.

1.8.1.2.3 Sesquiterpene Lactones
More than 500 compounds of this group are known. They are particularly characteristic
of the Compositae but do occur sporadically in other families. They have been found to be
of interest from a chemical and chemotaxonomic viewpoint. But they also possess many
antitumor, antileukemia, cytotoxic, and antimicrobial activities. They may be responsible
for skin allergies in humans, and they may also act as insect-feeding deterrents. Their
classification is based on their carboxylic skeletons. For example, guaianolides, pseu-
doguaianolides, eudesmanolides, eremophilaolides, and xanthanolides can be derived
from germacranolides. Lactones, farnesene, and β-caryophyllene are present in chamo-
mile and lavender extracts and in basil and black pepper extracts, respectively.

1.8.1.2.4 Diterpenes
Diterpenes are made up of four isoprene units. This molecule is too heavy to steam volatile
in steam distillation process (diterpenes are high molecular weight compounds, so they may
not be distilled by steam distillation), so it is rarely found in steam-distilled essential oils.
Diterpenes occur in all plants and consist of compounds having a C20 skeleton. About 2500
diterpenes are known (of 20 major structural types). Well-known diterpene derivatives are
plant hormones, gibberellins, and phytol occurring as a side chain on chlorophyll. The bio-
synthesis occurs in plastids, and interestingly, mixtures of monoterpenes and diterpenes
are the major constituents of plant resins. The diterpenes arise from metabolism of geranyl
geranyl pyrophosphate (GGPP) in a manner similar to that of monoterpene. Sclareol in
clary sage is an example of a diterpene alcohol. Diterpenes are antifungal, expectorant,
hormonal balancers and hypotensive. They have limited therapeutic importance, and they
are used in certain sedatives (coughs), as well as in antispasmodic antioxiolytics.

1.8.1.3 Alcohols
Alcohols exist naturally, as either free compound or part of terpenes. When a hydroxyl
group is attached to terpene, the product is an alcohol. Alcohols have a very low or
Green Pesticides for Organic Farming 11

negligible toxic reaction in the body or on the skin. Therefore, they are considered safe
to use. Examples of acyclic alcohols are linalool, geraniol, and citronellol. Cyclic alcohols
are menthol, isopulegol, and terpineol. Bicyclic alcohols are borneol and verbenol. Other
hydroxyl compounds, like phenols, are thymol and carvacrol. Linalool is found in ylang-
ylang and lavender. Geraniol is found in geranium and rose. Nerol is found in neroli.

1.8.1.4 Aldehydes
Some of the common examples of aldehydes are citral and citronellal. Citral (geranial) is
the aldehyde corresponding to geraniol, from which it may be prepared by careful oxida-
tion. Citral imparts to oil of lemon its characteristic odor and is an important constituent
of orange, mandarin, and certain kinds of eucalyptus oil. It is very abundant (70%–80%) in
lemongrass and lemon balm. Citronellal is found in lemongrass, lemon balm, and eucalyp-
tus. Aldehydes are antifungal, anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, antiviral, bactericidal, disin-
fectant, and sedative. Essential oils containing aldehydes are effective in treating Candida
and other fungal infections.

1.8.1.5 Acids
Organic acids such as chrysanthemic acid, cinnamic acid, citric acid, and lactic acid in
their free state are generally found in very small quantities in essential oils. They possess
anti-inflammatory properties. They also act as components or buffer systems to provide a
constant pH.

1.8.1.6 Esters
Esters such as linalyl acetate, geranyl formate, and methyl salicylate are found in plants.
Linalyl acetate and geranyl formate are found in bergamot and geranium, respectively.
Methyl salicylate is found in birch and wintergreen, which is toxic within the system.
Essential oils containing esters are used for their soothing and balancing effects. Esters
are effective antimicrobial agents. They are used medicinally as antifungals and sedatives,
with a balancing action on the nervous system. Esters as such are free from precautions.

1.8.1.7 Ketones
Ketones such as carvone, menthone, and thujone are found in essential oils. Ketones assist
the flow of mucus and ease congestion, so they are used for upper respiratory complaints.
Essential oils containing ketones are beneficial for promoting wound healing and encour-
aging the formation of scar tissue. A few ketones, such as jasmine in jasmine oil, fenchone
in fennel oil, carvone in spearmint and dill oil, and menthone in peppermint oil, are non-
toxic. But generally, ketones are very toxic. The most toxic ketone is thujone, which is found
in mugwort, sage, tansy, thuja, and wormwood oils. Other toxic ketones found in essential
oils are pulegone in pennyroyal and pinocamphone in hyssops.

