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Innovations in Culture
and Development
 Daniela Angelina Jelinčić

Innovations in
Culture and
Development
The Culturinno Effect in Public Policy
Daniela Angelina Jelinčić
Department for Culture and Communication
Institute for Development and International Relations
Zagreb, Croatia

ISBN 978-3-319-52720-8 ISBN 978-3-319-52721-5 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-52721-5
Library of Congress Control Number: 2017934488

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2017

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the
Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of
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To Karla, Antun and Vladimir,
my source of inspiration
 FOREWORD

The book that you are holding in your hands will inspire you to reflect
about culture and societal development in new ways. It coins a new
term, the “culturinno effect”, to describe how the cultural sphere
promotes innovations for development. The author differentiates
between “cultural innovation” and “innovations in culture”. She views
cultural innovation as a process of systemic, civilisational change,
whereas innovations in culture refer to innovations stemming from the
cultural sector (be it theatre, film, music, dance, etc.). The latter is the
primary focus of this book. The author outlines possible steps for
implementation of innovations in culture into public policies to foster
sustainable development.
In this Foreword, I would like to explore the relationship between
cultural innovation and innovations in culture. I presume that if both
are given equal attention, the culturinno effect might be stronger if they
are conceptualised and pursued separately. Both processes should be at the
core of public policy due to their potential to contribute positively to
societal development.
Daniela Angelina Jelinčić argues that culture, as a sector, can be the
driver of sustainable development bringing innovations in various spheres.
Saying “can be” means that culture “does not have to be” the driver of
sustainable development. There may be cultures (including innovative
ones) that do not lead to sustainable development. Certainly, there is
much commercial, superficial and even destructive culture that does little
to promote sustainable development, let alone a process of societal
regeneration.

vii
viii FOREWORD

The question, therefore, is what kind of culture drives what kind of

development? This engenders further questions: What kinds of culture
are currently dominant? If there is anything wrong with the development
we saw in the last years (or decades, centuries, millennia – depending on
your chosen time horizon), what was the role of culture in this develop-
ment? What kinds of cultural innovation and innovations in culture are
needed to change the development trajectories toward desirable futures?
And what consequences does the absence of certain types of cultural
innovations have for the Great Transition during the twenty-first
century?
In what follows, I will try to explain why the state of our society
requires bringing culture closer to the forefront and why policy-makers
should place more emphasis on culture, without creating a state-approved
and state-grown cultural sector.
After rising from the ashes of the Second World War, many indus-
trialised countries experienced an epoch of unprecedented economic
prosperity and political stability. But instead of preparing the future,
the predominant culture was to live as if there was no tomorrow.
Individuals, firms and nations borrowed with abandon, not realising
how excess spending and debt gradually destabilised the fundaments
of future well-being. Overconsumption, lack of ecological stewardship,
corruption, unmanageable bureaucratic systems, flawed education sys-
tems and a widespread cultural malaise have taken their toll. Small
fissures in the economic, political, cultural and ecological fabric widened
to cracks, cracks broadened to crevices and crevices are becoming tec-
tonic faults, causing friction and unleashing forces that are increasingly
difficult to contain.
Over the same period, there have been first signs of cultural innovation.
In many countries, new initiatives in civil society, business and the public
sector have sprung up. Many people work on ideas and practices that
contribute to a regeneration and renewal of society. Currently, there are
many actual and potential change-makers and innovators interested, or
already active, in generating positive social and environmental impact.
These so-called cultural creatives (Ray and Anderson 2000) are best
described with reference to their worldviews and value orientation.
Cultural creatives have always been a small minority, but according to
value surveys, there has been a shift in orientation among the population
as a whole, especially among the young generation. In a study of changing
values among Western publics from 1970 to 2006, Ronald Inglehart
 FOREWORD ix

stated that “a massive body of evidence demonstrates that an interge-

nerational shift from materialist to post-materialist priorities has been
occurring” (2008: 131). Post-materialist values correlate with high
intrinsic motivation for civic engagement (Welzel 2010).
In recent years, largely below the radar of public visibility, people who
identify with post-materialist values have started to become the majority of
the population in a number of Western countries (Inglehart 2008). This
manifests in terms of increased concern about issues such as education,
quality of life, nutrition, ecology, gender equality, animal rights, clean
energy, self-sufficiency and the well-being of future generations. For many
people, the fundamental goals of individuals, families, communities and
nations are coming to the fore. They start asking and reflecting upon
timeless questions such as: What do we live for? How can we improve
relationships? How can we build healthy communities? What are the
elements of culture that create a good society?
The cultural innovation that is needed for the Great Transition during
the twenty-first century is more than a shift in values and worldviews. It is a
result of a fundamental change of consciousness. People can support
certain values, but if their consciousness does not embrace them, values
remain theoretical constructs. The mind easily grasps concepts without
living them in practice. This is why there are frequent gaps between
aspirations and the choices made in everyday life; why it is difficult to
change lifestyles; and why many organisations, communities and societies
are dysfunctional despite fundamental goodness inside (most) people.
Even if one could achieve a state in which one’s values are noble, and
one’s worldview adequate, it would not ensure that one is healthy, or that
one can engage with the world in productive ways. It is possible to be
knowledgeable about inner and outer dimensions, or to be advanced on
some aspects of personal development. Nevertheless, this is not the same
as being conscious. Biographies of spiritual leaders are witness, which
sometimes reveal the most astonishing lapses.
In the same way as higher level mathematics cannot be understood by
non-mathematicians, the concept of consciousness cannot be understood
without actually having experience of it. It would be futile trying to
explain consciousness exclusively with the tools of science. Science can
detect aspects of it, but it cannot capture the whole in its vastness. A way
to find out about consciousness is to discover it experientially in oneself,
step by step. As a starting point, there can be an intuitive understanding –
a sense that there must be something greater than ordinary thinking,
x FOREWORD

feeling and willing. From there, it is possible to discover further aspects if

one is sufficiently attentive and open.
Cultural innovation and innovations in culture may foster new values
and worldviews, yet they will hardly drive forward development during the
twenty-first century if they do not focus on consciousness.
It is useful to distinguish “consciousness” from ordinary understandings.
For instance, people who are not asleep (or not in a coma) are alert, but not
necessarily conscious. A person who knows about the mistakes he or she
makes is aware, but not necessarily conscious. Likewise, people who feel bad
about harm they cause on others have a conscience, yet conscience is not the
same as consciousness. Consciousness is all about a higher level alertness
(Alertness), awareness (Awareness) and conscience (Conscience).
Consciousness prevents the person from making mistakes in the first place.
Furthermore, the term consciousness should not be confused with intel-
ligence. Intelligence can help bring forth consciousness, but it can also be an
obstacle. It depends on the qualities of the intelligence, how it is oriented
and used, and whether it goes beyond mental intelligence to include heart-
intelligence and will-intelligence. Consciousness does not change our intel-
ligence profile, making us suddenly smart in, say, mathematics or foreign
languages. Rather, it helps enliven human intelligence, making it open to
wisdom, infusing it with love, and putting it in service to humanity.
I would like to attempt a working definition of consciousness, with the
caution that any definition of mysteries risks creating reduced and mis-
leading perceptions:

Consciousness is a higher level alertness, awareness, conscience and

will. It is the better part in ourselves, something one may call the
Higher Self. It is part of ourselves but at the same time transcends
ourselves. There is a sublime being in humans – a part in us that
enables us to develop. This conscious being prevents a person from
making mistakes. It knows where we come from and where we are
going. It governs our thinking, feeling and willing. It ensures that
knowing leads to doing. It refines our values and worldviews. It is the
humanity inside humans. It can lead to enlightenment in indivi-
duals as well as in society. When enlightenment happens as a collective
state, as collective consciousness,1 we speak of a period of renaissance.
Humanity has a chance of moving toward such a state, despite (and
because of) all its troubles.
 FOREWORD xi

Consciousness is a core ingredient in the development of individuals, orga-

nisations and societies. The following causal chain works in all directions:

Next Renaissance

Consciousness

Thinking/feeling/willing values/worldviews

Unconsciousness

Dystopia

In the above illustration, the terms “Dystopia” and “Next Renaissance”

represent the opposite directions of societal development (breakdown and
breakthrough, one might say). In the middle part of the illustration, we
see some critical aspects of human development/human potential. The
quality of these elements drives the quality of culture and therefore also
the quality of societal development.
All elements contained in this illustration influence each other. For
instance, materialistic values or worldviews influence people’s thinking,
feeling and willing. On the other hand, dysfunctions in thinking, feeling
and willing may bring forth materialistic values and worldviews, prevent-
ing consciousness from arising. The lack of consciousness, in turn,
expresses itself in a lower quality of cultural innovation and innovations
in culture. This is the reason why the world’s wisdom traditions focus on
helping human beings move from dysfunctional thinking, feeling and
willing to more healthy states. These healthy states are essential for cultural
and societal development.
The opposite of consciousness is, logically, unconsciousness. Human
history is marked by near universal unconsciousness, interspersed with
glimpses of enlightenment. Enlightenment can happen in individuals,
but also in society in the form of periods of renaissance. Communities,
nations and entire civilisations have risen and declined based on which
forces gained the upper hand. During the twentieth and twenty-first
century, the prevalence of unconsciousness has brought humanity to the
brink of disaster: two world wars, the nuclear arms race and the threat of
xii FOREWORD

nuclear war, ecocide, cultural decay, and many other phenomena showed
to what extent external decline reflects dysfunctional inner states. The
prevalent cultures of today (consumer cultures, mass entertainment cul-
tures and a plethora of destructive subcultures) reflect these inner states
and drive societal development, slowly but surely, toward scenarios of
breakdown.
In a lecture on war in 1983, Ralph Waldo Emerson pointed to one of
the relations between inner and outer phenomena by saying:

Every nation and every man instantly surround themselves with a mate-
rial apparatus which exactly corresponds to their moral state, or their state
of thought. Observe how every truth and every error, each a thought of
some man’s mind, clothes itself with societies, houses, cities, language,
ceremonies, newspapers. Observe the ideas of the present day . . . see how
each of these abstractions has embodied itself in an imposing apparatus in
the community, and how timber, brick, lime, and stone have flown into
convenient shape, obedient to the master idea reigning in the minds of
many persons . . . It follows, of course, that the least change in the man will
change his circumstances; the least enlargement of ideas, the least mitiga-
tion of his feelings in respect to other men . . . would cause the most striking
changes of external things (1887: 177).

The above argumentation has implications for the analysis in the book
The Culturinno Effect. For instance, the claim that culture has intrinsic
value is valid in as far as it stimulates inner development as well as outer
development toward sustainability, or even more broadly, toward a
New Renaissance. If we were to say that all forms of culture have
intrinsic value, we would have to support and finance also the types of
culture that feed into the opposite development trajectories, that is
toward dystopia.
The question of what sorts of cultures have what kind of intrinsic
value is not easily defined by public policies. It is not a question of
politics or law, and it is not an issue that scholars or religious leaders
can answer with authority. It is a question that starts with every
individual, a concern for moral and aesthetic education and self-educa-
tion. Each person can learn to reflect and judge for themselves which
cultural innovation (and innovations in culture) stem from — and lead
to — refinements in people’s inner lives, and accordingly, to a more
sustainable society.
 FOREWORD xiii

In the context of cultural innovation and innovations in culture, it is

necessary to mention the role of education. Education is an integral part of
the cultural sphere. Never before in human history there have been more
graduates, scientific research, new knowledge produced every year, ease in
accessing and spreading information worldwide – and more money spent on
innovation.
At the same time, for half a century already, our modern civilisation is
increasingly unsustainable, with growing inequality and intergenerational
injustice. There are many countries (including European countries), in
which a substantial proportion of the younger generation has little chance
to find a place in the globalised economic system in any way that would be
in line with their talents. How can this happen, if (in Western countries at
least) the majority of politicians, CEOs and leaders of influential civil
society organisations attended higher education institutions, and some-
times also leadership training?
The current paradigm in education, despite its internal diversity and
numerous innovations, did not prevent the large-scale failure of respecting
the boundaries of our planet and the dignity of sentient beings; it rather
seems to participate in it. The prevalent educational paradigm did not
stimulate individual, social and cultural development in a substantially
deeper, broader and more enlivening sense. Coming from another histor-
ical era, the current system did little to transform itself in order to become
a catalytic force in addressing the grand challenges of the twenty-first
century. This is why we see a need and a place for new models of educa-
tion, including higher education. In other words, we need educational
innovation in the sense Daniela Angelina Jelinčić defines cultural innova-
tion – educational transformation as a systemic, long-term, civilisational
change. No amount of innovations in education will achieve the substan-
tial effects without simultaneous fundamental educational innovation.
A similar argument applies to the cultural sphere as a whole: no amount
of innovations in culture will bring sustainable development if there is not
at the same time a process of cultural innovation – a regeneration of
culture from each individual outwards into society; and a society that
enables the full potential of each individual.
In 2009, the European Research Area Board called for “a ‘new
Renaissance’, a paradigm shift in what the role and place of science should
be”, adding that “a new, holistic way of thinking is required as technolo-
gical answers alone are not the end-solution to a given problem”, and that
“we will need to harness our talent much better to solve the Grand
xiv FOREWORD

Challenges of our age, in concert with researchers around the globe”

(ERAB 2009: 8–9).
Higher education could play a pivotal role as a catalyst of consciousness.
Consciousness is critical because it is the source of cultural innovation and
therefore also the source of the emerging Next Renaissance. New kinds of
being, knowing and acting are required, new curriculum and research
designs, new ways of relating diverse stakeholders. Accordingly, a new
institutional type in higher education is called for that some started to
name the “transversity”.
Transversities are transformative universities that are transdisciplinary,
transparadigmatic, transmodern, transcultural, transgenerational, transsectoral
and translocal. A transformative mission and approach means the capacity to
intervene creatively in values-based ways in the dystopian trends of our cen-
tury. The goal is to catalyse change toward new visions, models and practices
of individual and collective thriving within the planetary boundaries.
The core mission of educational and other cultural institutions in the
twenty-first century is to generate sustainable futures, foster social justice
and well-being, and unlock higher human potential. For this to happen,
educational and other cultural institutions need to act as examples and
catalysts of social innovation and of the sustainability transition. They need
to become laboratories of social change.
A renaissance can arise when a critical mass of people become comfor-
table with the entire spectrum of learning – all the way from data, informa-
tion, knowledge, understanding to wisdom. Moving from knowledge to
understanding, and then from understanding to wisdom, requires more
integrative and more enlivened ways of thinking. Accordingly, the educa-
tional and cultural sector as a whole needs to be transformed to enable
extensions toward understanding and wisdom. And beyond that, educa-
tional and other cultural institutions also need to strengthen the vision to
action capacity (guided by wisdom).
The Next Renaissance is intimately connected to a new type of education
based on deeper insights regarding human beings, our planet and the
cosmos. It requires evolving toward coherent worldviews that do justice to
the astounding complexity and mystery of the world. And it requires new
values that are not only understood by the mind but lived in practice.
The cultural sphere can unlock incredible immaterial assets – knowl-
edge, creativity, connection, consciousness – to a much greater extent
than it has done so far. For this, the cultural sector itself has to transform.
The conditions of everyday life of the next generation depend on how we
 FOREWORD xv

manage to free this unlimited resource, and this in turn depends on how
we facilitate learning now — individual learning, social learning and
collective intelligence geared toward social change.
This book is an inspiration and a tool which can help guide our present
society toward preferred futures. It presents concrete measures, which
cultural and other public policies can utilise in order to achieve desirable
step by step changes. Still, an overall change in the public policy system is
needed if we want to move toward systemic (cultural) innovation.
Innovations in culture oriented by the vision of a twenty-first century
Renaissance provide a powerful tool for moving in that direction.

Institutions for the Future, Dr. Gaudenz Assenza

Managing Director
University for the Future Initiative, Chair

NOTE
1. The term collective consciousness needs to be distinguished from the term
“collective unconscious” of Carl Jung. The “collective unconscious” is a
realm of mythical archetypes and other motives from the history of mankind,
whereas “collective consciousness” refers to a process of awakening at
transpersonal level. The precise relationship between the two phenomena
would make an interesting field of study.

