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Textbook Inside Bluetooth Low Energy Gupta Ebook All Chapter PDF
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Inside Bluetooth Low Energy
Second Edition
For a listing of recent titles in the
Artech House Mobile Communications Series,
turn to the back of this book.
Inside Bluetooth Low Energy
Second Edition
Naresh Gupta
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
A catalog record for this book is available from the U.S. Library of Congress.
ISBN-13: 978-1-63081-089-4
All rights reserved. Printed and bound in the United States of America. No part
of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, elec-
tronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information
storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.
All terms mentioned in this book that are known to be trademarks or service
marks have been appropriately capitalized. Artech House cannot attest to the
accuracy of this information. Use of a term in this book should not be regarded
as affecting the validity of any trademark or service mark.
This book is in no way affiliated with SIG. The author is writing as an indi-
vidual interested in the technology.
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
To my respected parents, my dear wife, and my naughty kids.
You are always there for me, and have never doubted my dreams,
no matter how crazy they may sound.
I know I stole countless hours that I should have spent with you
in writing this book but you never complained...
Contents
CHAPTER 1
Introduction 1
1.1 Introduction to Wireless Communication 1
1.2 Data Rates and Coverage 2
1.2.1 Wide Area Network 2
1.2.2 Metropolitan Area Network 3
1.2.3 Local Area Network 3
1.2.4 Personal Area Network 3
1.2.5 Body Area Network 3
1.3 Why Have Standards? 4
1.4 Introduction to Bluetooth and Bluetooth Low Energy 6
1.5 Applications 8
1.5.1 Finding and Alerting Devices 8
1.5.2 Proximity and Presence Detection 9
1.5.3 Health Care 10
1.5.4 Sports and Fitness Equipment 11
1.5.5 Mobile Payments 11
1.5.6 The Internet of Things (IoT) 11
1.6 Competing Technologies 13
1.6.1 ANT and ANT+ 13
1.6.2 ZigBee 13
1.6.3 Near Field Communication (NFC) 14
1.7 Summary 15
References 15
CHAPTER 2
Background of Bluetooth 17
2.1 Introduction 17
vii
viii Contents
CHAPTER 3
Bluetooth Lower Layers 35
3.1 Introduction 35
3.2 Bluetooth Radio 35
3.2.1 Frequency Band and Hopping 36
3.3 Baseband Controller 37
3.3.1 Topology—Piconet and Scatternet 37
3.3.2 Time Division Duplex 38
3.3.3 Adaptive Frequency Hopping (AFH) 38
3.3.4 Master, Slave Roles and Role Switch 41
3.3.5 Channel, Transport and Links 41
3.3.6 Packet Format 48
3.3.7 Packet Types 49
3.3.8 Link Controller States 52
3.4 Link Manager (LM) 58
3.4.1 Connection Control 59
3.4.2 Security 60
3.5 Host Controller Interface (HCI) 62
3.5.1 HCI Packet Types 63
3.5.2 HCI Commands and Events 65
3.5.3 Buffers 67
3.5.4 HCI Flow Control 67
3.5.5 Connection Handle 70
3.5.6 HCI Transport Layer 70
Contents ix
CHAPTER 4
Bluetooth Upper Layers and Profiles 81
4.1 Introduction 81
4.2 Logical‑ Link Control and Adaptation Protocol (L2CAP) 82
4.2.1 Modes of Operation 84
4.2.2 L2CAP PDUs 84
4.2.3 L2CAP Features 85
4.3.3 L2CAP Signaling 88
4.4 Service Discovery Protocol (SDP) 89
4.4.1 Service Record, Service Attributes and Service Class 91
4.4.2 Searching and Browsing Services 93
4.4.3 SDP Transactions 94
4.5 RFCOMM 96
4.6 Object Exchange Protocol (OBEX) 98
4.6.1 OBEX Operations 99
4.7 Audio/Video Control Transport Protocol (AVCTP) 100
4.8 Audio/Video Distribution Transport Protocol (AVDTP) 100
4.9 Profiles 102
4.10 Generic Access Profile (GAP) 103
4.10.1 Bluetooth Parameters Representation 104
4.10.2 Modes 105
4.10.3 Idle Mode Procedures 106
4.10.4 Establishment Procedures 107
4.10.5 Authentication 108
4.10.6 Security 108