1.8.1.8 Lactones
Lactones are cyclic esters, which may be obtained by dehydration of a γ- or δ-hydroxy acid.
Treatment of lactone with base rapidly opens the lactone ring to give the open-chain salt.
Lactones are anti-inflammatory, antiphlogistic, expectorant, and febrifuge. The essential
12 Green Pesticides Handbook

oils containing lactones are known to be particularly effective for their anti-inflammatory
action, possibly by their role in the reduction of prostaglandin synthesis and expectorant
actions. Lactones possess stronger expectorant action than ketones.

1.8.1.9 Oxides
Oxides such as cineole and camphor are also the constituents of essential oils. 1,8-Cineole,
C10H18O, boiling point (b.p.) 174.4°C, occurs in eucalyptus oil. There is also 1,4-cineole, which
also occurs naturally [11]. Camphor is obtained by distilling the wood and leaves of camphor
laurel with steam. Camphor is used as a moth repellant, as a preservative in cosmetics, in
medicine, and as a plasticizer in the manufacture of celluloid, smokeless powder, and pho-
tographic films. The essential oils containing camphor are useful for medicinal purposes.

1.9 Mode of Action of Essential Oils

Essential oils are volatile complex mixtures of several compounds, so many of their chemi-
cal constitutes serve as chemical messengers for insects and other animals [12]. Efforts
have been made to elucidate the target sites and mode of action for the monoterpenoids,
and limited success has been obtained. Most monoterpenes are cytotoxic to plants and
animal tissues, causing a drastic reduction in the number of intact mitochondria and Golgi
bodies, impairing respiration and photosynthesis and decreasing cell membrane perme-
ability. It is also known that most monoterpenes serve as a signal of relatively short dura-
tion, making them especially useful for synomones (and alarm pheromones).

