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UNDERSTANDING HUMANS

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UNDERSTANDING HUMANS

Introduction to Physical
Anthropology and
Archaeology
Eleventh Edition

Barry Lewis
Professor Emeritus, University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign

Robert Jurmain
Professor Emeritus, San Jose State University

Lynn Kilgore
University of Colorado, Boulder

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v
Brief Contents

Anthropology
CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Anthropology 

Heredity and Evolution


CHAPTER 2 The Development of Evolutionary Theory 
CHAPTER 3 Heredity and Evolution 
CHAPTER 4 Modern Human Variation and Adaptation 
CHAPTER 5 Macroevolution: Processes of Vertebrate and Mammalian Evolution 

Primates
CHAPTER 6 An Overview of the Primates 
CHAPTER 7 Primate Behavior 

Paleoanthropology/Fossil Hominins
CHAPTER 8 Understanding The Past: Archaeological and Paleoanthropological Methods 
CHAPTER 9 Hominin Origins 
CHAPTER 10 The First Dispersal of the Genus Homo: Homo erectus and Contemporaries 
CHAPTER 11 Premodern Humans 
CHAPTER 12 The Origin and Dispersal of Modern Humans 

Archaeology
CHAPTER 13 Early Holocene Hunters and Gatherers 
CHAPTER 14 Food Production 
CHAPTER 15 The First Civilizations 
CHAPTER 16 Biocultural Evolution and the Anthropocene 

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vii vii
Contents

Preface xv
Acknowledgments xvii
Supplements xviii
About the Authors xx

Anthropology
CHAPTER 1
Introduction to Anthropology 1
The Biocultural Approach 2
What Is Anthropology? 4
Cultural Anthropology 
Physical Anthropology 
Archaeology 
Linguistic Anthropology 
The Scientific Method 15

© Dr. Robert Clouse


The Anthropological Perspective 16
Summary of Main Topics 18
Critical Thinking Questions 18

Heredity and Evolution


CHAPTER 2
The Development of Evolutionary Theory 19
A Brief History of Evolutionary Thought 20
The Scientific Revolution 
Precursors to the Theory of Evolution 
The Discovery of Natural Selection 
Natural Selection 30
Natural Selection in Action 
AT A GLANCE: The Mechanism of Natural Selection 33
Constraints on Nineteenth-Century Evolutionary
Theory 34
© The Print Collector /Alamy

Opposition to Evolution 34
Summary of Main Topics 36
Critical Thinking Questions 36

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CONTENTS

viii

CHAPTER 3 CHAPTER 4
Heredity and Evolution 37 Modern Human Variation and Adaptation 69
The Cell 38 Historical Views of Human Variation 70
DNA Structure and Function 39 The Concept of Race 71
DNA Replication  Contemporary Interpretations of Human Variation 73
Protein Synthesis  Human Polymorphisms 
Cell Division: Mitosis and Meiosis 42 Polymorphisms at the DNA Level 
Mitosis  Human Biocultural Evolution 76
Meiosis  AT A GLANCE: Former and Contemporary Approaches to the Study
The Genetic Principles Discovered by Mendel 48 of Human Variation 77
Mendel’s Principle of Segregation  Population Genetics 79
Dominance and Recessiveness  The Adaptive Significance of Human Variation 80
Mendel’s Principle of Independent Assortment  Solar Radiation, Vitamin D, and Skin Color 
Mendelian Inheritance in Humans  The Thermal Environment 
Misconceptions Regarding Dominance High Altitude 
and Recessiveness 54 Infectious Disease 
Polygenic Inheritance 55 AT A GLANCE: Zoonoses and Human Infectious Disease 90
AT A GLANCE: Mendelian and Polygenic Traits 57 The Continuing Impact of Infectious Disease 91
Genetic and Environmental Factors 57 Summary of Main Topics 94
Mitochondrial Inheritance 58 Critical Thinking Questions 94
New Frontiers 58
Modern Evolutionary Theory 60
The Modern Synthesis  CHAPTER 5
A Current Definition of Evolution  Macroevolution: Processes of Vertebrate
Factors That Produce and Redistribute Variation 61 and Mammalian Evolution 95
Mutation  How We Connect: Discovering the Human Place in the
Gene Flow  Organic World 96
Genetic Drift and Founder Effect  Principles of Classification 98
Sexual Reproduction and Recombination 
Constructing Classifications and Interpreting Evolutionary
Natural Selection Acts on Variation 65 Relationships 99
Summary of Main Topics 67 Comparing Evolutionary Systematics with Cladistics 
Critical Thinking Questions 68 An Example of Cladistic Analysis: The Evolutionary History of Cars
and Trucks 
Using Cladistics to Interpret Real Organisms 
Definition of Species 103
Interpreting Species and Other Groups in the Fossil
Record 104
Recognizing Fossil Species 
Recognizing Fossil Genera 
What Are Fossils and How Do They Form? 106
Vertebrate Evolutionary History: A Brief Summary 108
Mammalian Evolution 110
The Emergence of Major Mammalian Groups 112
Processes of Macroevolution 113
Adaptive Radiation 
© Louie Psihoyos / Corbis