REFERENCES
Emerson, R. W. 1838 (1887). War (Lecture delivered in Boston, March 1838).
Reprinted in: Emerson’s Complete Works, vol. XI. Boston, MA: Houghton,
Mifflin & Co., 177. [1]
ERAB. (2009). Preparing Europe for a new renaissance. A strategic view of the
European research area. First report of the European research area board.
Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union.
Inglehart, R. F. (2008). Changing values among Western publics from 1970 to
2006. West European Politics 31(1–2), 130–146.
Ray, P. H., & Anderson, S. R. (2000). The cultural creatives: How 50 million
people are changing the world. New York: Harmony.
Welzel, C. (2010). How selfish are self-expression values? A civicness test. Journal
of Cross-Cultural Psychology 41(2), 152–174.
 PREFACE

Lately, innovation in all its forms and colors has been talked about: Is it in
industry, science, education? Is it about technological, business or social
innovations? Is it a product, organisational, process or marketing innova-
tion? And so on. It has become a buzzword in the European Union
financing frameworks from science through tourism, healthcare, environ-
ment protection, welfare to business. All the same, it’s been a number one
topic in global international organisations such as United Nations and its
agencies and organisations from World Tourism Organisation through
Food and Agriculture Organization, International Labour Organization,
World Bank, World Health Organization to UNESCO. A number of
research papers and books featuring different types of innovation have
been published lately. All in all, innovation has not only become a buzz-
word but has become a buzz hope for solving burning societal issues
where other models proved to be inefficient and unsuccessful. The press-
ing societal challenges require new responses especially due to major
budgetary constraints and the inadequacy of traditional solutions (BEPA
2010). This naturally leads to a need to innovate. But despite the innova-
tion buzz, such a proliferation of discourse and works on innovation
shows the absence of an integrative framework and great diversity of
approaches (Klein 2013).
At the same time, culture and the arts have been taking on an increas-
ingly important role within the context of local development strategies in
the last couple of decades (André et al. 2013) but, although having
creativity and innovation as an inherent feature, innovations in culture
have been researched extremely rarely. Although the role of culture in

xvii
xviii PREFACE

overall development has been lately stressed with great intensity, innova-
tions culture can offer have almost practically always been linked to
economy and urban development only. The existing studies, papers and
books on innovations in culture often pragmatically use the innovation
buzz while putting it in the context of culture while rarely being really
dedicated to the research of the subject itself; they either focus only on
some part of cultural production (mainly economic while treating cultural
industries) or researching the innovations in and for cultural sector but
without realising its greater development potential.
The innovation buzz is not meant to be treated in a negative tone,
though. Its potential is definitely seen and recognised. Still, it is felt that a
dedicated and more structured approach to the subject is needed which
would finally reveal the deep, strong intrinsic values of culture together
with its instrumental potential, firstly in creating innovations, and sec-
ondly, in enabling them to happen, thus fostering the development as well
as the progress of the society.
Despite the recognition of culture’s role in overall society seen in
academic or expert papers, it lacks in practice which is mostly visible in
public policies. In most countries, the public budget share for culture is
extremely low whereas culture almost always hits the last place on the
scale. In a number of cultural policies, culture is rather seen as a budgetary
cost rather than the enabler or driver of development. The recognition of
the power culture has is at least a starting point in the mission to change
that perception. It would be unfair to say that there is no progress in that
matter, since international organisations stress the importance of culture in
the overall development; still, when it comes to implementation of such
goals, things do not run so smoothly.
This is why this book aims at proving the efficiency of culture in the
general development of the society or at least in solving small-scale pro-
blems which societies face. It has been done through the analysis of
theoretical as well as practical policy frameworks at the same time present-
ing practical examples of innovations in culture. The coined term “cultur-
inno effect” (culture + innovations), thus presents evidence of the inherent
power culture has in fostering innovations for development and it is hoped
that, in the end, culture would get the place it deserves in the public policy
framework due to its priceless role it has played throughout the history of
human civilisation as well as its role in today’s everyday lives of societies.
Chapter 1, The Power of Culture, presents the role of the culture in
different concepts of developmental studies, “culture and development”
 PREFACE xix

and “cultural development” and their evolutionary paths through inter-

national organisations’ documents in order to change the misperception
of culture as a budgetary cost. In Chapter 2, What Lies Behind?, a theore-
tical and historical context of development and theory of change is pro-
vided backing the arguments of other changes which, as we will see later
on in the book, consequently follow, namely in the cultural governance
styles. Chapter 3, Theoretical Approaches, provides definitions of basic
concepts interconnected in the book: innovations, inventions, creativity,
social innovations, social entrepreneurship and innovations in culture.
Analysis of theoretical cultural policy models is offered in Chapter 4,
Public Policies and Innovation, as to see if a certain type fosters innovation.
Also, cultural policy documents are analysed with the aim of detecting
their possible inclinations to innovation. Country policies chosen for
analysis reflect theoretical types of cultural policies; this is why the follow-
ing countries are analysed: Croatia, Cuba, Finland, France, Latvia,
Switzerland, United Kingdom and United States of America. As to back
theoretical research, Chapter 5, Moving on to Practice: Good Practice
Examples of Innovations in Culture, aims to offer an inspiring refreshment
showing practical examples of innovations in culture globally. The chosen
examples range from small-scale innovations to those which may poten-
tially lead to a systemic change. Chapter 6, Organisation of Public Policy
Models: A Way Forward, presents conclusions of the public policy analysis,
offering at the same time, policy recommendations which could serve as a
starting point for innovative decision-makers. Finally, Chapter 7, What
Have We Learned and Where Do We Go from Here?, concludes the text
providing arguments for seeing culture as a growth factor and giving it a
place it deserves within public policy system.
This book is a result of a research which analysed public policies (espe-
cially cultural policies) of several countries in order to see what public
interventions can be made as to foster development. The research was
realised in the framework of the TÁMOP 4.2.1.D-15/1/KONV-2015-
0006 – “The development of the innovation research base and knowledge
centre in Kőszeg in the frame of the educational and research network at
the University of Pannonia” key project, which was subsidised by the
European Union and Hungary and co-financed by the European Social
Fund. I am sincerely grateful to the opportunity the program offered and
enabled this text to happen.
Throughout history, novelties and innovations have always been pro-
voking resistance. The same is expected (and already seen) in the
xx PREFACE

innovative governance system this book recommends when it comes to

culture. Still, I truly believe that progress can happen only if one is brave
enough and willing to innovate.
The book is intended for innovative decision-makers ready to respond
to the challenges of today at the same time providing an interesting and
inspiring text for students, artists and cultural workers who are prepared to
offer a new view on arts/culture. It is hoped that this book will at least
catch their interest while inspiring them to change their own perceptions
as well as the perception of culture in the overall society. We shouldn’t
forget that change of perception is one of the prerequisites for creativity.
So, let’s innovate!

REFERENCES
André, I., Abreu, A., & Carmo, A. (2013). Social innovation through the arts in
rural areas: The case of Montemor-o-Novo. In F. Moulaert, D. MacCallum,
A. Mehmood, and A. Hamdouch (Eds.). The international handbook on social
innovation (pp. 242–255). Chelthenham, UK/Northampton, USA: Edward
Elgar.
BEPA. (2010). Empowering people, driving change. Social innovation in the
European Union (2015, October 13). European Union, European
Commission, Bureau of European Policy Advisers. Luxembourg: EUR-OP.
Retrieved from http://www.net4society.eu/_media/Social_innovation_eur
ope.pdf
Klein, J.-L. (2013). Introduction: social Innovation at the crossroads between
science, economy and society. In F. Moulaert, D. MacCallum, A. Mehmood, &
A. Hamdouch (Eds.), The international handbook on social innovation (pp. 9–
12). Chelthenham, UK/Northampton, USA: Edward Elgar.
 CONTENTS

1 The Power of Culture 1

2 What Lies Behind? 9

3 Theoretical Approaches 21

4 Public Policies and Innovation 33

5 Moving on to Practice: Good Practice Examples of

Innovations in Culture 65

6 Organisation of Public Policy Models: A Way Forward 85

7 What Have We Learned and Where Do We Go From Here? 97

Index 111

xxi
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 4.1 Four “ideal types” of cultural policy 38

Table 6.1 Culture and innovation in public policies of Croatia,
Cuba, Finland, France, Latvia, Switzerland,
UK and the USA 88
Table 7.1 Incentives for innovations – possible public policy
measures when using the approach of integration
of innovations in culture in other public policies 102

xxiii
 CHAPTER 1

The Power of Culture

Abstract This chapter presents the role of the culture in different con-
cepts of developmental studies, “culture and development” and “cultural
development”. The concept “culture and development” indicates the role
of culture in the achievement of development, such as in poverty eradica-
tion, human rights, gender equality, health improvement, environment
protection etc. Its task is the development. The concept “cultural develop-
ment” is focused on the development of culture and cultural capacities.
It is a process of changes in cultural life of a community in order to achieve
its cultural values. The “cultural development” task is culture. This chapter
presents the evolutionary paths of both concepts through international
organisations’ documents in order to change the misperception of culture
as a budgetary cost.