1.9.1 Insecticidal Action
Evans has demonstrated that a monoterpenoid (linalool) acts on the nervous system by
affecting ion transport and the release of acetylcholine esterase in insects [13]. In insects,
octopamine acts as a neurotransmitter, neurohormone, and circulating neurohormone–
neuromodulator. When octopamine interacts with at least two classes of receptors,
octopamine-I and octopamine-II, it exerts its effects [14]. The interruption in the function-
ing of octopamine results in a total breakdown of the nervous system in insects. Therefore,
the octopaminergic system of insects represents a biorational target for insect control. The
lack of octopamine receptors in vertebrates likely accounts for the profound mammalian
selectivity of essential oils as insecticides. Many constituents of essential oils have been
demonstrated to act on the octopaminergic system of insects [15]. Enan [16] has also shown
that eugenol mimics octopamine in increasing intracellular calcium levels in cloned cells
from the brain of Periplaneta americana and Drosophila melanogaster, and this was also found
to be mediated via octopamine receptors. It has also been reported that the toxicity of
eugenol was increased in mutant D. melanogaster that were deficient in octopamine synthe-
sis, suggesting that the toxicity is mediated through the octopaminergic system, although
this was not the case for geraniol. It was suggested that these cellular changes induced by
eugenol are responsible for its insecticidal properties. Another research group [17] reached
a similar conclusion, suggesting possible competitive activation of octopaminergic recep-
tors by essential oil. They recorded significant effects at low concentration in the abdomi-
nal epidermal tissue of Helicoverpa armigera.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
Joseph’s encrease in Ægyt is out-stript here with vs. Our planters
hope to haue more then a hundred fould this yere: and all this while I
am within compasse; what will you say of two hundred fould and
vpwards? It is almost incredible what great gaine some of our
English Planters haue had by our Indian Corne. Credible persons
haue assured me, and the partie himselfe auouched the truth of it to
me, that of the setting of 13 gallons of Corne hee hath had encrease
of it 52 Hogsheads, euery Hogshead holding seuen Bushels of
London measure, and euery Bushell was by him sold and trusted to
the Indians for so much Beauer as was worth 18 shillings; and so of
this 13 Gallons of Corne which was worth 6 shillings 8 pence, he
made about 327 pounds of it in the yeere following, as by reckoning
will appeare: where you may see how God blessed husbandry in this
Land. There is not such greate and plentifull eares of Corne I
suppose any where else to bee found but in this Country: because
also of varietie of colours, as red, blew, and yellow, &c. and of one
Corne there springeth foure or fiue hundred. I haue sent you many
Eares of diuers colours that you might see the truth of it.
Little Children here by setting of Corne may earne much more
then their owne maintenance.
They haue tryed our English Corne at new Plimmouth Plantation,
so that all our seuerall Graines will grow here verie well, and haue a
fitting Soyle for their nature.
Our Gouernor hath store of greene pease growing in his garden as
good as euer I eat in England.
This Countrey aboundeth naturally with store of rootes of great
varietie and good to eat. Our Turnips, Parsnips and Carrots are here
both bigger and sweeter then is ordinarily to bee found in England.
Here are store of Pumpions, Cowcombers, and other things of that
nature which I know not. Also diuers excellent Pot-herbs grow
abundantly among the Grasse, as Strawberrie leaues in all places of
the Countrey, and plentie of strawberries in their time, and
Penyroyall, Wintersauerie, Sorrell, Brookelime, Liuerwort, Caruell
and Watercresses, also Leekes and Onions are ordinarie, and diuers
Physicall Herbs. Here are also aboundance of other sweet Hearbs
delightfull to the smell, whose names we know not, &c. and plentie of
single Damaske Roses verie sweete; and two kinds of Herbes that
beare two kinds of Flowers very sweet, which they say, are as good
to make Cordage or Cloath as any Hempe or Flaxe we haue.
Excellent Vines are here vp and downe in the Woodes. Our
Gouernour hath already planted a Vineyard with great hope of
encrease.
Also, Mulberries, Plums, Raspberries, Corrance, Chesnuts,
Filberds, Walnuts, Smalnuts, Hurtleberies, & Hawes of Whitethorne
neere as good as our Cherries in England, they grow in plentie here.
For Wood there is no better in the World I thinke, here being foure
sorts of Oke differing both in the Leafe, Timber, and Colour, all
excellent good. There is also good Ash, Elme, Willow, Birch, Beech,
Saxafras, Juniper, Cipres, Cedar, Spruce, Pines, & Firre that will
yeeld abundance of Turpentine, Pitch, Tarre, Masts and other
materials for building both of Ships and Houses. Also here are store
of Sumacke Trees, they are good for dying and tanning of Leather,
likewise such trees yeeld a precious Gem called Wine Benjamen,
that they say is excellent for perfumes. Also here be diuers Roots
and Berries wherewith the Indians dye excellent holding colours that
no raine nor washing can alter. Also, wee haue materials to make
Sope-Ashes and Salt-Peter in aboundance.
For Beasts there are some Beares, and they say some Lyons also;
for they haue been seen at Cape Anne. Also here are seuerall sorts
of Deere, some whereof bring three or foure young ones at once,
which is not ordinarie in England. Also Wolues, Foxes, Beauers,
Otters, Martins, great wild Cats, & a great Beast called a Molke as
bigge as an Oxe. I haue seen the Skins of all these Beasts since I
came to this Plantation excepting Lyons. Also here are great store of
squerrels, some greater, and some smaller and lesser: there are
some of the lesser sort, they tell me, that by a certaine Skill will fly
from Tree to Tree though they stand farre distant.