Generalized and Specialized Characteristics 


Summary of Main Topics 114
Critical Thinking Questions 114

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CONTENTS

ix

Primates

© iStockphoto.com / Dmitry Rukhlenko


CHAPTER 6
An Overview of the Primates 115
Primate Characteristics 116
Primate Adaptations 120
Evolutionary Factors 
Geographical Distribution and Habitats 
Diet and Teeth 
CHAPTER 7
Locomotion 
Primate Behavior 145
Primate Classification 125
The Evolution of Behavior 146
A Survey of the Living Primates 127
Some Factors That Influence Social Stature 
Lemurs and Lorises 
Tarsiers  Why Be Social? 150
Anthropoids: Monkeys, Apes, and Humans  AT A GLANCE: Primate Social Strategies 151
Hominoids: Apes and Humans  Primate Social Behavior 151
Endangered Primates 141 Dominance 
Summary of Main Topics 144 Communication 
Aggressive Interactions 
Critical Thinking Questions 144
Affiliation and Altruism 
Reproduction and Reproductive Behaviors 158
Female and Male Reproductive Strategies 
Sexual Selection 
Infanticide as a Reproductive Strategy? 
Mothers, Fathers, and Infants 162
Primate Cultural Behavior 164
Language 167
AT A GLANCE: Evolution of Human Language 170
The Primate Continuum 170
Summary of Main Topics 171
© Richard Mittleman / Gon2Foto / Alamy

Critical Thinking Questions 172

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CONTENTS

Paleoanthropology/Fossil Hominins
CHAPTER 8
Understanding the Past: Archaeological and

© University of the Witwatersrand, Lee Berger . Photo by Brett Eloff.


Paleoanthropological Methods 173
Biocultural Evolution: The Human Capacity for Culture 174
Paleoanthropology 175
Archaeology 177
Goals of Archaeology 
Archaeological Research Projects 
Piecing Together the Past 180
Artifacts, Features, and Contexts 
Ethnoarchaeology 
Experimental Archaeology 
Dating Methods 183
AT A GLANCE: Relative and Chronometric Dating 185
Relative Dating  CHAPTER 9
Chronometric Dating  Hominin Origins 197
Paleoanthropology and Archaeology at Olduvai Gorge 191 Early Primate Evolution 198
Summary of Main Topics 196 Eocene Primates: Closer Connections to Living Primates 
Critical Thinking Questions 196 Oligocene Primates: Anthropoid Connections 
Miocene Fossil Hominoids: Closer Connections to Apes
and Humans 201
Understanding our Direct Evolutionary Connections:
What’s a Hominin? 202
What’s in a Name? 
Walking the Walk: The Bipedal Adaptation 204
The Mechanics of Walking on Two Legs 
Digging for Connections: Early Hominins from Africa 208
Pre-Australopiths (6.0+ –4.4 mya) 208
AT A GLANCE: Key Pre-Australopith Discoveries 212
Australopiths (4.2–1.2 mya) 213
Australopithecus afarensis 
Later More Derived Australopiths (.–. mya) 
New Connections: A Transitional Australopith? 
Closer Connections: Early Homo (2.0+–1.4 mya) 222
The Lower Paleolithic Period: Emergence of Human
Barry Lewis