Keywords Culture
Development studies
Cultural development

Culture and development

International cultural but also political discourse often highlights culture

as a basis for the development of a society. The concept “culture and
development” indicates the role of culture and cultural processes in the
achievement of development, such as in the field of poverty eradication,
human rights and gender equality promotion, health improvement, envir-
onment protection etc. The “culture and development” task, therefore, is
the development itself: it is about the relationship between culture and very

© The Author(s) 2017 1

D.A. Jelinčić, Innovations in Culture and Development,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-52721-5_1
2 1 THE POWER OF CULTURE

pragmatic issues of survival and life conditions improvement as well as

about ways culture can contribute with or even have influence on success
of interventions in a certain field.
On the other hand, the concept “cultural development” is focused on
the development of culture and cultural capacities. It is a process of
changes in cultural life of a community in order to achieve its cultural
values (Dragičević Šešić and Stojković 2013). This terminology implies a
wide range of issues such as cultural policy, cultural industry and socio-
cultural development. The “cultural development” task is culture as a
dynamic concept according to which society grows and advances; as a
strong economic sector; as a professional environment for cultural crea-
tors, artists and artisans; and as a means of transfer of the aesthetic
expressions, ideas and values. So, even though this concept is about
culture and its own development, its link to a wider society cannot be
neglected. After all, culture is a social activity.
Although both concepts, “culture and development” and “cultural
development”, have been widely discussed in theory (Epskamp et al.
2000), lately, focus has mainly been on the power culture has in a wider
development of a society. There are numerous good practice examples
presenting solutions culture has provided in the sectors of healthcare,
transport, urban planning, tourism, education, industry, environment pro-
tection or economy in general. The culture power has entered international
policy documents (e.g. Millenium Development Goals, Agenda 21,
UNESCO Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity, the Report of the
United Nations/UNESCO World Commission on Culture and
Development “Our Creative Diversity”, Council of Europe “Declaration
on Cultural Diversity”, UNESCO Convention for the Safeguarding of the
Intangible Cultural Heritage, UNDP’s “Human Development Report
Cultural Liberty in Today’s Diverse World”, UNESCO Convention on
the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions,
UN Resolution 66/208 on Culture and Development, etc.). In 1988,
UNESCO launched the “World Decade for Cultural Development” pro-
gram, which advocates the contribution of culture to national and interna-
tional development policies. The central project of this UNESCO Decade is
the report “Our Creative Diversity”, which reflects a new approach to the
development of culture and cultural policies, away from a focus exclusively
on preservation, toward a focus on cultural growth and the reinforcement of
creative potentials. The issue of cultural diversity is regarded as one of the
essential elements of overall sustainable development (Obuljen 2006).
 THE POWER OF CULTURE 3

The culture power has been especially rooted in documents focusing on

the subject of cultural diversity and intercultural dialogue. Thus, the
UNESCO report “Our Creative Diversity” played a key role in changing
the perception of culture in our society, in addition to the Council of
Europe’s report, “In from the Margins”, which highlights the key points
with which creators of cultural policy in Europe met at that time (Council
of Europe 1997). The central themes of this report were two interrelated
priorities: to bring millions of needy Europeans in from the margins of
society, and to bring cultural policy in from the margins to the center of
management (Council of Europe 1997). The special significance of this
report lies in the emphasis of the developmental role of culture, which is
directly connected to the sustainable development. In the report, culture is
seen as a concept which in every society marks the human values in
contrast to the growing intolerance and unemployment of an increasing
number of individuals in Europe. In this sense, the cultural policies of the
European countries were supposed to respond to these challenges. The
investment in the human capital and the implementation of the cultural
rights of various marginalised groups (primarily ethnic and cultural mino-
rities, but also women, the youth, etc.) are therefore a key topic of
European development. The acceptance of a cultural policy of inclusive-
ness, rather than exclusiveness, is considered to serve as support to a new
social ethics. Therefore, the need was felt for a European Declaration of
Human Rights. In this sense, it is the key report that expresses the need for
change in cultural policies, which, for the first time on a European level,
places abstract debates about cultural diversity, multiculturalism and inter-
cultural dialogue into a concrete developmental context.
Both reports are, however, criticised for advocating a positive idea-
listic development based on culture, instead of clearly pointing to the
source of the trouble, without presenting a real solution to the pro-
blems, which themselves are also not entirely clear. This does not,
however, mean that the new paradigm of cultural policy did not have
good intensions.
In the year 2000, the Council of Europe adopted the “Declaration on
Cultural Diversity”, and continued with the development of several other
interesting projects on this topic (such as Culture and Neighbourhoods and
Creating Cultural Capital).
In 2001, the ideas from the “Our Creative Diversity” report became
part of the “Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity”, UNESCO’s
first document that enacts the respect and promotion of cultural
4 1 THE POWER OF CULTURE

diversity. Just a year earlier, the Council of Europe also adopted a

“Declaration on Cultural Diversity”. The goal of the Declaration is to
provide support to those countries which wish to create favourable
conditions for open cultural dialogue, and, thus, for quality coexistence
of its citizens.
UNESCO “Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the
Diversity of Cultural Expressions” was adopted at the 33rd session of
the General Assembly of UNESCO in October 2005, as the fundamental
step in the struggle toward the achievement of the protection and promo-
tion of cultural diversity. The goal of the Convention is to assist states in
creating, in their own environments, respecting and promoting cultural
diversity, favorable conditions for the dialogue between cultures and
civilisations under the circumstances of globalisation.
In addition to giving a comprehensive analysis of cultural diversity and
highlighting its significance in different areas, UNESCO’s report “Investing
in Cultural Diversity and Intercultural Dialogue”, published in 2009, aims
to convince decision-makers of the importance of investing into cultural
diversity, in order to facilitate new approaches to sustainable development,
ensure human rights and freedoms, and reinforce social cohesion and
democratic governance (UNESCO 2009). Thus, it once again aimed at
concretising the theme and introducing specific measures in cultural, edu-
cational and communication policies (Jelinčić 2013).
The European Commission’s new framework program for culture
Creative Europe 2014–2020 is practically focused on the role of cul-
ture in a wider development still narrowing its power mainly on eco-
nomic development through cultural/creative industries. Similarly,
the work of the World Trade Organization reflected in the report
“New World Information and Communication Order” focuses on the
same subject but with concrete measure proposals such as restriction of
the processes of concentration and monopolisation; the increase of the
number of decision-makers at a time of growing media audiences and
the strengthening impact of communication; the reduction of the
impact of advertising on editorial policies; and the improvement of
models that secure a greater autonomy in the management and the
editorial policy of the media whose mission is to ensure sustainable and
balanced development.
More broadly, United Cities and Local Governments (UCLG) at its
meeting in Chicago in April 2010 proposed a “Policy Statement on
Culture as a Fourth Pillar of Sustainable Development” which was finally
 THE POWER OF CULTURE 5

approved in November 2010. Thus, the importance of culture has been

recognised in sustainable development besides previously defined dimen-
sions: economic growth, social inclusion and environmental balance. It was
pointed out that these dimensions alone, however, cannot possibly reflect
the complexity of current society. Therefore, the new approach addressed
the relation between culture and sustainable development through dual
means: first, the development of the cultural sector itself (i.e. heritage,
creativity, cultural industries, crafts); and second, ensuring that culture has
its rightful place in all public policies, particularly those related to education,
economy, science, communication, environment, social cohesion and inter-
national cooperation (UCLG 2010). This was particularly important in the
sense that this approach not only regarded culture as a means for supporting
other sectors in development, but also focused on culture itself. In this way,
it approached the sector of culture both in the sense of “culture and
development” and “cultural development”. Additionally, its importance is
seen in the detected need of stressing the place of culture in public policies.
Given that the document was passed by the UCLG offers a solid ground for
the inclusion of culture in public policies in practice.
In the same context, it is also important to mention the “Hangzhou
Declaration” which is a key step in UNESCO’s advocacy to integrate
culture into sustainable development strategies, as the international com-
munity shapes a new global agenda for sustainable development after
2015 (UNESCO 2013a). The Declaration reaffirms that culture should
be considered to be a fundamental enabler of sustainability, being a source
of meaning and energy, a wellspring of creativity and innovation, and a
resource to address challenges and find appropriate solutions. It calls on
governments and policy-makers to give considerations to the following
recommendations: integrate culture within all development policies and
programs, as equal measure with human rights, equality and sustainabil-
ity; mobilise culture and mutual understanding to foster peace and
reconciliation; ensure cultural rights for all to promote inclusive social
development; leverage culture for poverty reduction and inclusive eco-
nomic development; build on culture to promote environmental sustain-
ability; use culture to strengthen resilience to disasters and combat
climate change through mitigation and adaptation; value, safeguard
and transmit culture to future generations; harness culture as a resource
for achieving sustainable urban development and management; and
capitalise on culture to foster innovative and sustainable models of
cooperation (UNESCO 2013b).
6 1 THE POWER OF CULTURE

Development of culture itself, therefore “cultural development” on

the other hand, although being a subject of the theoretical discourse
(Krzysztofek 2000; Rocha 2000; Cherneva et al. 2000) has not been so
widely discussed as opposed to the concept of “culture and development”.
This is on the verge of the general perception of culture as a budgetary
burden itself, while recognising its strength to be utilised in the development
of other sectors of society.
In transitional countries, though, even its developmental strength has
rarely been recognised. Many examples show its strong role in the devel-
opment of related or less related sectors, but transitional countries still
remain sceptical and have yet to discover both the intrinsic cultural values
as well as the developmental power of culture.
Although present in the theoretical discourse for over a century, inno-
vation concept, and especially the one of social innovation has only
recently been paid a greater attention in terms of its potential in sustain-
able development. Culture and innovations in culture play very important
roles in this process and although more or less recognised, public policies
still seem to fail to rely on it.
There is little theoretical or empirical work that examines how
culture is shaping social, economic and political transformations now
or how it will propel them over the coming decades. Still, culture
should not be viewed as a “victim” of globalisation, but as one of its
major drivers: culture as a major force for change in the world (Held
and Moore 2009).
By providing an in-depth analysis of development theory and theory of
change in their historical view, studying public policy models and their
role in the development of society, as well as by introducing the analysis of
the social innovation concept (with focus on innovations in culture), a
misperception of culture is hoped to be changed and the appropriate role
of culture to be recognised.