4.11 Serial Port Profile (SPP) 109
4.12 Headset Profile, Hands-Free Profile 110
4.13 Generic Object Exchange Profile (GOEP) 112
4.14 Object Push Profile (OPP) 113
4.15 File Transfer Profile (FTP) 114
4.16 Generic Audio/Video Distribution Profile (GAVDP) 115
4.17 Advanced Audio Distribution Profile (A2DP) 116
4.18 Audio/Video Remote Control Profile (AVRCP) 118
4.19 Summary 119
Bibliography 120
x Contents
CHAPTER 5
Getting the Hands Wet 121
5.1 Introduction 121
5.2 Ingredients 121
5.3 Basic Bluetooth Operations 122
5.3.1 Enabling and Disabling Bluetooth 122
5.3.2 Discovering Devices 123
5.3.3 Browsing Services 123
5.4 Real World Application—Café Bluebite 124
5.4.1 Requirements Specification 124
5.4.2 High Level Design 125
5.4.3 Code 125
5.4.4 Complete Code 130
5.5 Disclaimer 132
5.6 Summary 132
Bibliography 132
CHAPTER 6
Bluetooth Low Energy—Fundamentals 133
6.1 Introduction 133
6.2 Single Mode versus Dual Mode Devices 134
6.3 Bluetooth Smart Marks 135
6.3.1 Bluetooth Smart (Sensor-Type Devices) 136
6.3.2 Bluetooth Smart Ready (Hubs) 136
6.4 LE Fundamentals 137
6.4.1 Frequency Bands 137
6.4.2 Mostly Off Technology 138
6.4.3 Faster Connections 138
6.4.4 Reduced Functionality 138
6.4.5 Shorter Packets 140
6.4.6 Reduced Dynamic Memory Footprint 140
6.4.7 Optimized Power Consumption of Peripherals 141
6.4.8 No Need for Continuous Polling 141
6.4.9 Backward Compatibility with BR/EDR 142
6.5 LE Architecture 142
6.6 Comparison between BR/EDR and LE 143
6.7 Summary 144
Bibliography 145
CHAPTER 7
Physical Layer 147
7.1 Introduction 147
7.2 Frequency Bands 147
7.3 Transmitter Only, Receiver Only, or Both 148
Contents xi
CHAPTER 8
Link Layer 153
8.1 Introduction 153
8.2 Overview of Link Layer States 153
8.2.1 Standby State 153
8.2.2 Advertising State (Advertiser) 154
8.2.3 Scanning State (Scanner) 155
8.2.4 Initiating State (Initiator) 155
8.2.5 Connection State (Master or Slave) 155
8.3 Device Address 155
8.3.1 Public Device Address 155
8.3.2 Random Address 156
8.4 Physical Channel 156
8.5 Channel Map 158
8.6 Adaptive Frequency Hopping 158
8.7 Events 159
8.7.1 Advertising Events 159
8.7.2 Connection Events 161
8.8 Topology 162
8.9 Packet Format 163
8.9.1 Preamble 164
8.9.2 Access Address 164
8.9.3 CRC 164
8.9.4 PDU 165
8.10 Bit Stream Processing 168
8.11 Link Layer States 170
8.11.1 Nonconnected States 170
8.11.2 Connection State 177
8.12 Link Layer Control Procedures 180
8.12.1 Connection Update Procedure 181
8.12.2 Channel Map Update Procedure 182
8.12.3 Encryption Procedure 182
8.12.4 Feature Exchange Procedure 184
8.12.5 Version Exchange Procedure 186
8.12.6 Termination Procedure 186
8.12.7 Connection Parameters Request Procedure 187
8.12.8 LE Ping Procedure 188
8.12.9 Data Length Update Procedure 188
xii Contents
CHAPTER 9
Host Controller Interface and Commands 197
9.1 Introduction 197
9.1.1
HCI Packet Types 198
9.1.2
HCI Command Packets 198
9.1.3
HCI Event Packet 198
9.1.4
HCI ACL Data Packet 198
9.2 HCI Commands and Events 199
9.2.1 Device Setup 201
9.2.2 Controller Flow Control 202
9.2.3 Host Flow Control 203
9.2.4 Controller Information 206
9.2.5 Remote Information 206
9.2.6 Controller Configuration 207
9.2.7 Device Discovery 207
9.2.8 Connection Setup 208
9.2.9 Connection State 208
9.2.10 Physical Links 209
9.2.11 Link Information 209
9.2.12 Authentication and Encryption 210
9.2.13 Testing 211
9.2.14 Usage of White Lists 211
9.3 Practical Sequence Diagrams 213
9.3.1 Passive Scanning 214
9.3.2 Typical Sequence for Active Scanning 214
9.3.3 Connection Establishment 215
9.3.4 Setting up White list 215
9.4 Summary 215
Bibliography 216
Contents xiii
CHAPTER 10
Logical Link Control and Adaptation Protocol (L2CAP) 217
10.1 Introduction 217
10.2 PDU and SDU 217
10.3 Basic Assumptions 218
10.4 Maximum Transmission Unit (MTU) 218
10.5 L2CAP Features 219
10.5.1 Fixed Channel Identifiers 219