Of the Waters of New-England, with the

things belonging to the same.
 New-England hath Water enough both salt and fresh, the greatest
Sea in the World, the Atlanticke Sea runs all along the Coast thereof.
There are abundance of Ilands along the Shore, some full of Wood
and Mast to feed Swine; and others cleere of Wood, and fruitfull to
beare Corne. Also wee haue store of excellent harbours for Ships,
as at Cape Anne, and at Masathulets Bay, and at Salem, and at
many other places: and they are the better because for Strangers
there is a verie difficult and dangerous passage into them, but vnto
such as are well acquainted with them, they are easie and safe
enough. The aboundance of Sea-Fish are almost beyond beleeuing,
and sure I should scarce haue beleeued it, except I had seene it with
mine owne Eyes. I saw great store of Whales, and Crampusse, and
such aboundance of Mackerils that it would astonish one to behold,
likewise Cod-Fish in aboundance on the Coast, and in their season
are plentifully taken. There is a Fish called a Basse, a most sweet &
wholesome Fish as euer I did eate, it is altogether as good as our
fresh Sammon, and the season of their comming was begun when
wee came first to New-England in June, and so continued about
three months space. Of this Fish our Fishers take many hundreds
together, which I haue seene lying on the shore to my admiration;
yea their Nets ordinarily take more then they are able to hale to
Land, and for want of Boats and Men they are constrained to let a
many goe after they haue taken them, and yet sometimes they fill
two Boates at a time with them. And besides Basse wee take plentie
of Scate and Thornbacks, and abundance of Lobsters, and the least
Boy in the Plantation may both catch and eat what he will of them.
For my owne part I was soone cloyed with them, they were so great,
and fat, and lussious. I haue seene some my selfe that haue
weighed 16 pound, but others haue had diuers times so great
Lobsters as haue weighed 25 pound, as they assure mee. Also
heere is abundance of Herring, Turbut, Sturgion, Cuskes, Hadocks,
Mullets, Eeles, Crabbes, Muskles and Oysters. Besides there is
probability that the Countrey is of an excellent temper for the making
of Salt: for since our comming our Fishermen haue brought home
very good Salt which they found candied by the standing of the Sea
water and the heat of the Sunne, vpon a Rocke by the Sea shore:
and in diuers salt Marishes that some haue gone through, they haue
found some Salt in some places crushing vnder their Feete and
cleauing to their Shooes.
And as for fresh Water the Countrey is full of dainty Springs, and
some great Riuers, and some lesser Brookes; and at Masathulets
Bay they digged Wels and found Water at three Foot deepe in most
places: and neere Salem they haue as fine cleare Water as we can
desire, and we may digge Wels and find Water where we list.
Thus wee see both Land and Sea abound with store of blessings
for the comfortable sustenance of Man’s life in New-England.