REFERENCES
Cherneva, R., Danailov, B., Arkova, R., & Petrova, T. (2000). Culture and
sustainable development. In K. Epskamp, H. Gould, & D. A. Jelinčić (Eds.),
Culture and development vs. cultural development. Culturelink special issue
(pp. 125–136). Zagreb: Institute for International Relations.
Council of Europe. (1997). In from the margins. Strasbourg: Council of Europe
Publishing.
 REFERENCES 7

Dragičević Šešić, M., & Stojković, B. (2013). Kultura/Menadžment/Animacija/

Marketing. Zagreb: Kulturno Informativni Centar.
Epskamp, K., Gould, H., & Jelinčić, D. A. (Eds.). (2000). Culture and development
vs. cultural development. Culturelink special issue. Zagreb: Institute for
International Relations.
Held, D., & Moore, H. L. (2009). Cultural futures. In D. Held & H. L. Moore
(Eds.), Cultural politics in a global age: Uncertainty, solidarity andiInnovation
(pp. 1–16). Oxford: Oneworld.
Jelinčić, D. A. (Ed.). (2013). Cultural diversity, intercultural dialogue and digital
culture: Summary of project results. Zagreb: Institute for International
Relations.
Krzysztofek, K. (2000). Cultural development and globalization: How to protect
cultures as life support systems?. In K. Epskamp, H. Gould, & D. A. Jelinčić
(Eds.), Culture and development vs. cultural development. Culturelink special
issue (pp. 147–158). Zagreb: Institute for International Relations.
Obuljen, N. (2006). From our creative diversity to the convention on cultural
diversity: Introduction to the debate. In N. Obuljen & J. Smiers (Eds.),
UNESCO’s convention on the protection and promotion of the diversity of cultural
expressions: Making it work (pp. 19–35). Zagreb: Institute for International
Relations.
Rocha, T. (2000). Culture: Raw material of education and development. In
K. Epskamp, H. Gould, & D. A. Jelinčić (Eds.), Culture and development vs.
cultural development. Culturelink special issue (pp. 137–146). Zagreb: Institute
for International Relations.
UCLG. (2010). Culture: Fourth pillar of sustainable development (2015, June 2).
Retrieved from: http://www.agenda21culture.net/index.php/ca/docman/-1/
393-zzculture4pillarsden/file
UNESCO. (2009). Investing in cultural diversity and intercultural dialogue
(2015, June 1). Retrieved from: http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0018/
001847/184755e.pdf
UNESCO. (2013a). The Hangzhou Declaration: Heralding the next era of
human development (2010, July 10). Retrieved from: http://www.unesco.
org/new/en/unesco/resources/the-hangzhou-declaration-heralding-the-
next-era-of-human-development/
UNESCO. (2013b). The Hangzhou declaration: Placing culture at the hearth of
sustainable Development policies (2010, July 10). Retrieved from: http://
www.unesco.org/new/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/HQ/CLT/images/
FinalHangzhouDeclaration20130517.pdf
 CHAPTER 2

What Lies Behind?

Abstract This chapter sets the theoretical and historical context for
changes taking place in today’s society. The world today is hardly affected
by the economic crisis which calls for a change in the existing economic
model. Changes generally do not occur easily but are introduced slowly
and only when a critical mass is reached they seem to take deeper roots.
Practice as well as sociological research witness new societal developments
which stem from value changes. The concepts of “modernity”, “postmo-
dernity”, and “transmodernity” are discussed as historical evolution of
society which provides the environment for new developments. Also,
development theory and theory of change is analysed backing the
arguments of other changes happening in the society.

Keywords Modernity
Postmodernity
Transmodernity
Development

theory
Theory of change

The world today is hardly affected by the economic crisis which calls for a
change in the existing economic model. Changes generally do not occur
easily but are introduced slowly and only when a critical mass is reached
they seem to take deeper roots. Practice as well as sociological research
witness new societal developments which stem from value changes
(Ray and Anderson 2000). The fallout of global economy and failure of
capitalism shifted the focus from individual to societal values. The growing
unemployment issues and precarious work teamed with failures in

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D.A. Jelinčić, Innovations in Culture and Development,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-52721-5_2
10 2 WHAT LIES BEHIND?