10.5.2 Fragmentation and Defragmentation of Data 220
10.5.3 Channel Multiplexing 220
10.6 Data Packets 221
10.7 L2CAP Parameters 222
10.8 L2CAP Signaling 222
10.8.1 Command Reject 223
10.8.2 Connection Parameter Update Request 223
10.8.3 Connection Parameter Update Response 224
10.8.4 LE Credit-Based Connection Request 224
10.8.5 LE Credit-Based Connection Response 225
10.8.6 LE Flow Control Credit 225
10.9 Credit-Based Flow Control 226
10.10 Practical Examples 227
10.11 Summary 229
Bibliography 229
CHAPTER 11
Security Manager (SM) 231
11.1 Introduction 231
11.2 Security in Host Instead of Controller 231
11.3 Asymmetrical Architecture 232
11.4 Security Breaches 232
11.4.1 Passive Eavesdropping 232
11.4.2 Man-in-the-Middle (MITM) (Active Eavesdropping) 233
11.4.3 Tracking 234
11.5 Pairing Methods 234
11.5.1 Just Works 234
11.5.2 Numeric Comparison 234
11.5.3 Passkey Entry 235
11.5.4 Out of Band 235
11.6 Security Properties 235
11.6.1 LE Secure Connections Pairing 235
11.6.2 Authenticated MITM Protection 236
11.6.3 Unauthenticated no MITM Protection 236
11.6.4 No Security 236
11.7 Cryptographic Functions 236
xiv Contents
CHAPTER 12
Attribute Protocol (ATT) 259
12.1 Introduction 259
12.2 Attribute 259
12.2.1 Attribute Type 260
12.2.2 Attribute Handle 261
12.2.3 Attribute Permissions 261
12.2.4 Attribute Value 262
12.2.5 Control Point Attributes 262
12.2.6 Grouping of Attribute Handles 263
12.2.7 Atomic Operations 263
12.3 Attribute Protocol 263
12.3.1 PDU Format 264
12.3.2 Sequential Transactions 265
12.4 Methods 266
12.4.1 Request and Response Type Methods 266
12.4.2 Command Type Methods 277
12.4.3 Notification Type Methods 278
12.4.4 Indication and Confirmation Type Methods 278
12.5 Practical Examples 280
Contents xv
CHAPTER 13
Generic Attribute Profile (GATT) 285
13.1 Introduction 285
CHAPTER 14
Generic Access Profile 331
14.1 Introduction 331
14.2 Roles 332
14.2.1 Broadcaster Role 332
14.2.2 Observer Role 332
xvi Contents
CHAPTER 15
GATT-Based Profiles 359
15.1 Introduction 359
15.2 Profile, Services, and Characteristics 359
15.3 Immediate Alert Service (IAS) 361
15.3.1 Service Declaration 361
15.3.2 Service Characteristics 361
15.4 Find Me Profile (FMP) 362
15.4.1 Roles 362
15.5 Link Loss Service (LLS) 363
Contents xvii
CHAPTER 16
Developing LE Applications 381
16.1 Introduction 381
16.2 Ingredients 382
16.2.1 Installing hcidump 382
16.2.2 Basic Bluetooth operations 384
16.3 Advertising and Scanning 388
16.4 Creating a Connection 390
16.5 GATT Operations 390
xviii Contents
CHAPTER 17
Testing and Qualification 405
17.1 Introduction 405
17.2 Need for Bluetooth Qualification 405
17.3 What Is Interoperability? 406
17.4 Development Resources and Events 406
17.4.1 UnPlugFest (UPF) 406
17.4.2 Automotive Events 407
17.4.3 SIG Device Library 407
17.4.4 Profile Tuning Suite (PTS) 408
17.5 Bluetooth Qualification Program 408
17.6 Test Categories 410
17.6.1 BQTF, BRTF 410
17.6.2 BQE 410
17.6.3 Test Documents 411
17.6.4 Prequalification 412
17.7 Summary 412
Bibliography 412
Glossary of Acronyms and Important Terms 413
About the Author 417
Index 419
Preface to the First Edition
The idea for writing this book was sparked by a former colleague over a cup of
coffee a couple of years ago when he said, “Naresh, why don’t you write a book
on Bluetooth Low Energy?” At that time I brushed off that idea, saying that I was
too busy in implementing Bluetooth Low Energy features and writing a book was
not a piece of cake. Later that year I kept realizing that, since the technology is very
new, the amount of available reading material is very limited and it’s not too easy
to understand the technology, especially for newbies. In the winter of 2011, I finally
decided to try my hand at explaining this technology to people who were eager to
understand but did not have a good starting point.