Of the Aire of New-England with the

temper and Creatures in it.
The Temper of the Aire of New-England is one speciall thing that
commends this place. Experience doth manifest that there is hardly
a more healthfull place to be found in the World that agreeth better
with our English bodyes. Many that haue beene weake and sickly in
old England, by comming hither haue beene thoroughly healed and
growne healthfull strong. For here is an extraordinarie cleere and dry
Aire that is of a most healing nature to all such as are of a Cold,
Melancholy, Flegmatick, Rheumatick temper of Body. None can
more truly speake hereof by their owne experience then my selfe.
My Friends that knew me can well tell how verie sickly I haue bin and
continually in Physick, being much troubled with a tormenting paine
through an extraordinarie weaknesse of my Stomacke, and
aboundance of Melancholicke humors; but since I came hither on
this Voyage, I thanke God, I haue had perfect health, and freed from
paine and vomiting, hauing a Stomacke to digest the hardest and
coursest fare, who before could not eat finest meat; and whereas my
Stomacke could onely digest and did require such drinke as was
both strong and stale, now I can and doe often times drink New-
England water verie well; and I that haue not gone without a Cap for
many yeeres together, neither durst leaue off the same, haue now
cast away my Cap, and doe weare none at all in the day time: and
whereas beforetime I cloathed my selfe with double cloathes and
thicke Wastcoates to keepe me warme, euen in the Summer time, I
doe now goe as thin clad as any, onely wearing a light Stuffe
Cassocke vpon my Shirt, and Stuffe Breeches of one thicknesse
without Linings. Besides I haue one of my Children that was formerly
most lamentably handled with sore breaking out of both his hands
and feet of the King’s-euill, but since he came hither hee is very well
ouer he was, and there is hope of perfect recouerie shortly euen by
the very wholesomnesse of the Aire, altering, digesting and drying vp
the cold and crude humours of the Body: and therefore I thinke it is a
wise course for al cold complections to come to take Physick in New
England: for a sup of New-England’s Aire is better then a whole
draught of old England’s Ale. In the Summer time in the midst of July
and August, it is a good deale hotter then in old England: and in
Winter January and February are much colder as they say: but the
Spring and Autumne are of a middle temper.
Fowles of the Aire are plentifull here, and of all sorts as we haue in
England as farre as I can learne, and a great many of strange
Fowles which wee know not. Whilst I was writing these things, one of
our Men brought home an Eagle which hee had killed in the Wood:
they say they are good meate. Also here are many kinds of excellent
Hawkes, both Sea Hawkes & Land Hawkes: and my selfe walking in
the Woods with another in company, sprung a Partridge so bigge
that through the heauinesse of his Body could fly but a little way:
they that haue killed them, say they are as bigge as our Hens. Here
are likewise aboundance of Turkies often killed in the Woods, farre
greater then our English Turkies, and exceeding fat, sweet and
fleshy, for here they haue aboundance of feeding all the yeere long,
as Strawberries, in Summer all places are full of them, and all
manner of Berries and Fruits. In the Winter time I haue seene
Flockes of Pidgeons, and haue eaten of them: they doe fly from Tree
to Tree as other Birds doe, which our Pidgeons will not doe in
England: they are of all colours as ours are, but their wings and
tayles are far longer, and therefore it is likely they fly swifter to
escape the terrible Hawkes in this Country. In Winter time this
Country doth abound with wild Geese, wild Duckes, and other Sea
Fowle, that a great part of winter the Planters haue eaten nothing but
roast meate of diuers Fowles which they haue killed.
 Thus you haue heard of the Earth, Water and Aire of New-
England, now it may bee you expect something to bee said of the
Fire proportionable to the rest of the Elements. Indeede I thinke
New-England, may boast of this Element more then of all the rest:
for though it bee here somewhat cold in the winter, yet here we haue
plenty of Fire to warme vs, and that a great deale cheaper then they
sel Billets and Faggots in London: nay, all Europe is not able to
afford to make so great Fires as New-England. A poore seruant here
that is to possesse but 50 Acres of Land, may afford to giue more
wood for Timber & Fire as good as the world yeelds, then many
Noble men in England can afford to do. Here is good liuing for those
that loue good Fires. And although New-England haue no Tallow to
make Candles of, yet by the aboundance of the Fish thereof, it can
afford Oyle for Lampes. Yea our Pine-Trees that are the most
plentifull of all wood, doth allow vs plenty of Candles which are very
vsefull in a House: and they are such Candles as the Indians
commonly vse, hauing no other, and they are nothing else but the
wood of the Pine Tree clouen in two little slices something thin,
which are so full of the moysture of Turpentine and Pitch, that they
burne as cleere as a Torch. I haue sent you some of them that you
may see the experience of them.
Thus of New-England’s commodities, now I will tell you of some
discommodities that are here to be found.
First, in the Summer season for these three months, June, July,
and August, we are troubled much with little Flyes called Musketoes,
being the same they are troubled with in Lincolneshiere and the
Fens: and they are nothing but Gnats, which except they bee
smoked out of their houses are troublesome in the night season.
Secondly, in the Winter season for two months space, the earth is
commonly couered with Snow, which is accompanied with sharp
biting Frosts, something more sharpe then is in old England, and
therefore are forced to make great Fires.
Thirdly, the countrey being very full of Woods, and Wildernesses,
doth also much abound with Snakes and Serpents of strange
colours, and huge greatnesse: yea there are some Serpents called
Rattlesnakes that haue Rattles in their Tailes, that will not fly from a
man as others will, but will flye vpon him and sting him so mortally,
that hee will dye within a quarter of an houre after, except the partie
stinged haue about him some of the root of an Hearbe called Snake-
weed to bite on, and then hee shall receiue no harme: but yet
seldome falles it out that any hurt is done by these. About three
yeares since, an Indian was stung to death by one of them, but wee
heard of none since that time.
Fourthly and lastly, Here wants as it were good company of honest
Christians to bring with them Horses, Kine and Sheepe to make vse
of this fruitfull Land: great pitty it is to see so much good ground for
Corne & for Grasse as any is vnder the Heauens, to ly altogether
vnoccupied, when so many honest Men and their Families in old
England through the populousnesse thereof, do make very hard shift
to liue one by the other.