environmental protection, health systems, energy provision, urban

planning, tourism industry, etc. forced our societies to search for new
solutions which could at least diminish the existing problems or eventually
lead to a systemic change. Indications leading to the changes happening
today trace back in the early twentieth century in Schumpeter’s pioneering
work on the theory of innovation. While this, however, focused on the
economic and technological innovations, the buzzword of today is “social
innovation”. It is often paired with “social entrepreneurship” concept
representing an important point of departure from classical entrepreneur-
ship (Phillips et al. 2014) which is mainly focused on profit for the
individual or the company and its shareholders toward entrepreneurship
which cares for wider society. Although “social entrepreneurship” at some
point in time also represented an organisational social innovation, today it
is not a novelty. New innovations are sought for not only in the organisa-
tional sense of companies but those being able to solve different societal
problems ranging from very local to global ones across different sectors.
They should not only bring profitability but enhance our quality of lives,
contribute to equality and balanced development. Although it seems
that the greatest problem lies in the economy, a number of challenges
are to be addressed in various fields and innovations seem to be promising
in finding a solution.
In traditional societies, too much innovation was often seen as
disruption, but in modern times, creativity and innovation are seen
to help individuals, communities, and societies alike to tackle the new
challenges and constantly confront them (Hoelscher 2010). So, as to
lead to a systemic change, larger numbers of social innovations should
occur. Different social movements have been evident in our societies
for some time and their number is growing and leading to some
societal changes (see Ray and Anderson 2000). Although a significant
body of literature has developed around social entrepreneurship (e.g.,
Nicholls and Murdock 2012; Shaw and de Bruin 2013) and social
innovation (e.g., Shaw and de Bruin 2013; Howaldt et al. 2014a;
Karzen 2015), the subject is still relatively new either in the academic
discourse as well as in practice (Jelinčić et al. 2016). So first, it is
necessary to review historical developments which led to these phe-
nomena and provide theoretical grounds for the concepts of new
economy, social entrepreneurship and social innovation. Only then,
a specific role of culture in creating innovations and in sustainable
development can be observed.
Another random document with
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skin, until he began his dinner, when they immediately alighted near
him, and in the most plaintive tones seemed to solicit a portion.
Wilson and others have spoken of this species as being addicted to
moving in the company of our smaller Woodpeckers and Brown
Creepers, and this in such a way as to induce most readers to
believe the act to be customary; but I have often found groups of
them, at times composed of more than a dozen, without any such
companions, and I should be more inclined to think that the Downy
Woodpecker, and the Brown Creeper, seek the company of the
Titmice, rather than that the latter associate with them. Often indeed
have I watched the busy Chickadees, as they proceeded from tree to
tree, and from branch to branch, whether by the road-side or in the
interior of the forest, when no other birds were with them. The light
rustling sound of their concave wings would intimate their approach
as well as their retreat, as gaily one after another they passed
onwards from one spot to another, chattering, peeping everywhere,
and determined as it were, not to suffer a chink to pass without
inspection. Now hanging, back downward, at the extremity of a twig,
its feet almost up to its bill, it would peck at a berry or a seed until it
had devoured it, or it had fallen to the ground: should the latter be
the case, the busy bird would at once fly down, and hammer at the
fruit. To the Black-cap Titmouse the breaking of a hazel nut is quite a
pleasure, and I have repeatedly seen the feat accomplished not only
by a bird in its natural state, but by one kept in confinement.
Courageous and at times exceedingly tyrannical, it will attack young
birds, break their skulls, and feed upon their flesh, as I have more
than once witnessed. In this habit they resemble the Jays, but in
every other they differ entirely from those birds, although the Prince
of Musignano has thought fit to assimilate the two groups. The
Chickadee feeds on insects, their larvæ, and eggs, as well as on
every sort of small fruit, or berries, including grapes, acorns, and the
seeds of various pines. I have seen them eat the seeds of the
sunflower, the poke-berry, and pears, as well as flesh of all kinds.
Indeed it may be truly called omnivorous. Often, like Jays, you may
see them perched as it were upon their food, and holding it beneath
their feet while pecking at it; but no Jays are seen to hang head
downwards at the end of a branch.
My friend Thomas M’Culloch, Esq. of Pictou, in Nova Scotia, has
favoured me with the following interesting remarks having reference
to this species. “Sometimes I have been inclined to think, that the
sight of this bird is comparatively imperfect, and that it is chiefly
indebted to some of the other senses for its success in obtaining
subsistence. This idea may not be correct, but it seems to derive
some support from the little incident which I am about to mention.
While standing at the edge of a patch of newly-felled wood, over
which the fire had recently passed, and left every thing black in its
course, I observed a small flock of these birds coming from the
opposite side of the clearing. Being dressed in black and aware of
their familiarity, I stood perfectly motionless, for the purpose of
ascertaining how near they would approach. Stealing from branch to
branch, and peering for food among the crevices of the prostrate
trunks, as they passed along, onward they came until the foremost
settled upon a small twig a few feet from the spot upon which I
stood. After looking about for a short time it flew and alighted just
below the lock of a double-barrelled gun which I held in a slanting
direction below my arm. Being unable however to obtain a hold, it
slided down to the middle of the piece, and then flew away, jerking
its tail, and apparently quite unconscious of having been so near the
deadly weapon. In this country these birds seem to be influenced by
a modification of that feeling by which so many others are induced to
congregate at the close of autumn and seek a more congenial clime.
At that period they collect in large flocks and exhibit all the hurry and
bustle of travellers, who are bent upon a distant journey. If these
flocks do not migrate, their union is soon destroyed, for when the
Black-cap Titmice again appear, it is in small flocks; their former
restlessness is gone, and they now exhibit their wonted care and
deliberation in searching for food.”
The nest of this species, whether it be placed in the hole of a
Woodpecker or Squirrel, or in a place dug by itself, is seldom found
at a height exceeding ten feet. Most of those which I have seen were
in low broken or hollowed stumps only a few feet high. The materials
of which it is composed vary in different districts, but are generally
the hair of quadrupeds, in a considerable quantity, and disposed in
the shape of a loose bag or purse, as in most other species which do
not hang their nests outside. Some persons have said that they lay
their eggs on the bare wood, or on the chips left by Woodpeckers;
but this is not the case, in so far as I have examined them; and in
this my observations are confirmed by those of Dr Brewer of
Boston and Mr M’Culloch of Pictou, who also have inspected nests
of this species. The eggs rarely exceed eight in number; they
measure five-eighths of an inch in length, by three-eighths and three-
quarters, are rather pointed at the smaller end, white, slightly
sprinkled with minute dots and markings of light reddish. Those of
the first brood are deposited from the middle of April to that of May;
for the second about two months later. The parents I have thought
generally move along with the young of the second brood.
Dr Brewer says, “on the 20th of June, I found in a single Titmouse’s
hole a mass of the hair of the Common Skunk and moss large
enough to weigh two or more ounces, and sufficient to construct a
nest for some of our larger birds, such for instance as Wilson’s
Thrush.”
Mr M’Culloch found a nest of this bird placed about two feet from
the ground in a small stump, which seemed to have been excavated
by the birds themselves. It contained six young, and was lined
entirely with the hair which cattle, in rubbing themselves, had left
upon the stump.
The flight of this species, like that of all our American Titmice, is
short, fluttering, generally only from tree to tree, and is accompanied
with a murmuring sound produced by the concavity of the wings. It is
seldom seen on the ground, unless when it has followed a fruit that
has fallen, or when searching for materials for its nest. It usually
roosts in its nest during winter, and in summer amid the close foliage
of firs or evergreens. In winter, indeed, as well as often in autumn, it
is seen near the farm-houses, and even in villages and towns, busily
seeking for food among the trees.
“On seeing a cat, or other object of natural antipathy,” says Mr
Nuttall, “the Chickadee, like the peevish Jay, scolds in a loud,
angry, and hoarse note, ’tshe, dáigh dáigh dáigh. Among the other
notes of this species, I have heard a call like tshe-de-jay, tshe-de-
jay, the two first syllables being a slender chirp, with the jay strongly
pronounced. The only note of this bird which may be called a song,
is one which is frequently heard at intervals in the depths of the
forest, at times of day usually when all other birds are silent. We then
may sometimes hear in the midst of this solitude two feeble,
drawling, clearly whistled, and rather melancholy notes like ’te-dĕrry,
and sometimes ye-pĕrrit, and occasionally, but more rarely in the
same wiry, whistling, solemn tone, ’phēbé. The young in winter also
sometimes drawl out these contemplative strains. In all cases the
first syllable is very high and clear, the second word drops low, and
ends like a feeble plaint. This is nearly all the quaint song ever
attempted by the Chickadee. On fine days, about the
commencement of October, I have heard the Chickadee sometimes,
for half an hour at a time, attempt a lively, petulant warble, very
different from his ordinary notes. On these occasions he appears to
flirt about, still hunting for his prey, in an ecstacy of delight and
vigour. But after a while the usual drawling note again occurs. These
birds, like many others, are very subject to the attacks of vermin, and
they accumulate in great numbers around that part of the head and
front which is least accessible to their foot.”

Parus atricapillus, Linn. Syst. Nat. vol. i. p. 341.

Parus atricapillus, Lath. Ind. Ornith. vol. ii. p. 566.
Black-capt Titmouse, Parus atricapillus, Wils. Amer. Ornith. vol. i. p. 134,
pl. 8, fig. 4.
Parus atricapillus, Ch. Bonaparte, Synopsis of Birds of United States, p.
100.
Black-capt Titmouse, Nuttall, Manual, vol. ii. p. 241.

Adult Male. Plate CCCLIII. Fig. 3.

Bill short, straight, strong, compressed, rather obtuse; both
mandibles with the dorsal line slightly convex, the sides sloping and
convex, the edges sharp, that of the upper mandible slightly sinuate.
Nostrils basal, roundish, concealed by the recumbent feathers. Head
large, neck short, body robust. Feet of ordinary length, rather robust;
tarsus compressed, with seven anterior scutella; toes large, the three
anterior united as far as the second joint; the hind one much
stronger, and with its claw nearly as long as the middle toe. Claws
large, arched, much compressed, acute.
Plumage blended, tufty; feathers of the head glossy. Wings of
moderate length, the first quill scarcely half the length of the second,
which is equal to the first secondary, the third and seventh about
equal, the fourth and fifth equal and longest. Tail long, a little arched,
emarginate and rounded, of twelve slender rounded feathers.
Bill brownish-black. Iris dark brown. Feet greyish-blue, as are the
claws. The whole upper part of the head and the hind neck pure
black, as is a large patch on the throat and fore-neck. Between these
patches of black is a band of white, from the base of the bill down
the sides of the neck, becoming broader behind, and encroaching on
the back, which, with the wing-coverts, is ash-grey tinged with
brown. Quills dark greyish-brown, margined with bluish-white, the
secondary quills so broadly margined as to leave a conspicuous
white dash on the wing; tail of the same colour, the feathers similarly
edged. Lower parts brownish-white, the sides pale yellowish-brown.
Length to end of tail 5 1/8 inches, to end of wings 3 7/8, to end of
claws 4 1/2; extent of wings 8 1/4; wing from flexure 2 10/12; tail 2 9/12;
these measurements taken from three males. In another, the bill
along the ridge 4 1/2/12; along the edge of lower mandible 7/12; tarsus
7/ ; hind toe 3/12, its claw 4/12; middle toe 5/12, its claw 3/12.
12

Adult Female. Plate CCCLIII. Fig. 4.

The Female is similar to the male.

Male examined. The tongue is 4 1/2 twelfths long, emarginate and

papillate at the base, flat above, depressed, tapering, the point
horny, slit, with four bristly points. Œsophagus, b, c, d, 1 1/2 inch
long, tapering at the commencement to the diameter of 2 twelfths,
and then continuing nearly uniform, without dilatation; the
proventriculus, c, d, is not much enlarged. The stomach, d, e, is a
strong gizzard, of an oblong form or ovate, 4 twelfths long, 3 twelfths
broad, with strong lateral muscles; its epithelium longitudinally
rugous, and of a dark reddish-brown colour. Intestine 7 1/4 inches
long, the diameter of its duodenal portion, f, g, h, 2 1/2 twelfths. The
rectum, g, k, is 7 1/2 twelfths long; the cœca, j, 1 twelfth long, and 1/4
twelfth in diameter.
The trachea is 1 2/12 inch long, its diameter uniform, 3/4 twelfths, its
rings 42. It is furnished with lateral or contractor muscles, sterno-
tracheal, and four pairs of inferior laryngeal. Bronchi short, of about
10 rings.
 CHESTNUT-CROWNED TITMOUSE.

Parus minimus, Townsend.

PLATE CCCLIII. Male and Female.