This book covers the concepts of Bluetooth and Bluetooth Low Energy. It introduces
the reader to the history of the technology, terminology, use cases, architecture, and
details of how it works, along with some hands-on examples. It’s not intended to
cover everything down to the minute detail that is written in the Bluetooth specifi-
cation because that is already done well by the specification. Rather, it’s expected to
be a working companion to the specification. Instead of diving directly into the full
specification, the user can first understand the technology at a broad level from this
book and then dive deeper into the relevant sections of the specification.
This book does not assume prior knowledge of Bluetooth or other wireless pro-
tocols, though knowing them would certainly be a plus. Most of the new terminol-
ogy used in this book is also explained within this book. A lot of practical examples
are provided so that the concepts can be correlated to the real-world applications.
Some sample programs are also provided that can be used to gain understanding
and as a starting point of a full-fledged implementation. Screenshots of air logs
and message sequence charts are also provided to give a good view of how things
actually work.
It will be good if the reader is familiar with the Unix or Linux operating sys-
tems to understand the sample programs provided in this book. Some basic knowl-
edge of any scripting language would also be helpful. The commands and programs
provided in this book have been written directly on the Linux shell prompt or using
very basic features of Perl or C language. It’s expected that these programs could be
adapted easily to any other language as well.
xix
xx ����������������������������
Preface to the First Edition
Intended Audience
This book is meant for engineering students, software and hardware engineers,
architects, and engineering and business managers.
This book serves the purpose of introducing engineering students to the con-
cepts of Bluetooth and Bluetooth Low Energy. It helps them to understand the
“what” and “how” parts, including a broad view of the technology, the various
building blocks, and how they come together. It also has practical exercises to get a
first-hand feel for how the technology works. Once they understand the concepts,
users can dig into the specification for an in-depth understanding of their area of
interest.
For software engineers, hardware engineers, and architects, this book helps
them to understand the architecture of the Bluetooth Low Energy Stack and the
functionality provided by each of the layers. The book also discusses the enhance-
ments that have been made in Bluetooth Low Energy compared to previous ver-
sions of Bluetooth so that readers can appreciate why this technology leads to such
huge savings in power consumption. It guides them on setting up their own system
in a quick and efficient manner with inexpensive, easily available hardware, and
a couple of PCs running Linux. The sample programs help users understand the
“how” part of the technology. The book then builds further on the concepts by go-
ing from simple operations and programs to more complex programs that can be
used as a starting point for the reader’s own implementation.
For engineering and business managers, this book helps them to understand the
“why” part. Why should they choose this particular technology? What does it offer
them as a USP (Unique Selling Proposition)? Is it the right technology to solve their
business problem? They may not have the time to dig into the deep technical intri-
cacies of the technology before making a decision. This book aids them by quickly
introducing them to the technology and providing them sufficient information to
make an informed decision.
Prerequisite Knowledge
Bluetooth Low Energy is expected to be the next inflection point for Bluetooth tech-
nology and is expected to pave the way for billions of devices in the future. These
devices will need software and hardware implementation, a variety of applications
to realize the full potential of the devices, tools to support the implementation, tools
to test the implementation, and several more building blocks. It is expected that
many of the people who are implementing these building blocks would be exposed
directly to Bluetooth Low Energy without having previously worked on Bluetooth.