Now, thus you know what New-England is, as also with the
commodities and discommodities thereof: now I will shew you a little
of the Inhabitants thereof, and their gouernment.
For their Gouernors they haue Kings, which they call Saggamores,
some greater, and some lesser, according to the number of their
Subjects.
The greatest Saggamores about vs can not make aboue three
hundred Men, and other lesse Saggamores haue not aboue fifteene
Subjects, and others neere about vs but two.
Their Subjects aboue twelue yeares since were swept away by a
great & grieuous Plague that was amongst them, so that there are
verie few left to inhabite the Country.
The Indians are not able to make vse of the one fourth part of the
Land, neither haue they any setled places, as Townes to dwell in, nor
any ground as they challenge for their owne possession, but change
their habitation from place to place.
 For their Statures, they are a tall and strong limmed People, their
colours are tawny, they goe naked, saue onely they are in part
couered with Beasts Skins on one of their shoulders, and weare
something before their priuities: their Haire is generally blacke, and
cut before like our Gentelewomen, and one locke longer then the
rest, much like to our Gentelmen, which fashion I thinke came from
hence into England.
For their weapons, they haue Bows and Arrowes, some of them
headed with Bone, and some with Brasse: I haue sent you some of
them for an example.
The Men for the most part liue idely, they doe nothing but hunt and
fish: their wiues set their Corne and doe all their other worke. They
haue little Houshold stuffe, as a kettle, and some other Vessels like
Trayes, Spoones, Dishes and Baskets.
Their Houses are verie little and homely, being made with small
Poles pricked into the ground, and so bended and fastned at the
tops, and on the sides they are matted with Boughes and couered on
the Roofe with Sedge and old Mats, and for their beds that they take
their rest on, they haue a Mat.
They doe generally professe to like well of our comming and
planting here; partly because there is abundance of ground that they
cannot possesse nor make vse of, and partly because our being
heere will bee a meanes both of reliefe to them when they want, and
also a defence from their Enemies, wherewith (I say) before this
Plantation began, they were often indangered.
For their religion, they doe worship two Gods, a good God and an
euill God: the good God they call Tantum, and their euill God whom
they feare will doe them hurt, they call Squantum.
For their dealing with vs, we neither feare them nor trust them, for
fourtie of our Musketeeres will driue fiue hundred of them out of the
Field. We vse them kindly, they will come into our Houses sometimes
by halfe a douzen or halfe a score at a time when we are at victuals,
but will aske or take nothing but what we giue them.
 We purpose to learne their language as soone as we can, which
will be a meanes to do them good.

Of the present condition of the Plantation,

and what it is.
When we came first to Nehumkek, we found about halfe a score
Houses, and a faire House newly built for the Gouernor, we found
also aboundance of Corne planted by them, very good and well
liking. And we brought with vs about two hundred Passengers and
Planters more, which by common consent of the old Planters were
all combined together into one Body Politicke, vnder the same
Gouernor.
There are in all of vs both old and new Planters about three
hundred, whereof two hundred of them are setled at Nehumkek, now
called Salem: And the rest haue planted themselues at Masathulets
Bay, beginning to build a Towne there which wee doe call Cherton,
or Charles Towne.
We that are setled at Salem make what haste we can to build
Houses, so that within a short time we shall haue a faire Towne.
We haue great Ordnance, wherewith wee doubt not but wee shall
fortifie our selues in a short time to keepe out a potent Aduersary.
But that which is our greatest comfort, and meanes of defence
aboue all other, is, that we haue here the true Religion and holy
Ordinances of Almightie God taught amongst vs: Thankes be to
God, wee haue here plenty of Preaching, and diligent Catechizing,
with strickt and carefull exercise, and good and commendable orders
to bring our People into a Christian conuersation with whom wee
haue to doe withall. And thus wee doubt not but God will be with vs,
and if God be with us, who can be against us?
Here ends Master Higgeson’s Relation of
New-England.
 A Letter sent from New-England, by Master
Graues,
Engynere now there resident.
THus much I can affirme in generall, that I neuer came in a more
goodly Country in all my life, all things considered: if it hath not at
any time beene manured and husbanded, yet it is very beautifull in
open Lands, mixed with goodly woods, and againe open plaines, in
some places five hundred Acres, some places more, some lesse, not
much troublesome for to cleere for the Plough to goe in, no place
barren, but on the tops of the Hils; the grasse & weedes grow vp to a
man’s face, in the Lowlands & by fresh Riuers aboundance of grasse
and large Meddowes without any Tree or shrubbe to hinder the Sith.
I neuer saw except in Hungaria, vnto which I alwayes paralell this
countrie, in all our most respects, for euery thing that is heere eyther
sowne or planted prospereth far better then in old England: the
increase of Corne is here farre beyond expectation, as I haue seene
hereby experience in Barly, the which because it is so much aboue
your conception I will not mention. And Cattle doe prosper very well,
and those that are bredd here farr greater then those with you in
England. Vines doe grow here plentifully laden with the biggest
Grapes that euer I saw, some I haue seene foure inches about, so
that I am bold to say of this countrie, as it is commonly said in
Germany of Hungaria, that for Cattel, Corne, and Wine it excelleth.
We haue many more hopefull commodities here in this countrie, the
which time will teach to make good vse of: In the meane time wee
abound with such things which next vnder God doe make vs subsist,
as Fish, Foule, Deere, and sundrie sorts of fruits, as musk-millions
water-millions, India-Pompions, Indian-Pease Beanes, & many other
odde fruits that I cannot name; all which are made good and
pleasant through this maine blessing of God, the healthfulnesse of
the countrie which far exceedeth all parts that euer I haue beene in:
It is obserued that few or none doe here fal sicke, vnless of the
Scuruy that they bring from aboard the Ship with them, whereof I
haue cured some of my companie onely by labour. [Thus making an
end of an imperfect Description, and committing you to God, &c.
A Catalogue of such needefull things as
euery Planter doth or ought to prouide to go
to New-England
as namely for one man, which being doubled, may
serue for as many as you please, viz.
Victuals for a whole yeere for a man, and so after the rate for
more.
8 Bvshels of meale. 1 Gallon of Oyle.
2 Bushels of pease. 2 Gallons of Vinegar.
2 Bushels of Otemeale. 1 Firkin of Butter.
1 Gallon of Aquavitæ.