My friend Nuttall’s account of this Titmouse is as follows, “We first

observed the arrival of this plain and diminutive species on the banks
of the Wahlamet, near to its confluence with the Columbia, about the
middle of May. Hopping about in the hazel thickets which border the
alluvial meadows of the river, they appeared very intent and
industriously engaged in quest of small insects, chirping now and
then a slender call of recognition. They generally flew off in pairs, but
were by no means shy, and kept always in the low bushes or the
skirt of the woods. The following day I heard the males utter a sort of
weak monotonous short and quaint song, and about a week
afterwards I had the good fortune to find the nest, about which the
male was so particularly solicitous as almost unerringly to draw me
to the spot, where hung from a low bush, about 4 feet from the
ground, his little curious mansion, formed like a long purse, with a
round hole for entrance near the summit. It was made chiefly of
moss, down, lint of plants, and lined with some feathers. The eggs,
six in number, were pure white, and already far gone towards being
hatched. I saw but few other pairs in this vicinity, but on the 21st of
June, in the dark woods near Fort Vancouver, I again saw a flock of
about twelve, which, on making a chirp something like their own call,
came around me very familiarly, and kept up a most incessant and
querulous chirping. The following season (April 1836) I saw numbers
of these birds in the mountain thickets around Santa Barbara, in
Upper California, where they again seemed untiringly employed in
gleaning food in the low bushes, picking up or catching their prey in
all postures, sometimes like the common Chickadee, head
downwards, and letting no cranny or corner escape their unwearied
search. As we did not see them in the winter, they migrate in all
probability throughout Mexico and the Californian peninsula at this
season.”
According to Dr Townsend, “the Chinooks name it a-ha-ke-lok. It is
a constant resident about the Columbia River; hops about in the
bushes, and frequently hangs from the twigs in the manner of other
Titmice, twittering all the while with a rapid enunciation resembling
the words thshish, tshist, tsee, twee. The irides are bright yellow.”

Parus minimus, Townsend, Journal of Acad. Nat. Sciences of Philadelphia,

vol. vii. p. 190.

Adult Male. Plate CCCLIII. Fig. 5.

Bill short, strong, compressed; upper mandible with its outline
arched, the sides sloping and convex. The edges sharp, the tip
descending, acute, and considerably exceeding that of the lower;
which has the angle short, the dorsal line ascending and very slightly
convex, the edges sharp, the tip acute. Nostrils round, basal. Head
rather large, broadly ovate, convex in front; neck short; body slender.
Feet of moderate length, tarsus proportionally longer than in any
other American species, stout, compressed, with seven anterior
scutella, and two lateral plates, forming a very sharp edge behind.
Toes moderately stout, the first with its claw equal to the third, the
anterior united as far as the first web. Claws rather large, arched,
compressed, acute.
Plumage soft and blended. Wings, short, very broad, concave,
rounded; first quill half the length of the second, which is a quarter of
an inch shorter than the outer secondaries. Tail very long, being half
the entire length of the bird, slightly arched, much rounded, and a
little emarginate.
Bill black; feet and claws dusky or blackish brown. Upper part of the
head, and hind neck dull greyish brown; upper parts brownish-grey;
wings and tail dusky brown, tinged with grey, the margins of the
quills and tail-feathers greyish-white. Cheeks of a paler tint than the
head; all the lower parts brownish-white, the sides tinged with
reddish.
1/2
Length to end of tail 4 1/2 inches; wing from flexure 1 10 /12; tail
1/ 3/
2 2/12; bill along the ridge 4 /12; tarsus 7/12; hind toe 2
2 /12, its claw
4

2 3/4/ ; middle toe 4/12, its claw 9/12.

12

Adult Female. Plate CCCLIII.

The Female is rather smaller, and its colours are somewhat paler.
A nest presented to me by Mr Nuttall is of a cylindrical form nine
inches long, three and a half in diameter. It is suspended from the
fork of a small twig, and is composed externally of hypna, lichens,
and fibrous roots, interwoven so as to present a smoothish surface,
and with a few stems of grasses, and some feathers of Garrulus
Stelleri intermixed. The aperture, which is at the top, does not
exceed seven-eighths of an inch in diameter; but for two-thirds of the
length of the nest, the internal diameter is two inches. This part is
lined with the cottony down of willows, carefully thrust into the
interstices, and contains a vast quantity of soft feathers chiefly of
Steller’s Jay, with some others, among which can be distinguished
those of Tetrao urophasianus, Columba fasciata, and Tanagra
1/2
ludoviciana. The eggs, nine in number, are pure white, 4 /8 of an
 1/2
inch in length, by 3 /8 broad, and are rather pointed at the small
end.
 LOUISIANA TANAGER.

Tanagra Ludoviciana, Wils.

PLATE CCCLIV. Male.

Wilson was the first ornithologist who figured this handsome bird.
From his time until the return of Dr Townsend from the Columbia
River no specimen seems to have been procured. That gentleman
forwarded several males in much finer condition than those brought
by Lewis and Clarke. Some of these I purchased, and, on his
return to Philadelphia, I was presented with a female by my young
friend Dr Trudeau, of Louisiana, a representation of which you will
find in Plate CCCC. fig 4. The only account of this species is by
Thomas Nuttall, who, however, was unacquainted with the female.
“We first observed this fine bird in a thick belt of wood near
Lorimier’s Fork of the Platte, on the 4th of June, at a considerable
distance to the east of the first chain of the Rocky Mountains (or
Black Hills), so that the species in all probability continues some
distance down the Platte. We have also seen them very abundant in
the spring, in the forests of the Columbia, below Fort Vancouver. On
the Platte they appeared shy and almost silent, not having there
apparently commenced breeding. About the middle of May we
observed the males in small numbers scattered through the dark
pine forests of the Columbia, restless, shy, and flitting when
approached, but at length more sedentary when mated. We
frequently traced them out by their song, which is a loud, short, slow,
but pleasing warble, not much unlike the song of the Common
Robin, delivered from the tops of the lofty fir-trees. This music
continues at short intervals throughout the whole forenoon, during
which time our songster is busily engaged in quest of such
coleopterous insects and larvæ as are to be found on the young
branches of the trees he frequents, and which require an assiduous
and long-continued search to gratify his wants. Of the female and
nest we are still ignorant, though they are in all probability very
similar to those of our other known species. We have not seen this
bird as far south as Upper California, though it may exist in the
thicker forests remote from the coast, which we had no opportunity
of visiting.”

Louisiana Tanager, Tanagra Ludoviciana, Wils. Amer. Ornith. vol. iii. p. 27,
pl. 20, fig. 1.
Tanagra ludoviciana, Ch. Bonaparte, Synopsis of Birds of United States, p.
105.
Louisiana Tanager, Nuttall, Manual, vol. i. p. 471.

Adult Male, in Spring. Fig. 1, 2.

Bill rather short, robust, tapering, compressed toward the end, acute.
Upper mandible with its dorsal outline declinate and slightly convex,
the ridge rather narrow, the sides convex, the edges sharp,
overlapping, with two slightly prominent small festoons about the
middle, and a distinct notch close to the tip, which is a little declinate.
Lower mandible strong, with the angle short and wide, the dorsal line
straight, the back broadly convex, the sides convex, the edges
sharp, the tip acute. Nostrils round, basal.
Head rather large, ovate, flattish above; neck very short; body ovate,
compact. Legs shortish; tarsus short, compressed, rather stout, with
seven anterior scutella, and two lateral plates forming an acute edge
behind; toes of moderate length; middle toe longer than tarsus,
lateral toes much shorter and equal, hind toe stout. Claws rather
large, arched, much compressed, acute.
Plumage soft, blended; feathers of the head stiffish with silky lustre,
bristles at the base of the upper mandible small. Wings of ordinary
length, the second quill longest, the first four having the outer web
attenuated towards the end; secondaries slightly emarginate. Tail
rather long, straight, emarginate, of twelve feathers.
Bill dull greenish-yellow, brown along the ridge. Feet greyish-blue.
The head all round is of a beautiful rich carmine, fading gradually on
the nape, paler on the throat and fading on the fore neck; the rest of
the neck, all the lower parts, two bands on the wing, formed by the
middle coverts, and the extremities of the secondary coverts,
together with the rump and upper tail-coverts pure bright yellow. The
anterior half of the back, the scapulars, two bands on the wings, and
the inner secondaries black, the latter broadly margined at the end
and tipped with yellowish-white; alula, primary coverts, and primary
quills chocolate-brown, margined with yellowish-white; tail black, the
feathers narrowly tipped with greyish-white, and slightly margined
toward the end with yellowish white.
1/2
Length to end of tail 7 1/4 inches; wing from flexure 3 9 /12; tail 3;
1/
bill along the ridge 7/12, along the edge of lower mandible 8 /12
2

tarsus 8/12; hind toe 4/12, its claw 4/12; middle toe 6/12, its claw 5/12.