This book does not assume prior knowledge of Bluetooth or any other wire-
less technology. Rather, it has a dedicated set of four chapters to explain Bluetooth
technology before moving on to Bluetooth Low Energy technology. So it should
serve both as a good starting point to people new to Bluetooth and a good refresher
for people already familiar with Bluetooth who are seeking to understand what is
new in Bluetooth Low Energy.
The book also contains several programming examples. All programs illus-
trated in this book have been tested on a Linux system using the BlueZ protocol
Organization of This Book xxi
stack. BlueZ is the “official Linux Bluetooth protocol stack.” Support for BlueZ
can be found in many Linux distributions, and in general it is compatible with any
Linux system in the market. As far as possible, these examples are written using
very simple commands and scripts that can be executed with the bash shell. Some
familiarity with Linux and shell commands will help the reader in understanding
these programs faster.
In the three years since the first edition of the book was published, I have received
several messages from readers commenting on the book and providing excellent
suggestions on how to improve it. I have also assimilated the new learning and
experiences that I’ve had while developing innovative technology products into this
new edition. Newer versions of the specifications have been ratified, which have in-
troduced landmark changes in how this technology can be more effective and how
it can address to a larger number of use-case scenarios.
The first edition of this book was based on Bluetooth Core Specifications 4.0.
This second edition explains the main changes introduced by Bluetooth Core Speci-
fications 4.1 and Bluetooth Core Specifications 4.2.
The most notable changes explained in this book are:
•• The Internet of Things (IoT) space has been growing exponentially. The
Bluetooth SIG has introduced a new profile called Internet Protocol Support
Profile (IPSP), which is geared towards providing IPv6 Internet connectivity
to Bluetooth devices. The Bluetooth sensors can access the Internet and send
and receive messages through gateway devices like smartphones, tablets, and
home routers. Chapter 15 introduces a new section that explains how this
works and the key technology ingredients required from various protocol
stack layers in order to make it work.
•• Faster Connections: One of the radical changes brought in by specifications
4.0 was extremely short packets in order to keep the power consumption
low. While this proved to be very useful, it also led to some constraints in sce-
narios where large amounts of data were to be transferred (i.e., in situations
like uploading log files to the Internet and firmware upgrade of the devices).
Most users don’t upgrade the firmware frequently, but when they do, they
would not expect the firmware upgrade to take several minutes. The newer
versions of the specifications introduced LE Data extensions which improved
the packet size by almost ten times in order to provide an effective increase
in the overall data throughput. Chapter 8 explains these changes in detail.
•• Enhanced Power Efficiency: New enhancements have been made to make the
devices more power efficient. For example, some of the functionality (i.e.,
address resolution of the remote devices) has been moved to lower layers
of the stack so that the upper layers need not be involved in such activities.
These are also explained in Chapter 8.
xxiii
xxiv �����������������������������
Preface to the Second Edition
•• Privacy Enhancements: Privacy has always been one of the key concerns with
wearable devices since tracking a wearable device (such as a watch) effec-
tively means tracking the person wearing it. Newer enhancements have been
made to enhance the privacy when wearing such devices. This is termed LE
Privacy 1.2. The details are explained in Chapters 8 and 14.
•• Enhanced Security: Bluetooth Core Specifications 4.2 introduced FIPS com-
pliant encryption and an entirely new feature called LE Secure Connections,
which is geared towards higher security. This provides much better security
as compared to what is now termed as LE Legacy Pairing. This is explained
at length in Chapter 11.
Acknowledgments
xxv
xxvi ���������������
Acknowledgments
My father, Mr. A. K. Gupta, is an avid computer and Bluetooth user but not
a wireless expert. For him technologies like Bluetooth should just work intuitively
without knowing the technical jargon. He read the book cover-to-cover several
times. He helped me to add sufficient background information for people new to
wireless technologies and Bluetooth to help them understand the technical jargon
and what is happening behind the scenes when they trigger a Bluetooth operation.
I would like to thank my father for his very useful comments on how to make this
book more readable and understandable for all.
Special thanks to my late father-in-law, Mr. Uttam Prakash Gupta. The most
imporant value that I learned from him was about giving back to society. He de-
voted his entire life to the betterment of society and saving the lives of thousands of
living beings. This book is my attempt to give something back to society.