Apparell.
1 Monmoth Cap. 4 Paire of Shooes.
3 Falling bands. 2 Paire of Sheets.
3 Shirts. 7 Ells of Canuas to
1 Wast-coat. make a bed and
1 Suit of Canuase. boulster.
1 Suit of Frize. 1 Paire of Blankets.
1 Suit of Cloth. 1 Course Rug.
3 Paire of Stockings.

Armes.
1 Armor compleat. 1 Bandilier.
1 Long peece. 20 Pound of Powder.
1 Sword. 60 Pound of Lead.
1 Belt. 1 Pistoll and Goose shot.

Tooles.
 1 Broad Howe. 1 Broad Axe.
1 Narrow Howe. 1 Felling Axe.
1 Steele Handsawe. 1 Gimblet.
1 Whipsawe. 1 Hatchet.
1 Hammer. 2 Frowes.
1 Shouell. 1 Hand-Bill.
1 Spade. 1 Grindstone.
2 Augres. 1 Pickaxe.
4 Chissels. Nayles of all sorts.
2 Percers stocked.

Houshold implements.
1 Iron pot. 1 Spit.
1 Kettel. Wooden Platters.
1 Frying pan. Dishes.
1 Gridiron. Spoons.
2 Skellets. Trenchers.

Spices.
Sugar. Cinnamon.
Pepper. Nutmegs.
Cloues. Fruit.
Mace.

Also there are diuers other things necessary to bee taken ouer to
this Plantation, as Bookes, Nets, Hookes and Lines, Cheese, Bacon,
Kine, Goats, &c.
 The names of the most remarkable
places in New-England.
The old names. The new names.
Cape Cod. Cape Iames.
The Harbor of Cape Cod. Milford Hauen.
Chawum. Barwick.
Accomack. Plimouth.
Sagoquas. Oxford.
Massachusets Mount. Cheuit Hils.
Massachusets Riuer. Charles River.
Totan. Famouth.
A great Bay by Cape Anne. Bristow.
Cape Tragabig sanda. Cape Anne.
Naembeck. Bastable, so named by King
Charles: But by the new
Planters now called Salem.
Aggawom. Southampton.
Smiths Iles. Smiths Iles.
Passasaquack. Hull.
Accominticus. Boston.
Sassanows Mount. Snowdon hill.
Sowocatuck. Ipswich.
Bahanna. Dartmouth.
A good Harbor within that Sandwich.
Bay.
Ancociscos Mount. Shuters hill.
Ancocisco. The Base.
Anmoughcawgen. Cambridge.
Kenebecka. Edenborow.
 Sagadahock. Leth.
Pemmayquid. S. Iohns towne.
Segocket. Norwich.
Mecadacut. Dunbarton.
Pennobscot. Aberden.
Nusket. Low mounds.
Monahigan. Barties Iles.
Matinack. Willowbies Iles.
Metinacus. Haughtons Iles.
But whosoeuer desireth to know as much as yet can be discouered, I
aduise them to buy Captaine John Smiths booke of the description of
New-England in Folio; and reade from Fol. 203. to the end; and there
let the Reader expect to haue full content.

Finis.
SOME BRIEF COLLECTIONS
&c.
 Some brief collections out of a
letter that Mr. Higginson sent to his friends
at Leicester.