The female which has not been described or figured before, will be
seen on Plate CCCC, Fig. 4. The bill is dusky brown above, light
greyish-yellow beneath. The head, ear-coverts, and hind neck, dull
green, as is the rump; the middle of the back and the scapulars
greyish-brown tinged with green. Anterior wing-coverts greyish-
brown; middle coverts black with the extremities dull yellow,
secondary coverts and inner secondaries blackish-brown, tipped with
greyish-white; alula, primary coverts, and primary quills chocolate-
brown, slightly edged with brownish-white; tail-feathers similar, but
margined with yellowish-green. The lower parts are light dull
greenish-yellow, the sides tinged with grey.
Length to end of tail 6 3/4 inches; wing from flexure 3 9/12; tail 2 10/12;
bill along the ridge 7/12; tarsus 8/12; middle toe and claw 9/12.
 SCARLET TANAGER.

Tanagra rubra, Linn.

PLATE CCCLIV. Male and Female.

You have now before you representations of one of the most richly
coloured of our birds, and one whose history is in some degree
peculiar. The Scarlet Tanager enters the United States from Mexico,
through the Texas, in the beginning of April. On several of the islands
in the Bay of Mexico, I found it exceedingly abundant, and restrained
in a great measure from proceeding eastward by the weather, which
was unseasonably cold. Many were procured in their full dress, and
a few in the garb of the females. These plain-coloured individuals
turned all out to be males, which in so far confirmed my former
observations respecting this and several other species, in which the
males precede the females by about a fortnight in their spring
migrations. It was at the same period that I observed the wonderful
rapidity in the change of the plumage from its winter aspect to its
summer colouring, in the Red-breasted Snipe, Scolopax
Noveboracensis; and I became convinced that nearly the same
phenomenon took place in the Tanagers. In them, in fact, the older
individuals, being stronger, had attained their full colouring, while the
younger were later in changing. As we advanced, I procured many
specimens partially coloured, and when the males had mostly
passed, the females made their appearance; manifesting similar
gradations in the changes of their colours. I knew that many of the
males of this species reach our Middle Districts in a spotted dress,
and soon after acquire their full colours; and I am disposed to think
that in the autumnal months, the young males of the year become of
a much purer tint than that of the young or old females. The latter
themselves improve materially in this respect as they advance in
age, and I have some nearly twice as richly coloured as birds only a
year old. The same observations apply to our Summer Red Bird,
Tanagra æstiva, of which I have females, procured by my valued
friend Edward Harris, Esq., exhibiting tints nearly as bright as
those of their mates obtained at the same time, when they had
nests. In the Scarlet Tanager it is remarkable, moreover, that some
males acquire a beautiful transverse band of glowing red on the
smaller wing-coverts; and I have several specimens in this state,
presented to me by Mr Harris and Dr Trudeau.
The Scarlet Tanager proceeds as far northward as Lake Huron,
where it was observed by Dr Richardson; but this must happen
rarely, as it is very sensible to cold, so much so indeed, that in the
State of Massachusetts, should a sudden change take place in the
weather, during the time of their spring migrations, hundreds die in
the course of a night, not only in the woods and orchards, but even
in the towns and villages. I witnessed a like occurrence at Eastport in
Maine late in May, when I was on my way to Labrador; and as I was
proceeding to the Texas, I observed that they sought the shelter of
the low bushes, when the weather was damp or chill. None were
seen after we left the former place, though they are at times found
breeding in the British provinces of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia.
In the United States they seem extremely partial to certain districts,
generally preferring sandy soils and undulating grounds. Thus, I
found them breeding abundantly in Louisiana, but rarely there in the
lower parts. My friend Dr Bachman informs me that they are seldom
met with in the maritime districts of South Carolina, and that there
they follow the mountain range as it were for a guide. Yet they are
plentiful in the Jerseys, where they usually arrive about the middle of
May, in Kentucky, and along the Missouri; and, in short, are generally
dispersed over the Union.
The migrations of this species are performed by night. Its flight on
ordinary occasions is even and swift, and it passes through the
woods in a gliding manner, when the glowing colours on the males
render them as conspicuous as pleasing to the sight. On the
branches their movements are rather sedate, and it is but seldom
that they emit their usual notes when in motion. These are by no
means musical, although oft repeated. They have been well imitated
by Wilson, who represents them by the syllables “chip, churr.” I
have not, however, thought them pensive in any degree, but rather
lively: and when emitting them, the bird often inflates his throat,
stands erect, and vibrates his body, as if in perfect ecstacy.
It is by no means true, as authors allege, that the Scarlet Tanager
retires from the sight of man, and prefers the deepest recesses of
the forest to the neighbourhood of the husbandman’s cottage; at
least, this is not the case in those parts of our country where the
population is not very dense; for I have observed it to take up its
abode for a season in the very vicinity of the squatter’s cabin, to the
patch of open ground near which it constantly resorted to search for
coleoptera and other insects, forming its slightly-built nest on the
lower branch of a spreading oak, or on a tree close to the road-side.
It is composed externally of a few dry weeds and small twigs, and
scantily lined with fibrous roots or slender grasses. In Louisiana the
eggs are deposited by the first of May, about a month later in our
central districts, but in the State of Maine frequently not until the
middle of June. It never raises more than one brood in the season;
and I have observed that, notwithstanding the difference in the
temperature of our Southern and Northern States, the young are no
sooner able to travel than they are at once led off, so that families
may be seen travelling southward for many weeks in succession,
and by the end of September all have left the United States. The
eggs are from three to five, smooth, of a dull greenish-blue colour,
speckled with reddish-brown and light purple, and measure a little
more than 7 eighths of an inch in length, by 5 eighths in breadth. The
young are fed with insects and fruits of many sorts. At this period the
old birds feed also on insects and larvæ, but toward the latter period
of their stay they all subsist chiefly on the smaller berries and
grapes.
The parental affection of this bird has been so beautifully and truly
described by Wilson, that, in presenting the following statement
regarding it, I must contribute to the gratification of your kindly
feelings as much as of my own. “Passing through an orchard one
morning, I caught one of the young birds that had but lately left the
nest. I carried it with me about half a mile, to shew it to my friend, Mr
William Bartram; and, having procured a cage, hung it upon one of
the large pine trees in the Botanic Garden, within a few feet of the
nest of an Orchard Oriole, which also contained young; hopeful that
the charity or tenderness of the Orioles would induce them to supply
the cravings of the stranger. But charity with them, as with too many
of the human race, began and ended at home. The poor orphan was
altogether neglected, notwithstanding its plaintive cries; and, as it
refused to be fed by me, I was about to return it back to the place
where I found it, when, towards the afternoon, a Scarlet Tanager, no
doubt its own parent, was seen fluttering round the cage,
endeavouring to get in. Finding this impracticable, he flew off, and
soon returned with food in his bill; and continued to feed it till after
sunset, taking up his lodgings on the higher branches of the same
tree. In the morning, almost as soon as day broke, he was again
seen most actively engaged in the same affectionate manner; and,
notwithstanding the insolence of the Orioles, continued his
benevolent offices the whole day, roosting at night as before. On the
third or fourth day, he appeared extremely solicitous for the liberation
of his charge, using every expression of distressful anxiety, and
every call and invitation that nature had put in his power, for him to
come out. This was too much for the feelings of my venerable friend;
he procured a ladder, and, mounting to the spot where the bird was
suspended, opened the cage, took out the prisoner, and restored
him to liberty and to his parent, who, with notes of great exultation,
accompanied his flight to the woods. The happiness of my good
friend was scarcely less complete, and shewed itself in his
benevolent countenance; and I could not refrain saying to myself,—If
such sweet sensations can be derived from a single circumstance of
this kind, how exquisite—how unspeakably rapturous—must the
delight of those individuals have been, who have rescued their fellow
beings from death, chains, and imprisonment, and restored them to
the arms of their friends and relations! Surely in such godlike actions,
virtue is its own most abundant reward.”

Tanagra rubra, Linn. Syst. Nat. vol. i. p. 314.—Lath. Ind. Ornith. vol. i. p.
420.
Scarlet Tanager, Tanagra rubra, Wilson, Amer. Ornith. vol. ii. p. 42, pl.
11, fig. 3. Male; fig. 4. Female.
Tanagra rubra, Ch. Bonaparte, Synopsis of Birds of United States, p. 105.
Scarlet Tanager, or Black-winged Summer Red-bird.
Pyranga rubra, Scarlet Black-winged Tanager, Richards. and Swains.
Fauna Bor. Americana, vol. ii. p. 273.

Adult Male in Spring. Plate CCCLIV. Fig. 3.

Bill rather short, robust, compressed toward the end, acute. Upper
mandible with its dorsal outline declinate and slightly convex, the
ridge rather narrow, the sides convex, the edges sharp, overlapping,
with two slightly prominent small festoons about the middle, and a
faint notch close to the tip, which is a little declinate. Lower mandible
strong, with the angle short and wide, the dorsal line straight, the