Foreword to the First Edition
Bluetooth (BT) technology has become all-pervasive, with attach rates close to one
hundred percent for mobiles and laptops. Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE) is the next
growth area that leverages on the success of BT but caters to the applications where
frequent battery charging is not an option. The lower power consumption in BLE
is not achieved by the nature of the active radio transport, but by the design of
the protocol to allow low duty cycles with burst transmission and by the use cases
envisaged.
Many features of classic BT are inherited in BLE technology, including the
broad architecture of the protocol stack. Data transfer rates for BLE technology
are below 100 kbps, and also many profiles (including object exchange and audio/
video distribution) are not offered in BLE in order to keep the power consumptions
low. On the positive side, a master device could support a large number of slave de-
vices, and the connection setup is pretty fast. Because a BLE device is in sleep mode
the majority of the time and the communication is “bursty,” the average power
consumption is reduced to significantly low levels.
This book unravels the beauty and subtlety of BLE technology and contrasts
this technology vis-a-vis classic BT technology. Naresh has been working on BT
and short-range connectivity area for close to ten years; his vast developmental
experience has a footprint throughout the book. He has a focused approach in
discussing BLE profiles, ATT, GATT, GAP, security aspects, HCI commands, de-
velopment tools, and debugging and testing mechanisms. At the same time, he has
captured well the BLE architectural aspects and reference design relating to stan-
dard specifications.
The book serves as a practical guide to promising BLE technology that is
well-suited for sensors, actuators, and other small devices with ultra low power
consumption. BT 4.0 with low energy technique paves the way for BT connected
devices and the Internet of Things. Opening a garage wirelessly, receiving alerts
to watch for incoming calls, or finding lost keys (and even cats)—any of these
applications could easily be built with BLE technology. The book provides many
such application examples and the underlying working principles so that practicing
engineers could learn how to build innovative applications on BT-smart and smart-
ready devices.
xxvii
xxviii �����������������������������
Foreword to the First Edition
It has been a pleasure for me to pen this foreword to this book on BLE au-
thored by Naresh. This is particularly so, as I hired Naresh to build the Bluetooth
team, and the team increased both in mandate and strength under my guidance in
ST-Ericsson, where I was serving as Country Director until recently. Naresh and his
colleagues have filed three patents from their inventive work. A good deal of this
material has also been presented as classroom lectures to Masters degree students
at Jaypee University, as well as at the Indian Institute of Technology-Delhi, where I
served as Adjunct Professor. I sincerely believe that this timely book will immensely
help students and engineers alike to get a holistic view of this promising technology.
Aloknath De, Ph.D.
Fellow-Indian National Academy of Engineering
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
takaisin maksettava kreditivilaina merkitsi täsmälleen koko
ensivuoden tullitulojen panttausta. Semmoisiin toimiin rupeaminen
olisi kyllä saattanut arveluttaa rohkeimpiakin, ja semminkin olisi
luullut Snellmanin, joka ei suinkaan keveästi liikutellut miljoonia,
tässäkin asettuvan säästäväisyyden kannalle. Perheen-isännän ei
kuitenkaan käy katsominen vaaroja ja varomisia, kun perheen
pelastaminen on kysymyksessä, ja kiitollisena näkyy Snellman
ainiaan pysyneen tuolle "hädässä löydetylle ystävällensä."
VII.
Ohria Kauroja
tynnyriä tynnyriä
Oulun lääniin 13,400 1,000
Kuopion " 15,650 700
Waasan " 15,200 7,000
Mikkelin " 6,700 850
Turun " 5,550 1,600
Hämeen " 5,700 1,000
Uudenmaan " 1,300 —
Wiipurin " 500 —
_____________________________________
Summa: 64,000 12,150
Missä hätä oli suurin, siellä apukin tuli runsain. Nuo kolme
pohjoista lääniä leikkasivat syksyllä 1868 erittäin runsaan sadon
kylvöstänsä. Etelämmällä tosin vaivasi kovat poudat, eikä sato,
semminkin omista heikommista siemenistä, ollut varsin kiitettävä.
Mutta eihän silloin oltu paljoon totuttukaan. Jos olivatkin hinkalot
puolillaan, niin oli tuo jo ilahuttava näky edelliseen tyhjyyteen
verraten.
Riihimäen—Pietarin rautatie.
Yksityisten ponnistukset.