THERE are certainly expected here the next spring the coming of
60 familyes out Dorcettershire,[5] who have by letters signified so
much to the Goverour to desyre him to appoint them places of
habitations they bringing their ministers with them. Also many
families are expected out of Lincolnshire[6] and a minister with them,
and a great company of godly Christians out of London. Such of you
as come from Leister, I would counsell you to come quickly and that
for two reasons. 1st, if you linger too long, the passages of Jordan
through the malice of Sathan, may be stopped, that you can not
come if you would. 2dly, Those that come first speed best here, and
have the priviledge of choosing choice places of habitations. Little
children of 5 years ould may by setting corne one month be able to
get their owne maintenance abundantly. Oh what a good worke
might you that are rich do for your poore brethren, to helpe them with
your purses onely to convey them hither with their children and
families, where they may live as well both for soule and body as any
where in the world. Besides they will recompense the cost by helping
to build houses and plant your ground for a tyme; which shall be
difficult worke at the first, except you have the helpe of many hands.
Mr. Johnson out of Lincolnshire and many others, have helped our
godly christians hither to be employed in their worke, for a while, and
then to live of themselves. We have here about 40 goats that give
milke, and as many milch kyne; we have 6 or 7 mares and an horse,
and do every day expect the coming of half a score mares more, and
30 Kyne by two shipps that are to follow us.[7] They that come let
them bring mares, kyne, and sheepe as many as they can: Ireland is
the best place to provide sheepe, and lyes in the way. Bring none
that are in lambe, nor mares in foale; for they are in more danger to
perish at sea. Of all trades carpenters are most needful, therefore
bring as many as you can. It were a wise course for those of abilityes
to joyne together and buy a shipp for the voyage and other
merchandize. For the governour would that any man may employ his
stocke in what merchandises he please, excepting only beaver
skins, which the company of merchants reserve to themselves, and
the managing of the publique stocke. If any be of the mynde to buy a
shipp my cousin Nowell’s[8] counsell would be good. Also one Mr.
[Beecher] a very godly man and the master of the ship we went in,
and likewise one Mr. Graves the master’s maite dwelling in Wapping
may herein staund you in stead. The payment of the transportation
of things is wondrous deare, as 5l a man and 10l a horse and
commonly 3l for every tunne of goodes: so that a little more than will
pay for the passage will purchase the possession of a ship for all
together.
No man hath or can have a house built for him here unlesse he
comes himselfe, or else send servants before to do it for him. It was
an errour that I now perceive both in myselfe, and others did
conceive by not rightly understanding the merchaunts meaning. For
we thought that all that put in their money into the common stocke;
should have a house built for them, besides such a portion of the
land; but it was not so. They shall indeed have so much land allotted
to them when they come to take possession of it and make use of it,
but if they will have houses they must build them. Indeed we that are
ministers, and all the rest that were entertained and sent over and
maintained by the rest of the company, as their servants, for such a
tyme in such employments, all such are to have houses built them of
the comyanies charge and no others nor otherwise. They that put
money into the stocke, as they do a good worke to helpe forwards so
worthy a plantation, so all the gayne they are likely to have, is
according to the increase of the stocke at 3 years end, by the trade
of beaver, besides the lands which they shall enjoy when they will.
All that come must have victualls with them for a twelve month, I
meane they must have meale, oatmeale and such like sustenaunce
of food, till they can gett increase of corne by their owne labour. For,
otherwise, so many may come without provision at the first, as that
our small beginnings may not be sufficient to maintayne them.
Before you come be carefull to be strongly instructed what things
are fittest to bring with you for your more comfortable passage at
sea, as also for your husbandrey occasions when you come to the
land. For when you are once parted with England you shall meete
neither with taverns nor alehouse, nor butchers, nor grosers, nor
apothecaries shops to helpp what things you need, in the midst of
the great ocean, nor when you are come to land here are yet neither
markets nor fayres to buy what you want. Therefore be sure to
furnish yourselves with things fitting to be had before you come; as
meale for bread, malt for drinke, woolen and linnen cloath, and
leather for shoes, and all manner of carpenters tools, and a good
deale of iron and steele to make nails, and lockes, for houses, and
furniture for ploughs and carts, and glasse for windowes, and many
other things which were better for you to think of them than to want
them here.
Whilst I was writing this letter my wiffe brought me word that the
fishers had caught 1600 basse at one draught, which if they were in
England were worth many a pound.
NOTES