Culture 223
Interpretations: What Does It All Mean? 226
Seeing the Big Picture: Adaptive Patterns
of Early African Hominins 228
Summary of Main Topics 229
WHAT’S IMPORTANT: Key Early Hominin Fossil Discoveries from
Africa 229
Critical Thinking Questions 230

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CONTENTS

xi

CHAPTER 10 CHAPTER 11
The First Dispersal of the Genus Homo: Premodern Humans 251
Homo erectus and Contemporaries 231 When, Where, and What 252
A New Kind of Hominin 233 The Pleistocene 
The Morphology of Homo erectus 233 Dispersal of Middle Pleistocene Hominins 
Body Size  Middle Pleistocene Hominins: Terminology 
Brain Size  Premodern Humans of the Middle Pleistocene 254
Cranial Shape  Africa 
The First Homo erectus: Homo erectus from Africa 236 AT A GLANCE: Key Premodern Human (H. heidelbergensis) Fossils
AT A GLANCE: Key Homo erectus Discoveries from Africa 239 from Africa 255
Who Were the Earliest African Emigrants? 239 Europe 
Homo erectus from Indonesia 241 AT A GLANCE: Key Premodern Human (H. heidelbergensis) Fossils
from Europe 257
Homo erectus from China 241
Asia 
Zhoukoudian Homo erectus 
Cultural Remains from Zhoukoudian  AT A GLANCE: Key Premodern Human (H. heidelbergensis) Fossils
from Asia 257
Other Chinese Sites 
AT A GLANCE: Key Homo erectus Discoveries from Asia 244 Lower Paleolithic Premodern Human Culture 260
Neandertals: Premodern Humans of the Late
Asian and African Homo erectus: A Comparison 245
Pleistocene 262
Later Homo erectus from Europe 245
Western Europe 
Archaeology of Early Hominin Dispersal 246 Central Europe 
AT A GLANCE: Key Homo erectus and Contemporaneous Western Asia 
Discoveries from Europe 248
Central Asia 
Seeing the Big Picture: Interpretations AT A GLANCE: Key Neandertal Fossil Discoveries 270
of Homo erectus 248
Middle Paleolithic Culture 271
Summary of Main Topics 250
Technology 
WHAT’S IMPORTANT: Key Fossil Discoveries of
Subsistence 
Homo erectus 250
Speech and Symbolic Behavior 
Critical Thinking Questions 250 Burials 
Molecular Connections: The Genetic Evidence 274
Seeing Close Human Connections: Understanding
Premodern Humans 275
Summary of Main Topics 278
WHAT’S IMPORTANT: Key Fossil Discoveries of Premodern
Humans 278
Critical Thinking Questions 278
© David Lordkipanidze

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CONTENTS

xii

CHAPTER 12
The Origin and Dispersal of Modern
Humans 279
Approaches to Understanding Modern Human
Origins 281
The Regional Continuity Model: Multiregional Evolution 
Replacement Models 
Partial Replacement Models 
The Earliest Discoveries of Modern Humans 283
Africa 
AT A GLANCE: Key Early Modern Homo sapiens Discoveries from
Africa and the Near East 287
The Near East 
Asia 
Australia 
Central Europe 
Western Europe 
AT A GLANCE: Key Early Modern Homo sapiens Discoveries from
Europe and Asia 294
Something New and Different: The “Little People” 295

© Figure 13.1 of Zilhão, J.; Trinkaus, E. (eds.)— Portrait of the Artist as a Child. The Gravettian Human Skeleton from the Abrigo do Lagar Velho and its
Upper Paleolithic Technology and Art 297

Archaeological Context, Trabalhos de Arqueologia 22, Lisboa, Instituto Português de Arqueologia, 2002, 610 pages). Photo by José Paulo Ruas.
Southwest Asia and Europe 
Africa 
Summary of Upper Paleolithic Culture 304
Summary of Main Topics 305
WHAT’S IMPORTANT: Key Fossil Discoveries of Early Modern
Humans and Homo floresiensis 305
Critical Thinking Questions 306
Harry Nelson

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
CONTENTS

xiii

Archaeology
CHAPTER 13 CHAPTER 14
Early Holocene Hunters and Gatherers 307 Food Production 339
Entering the New World 309 The Neolithic Revolution 340
Bering Land Bridge  Explaining the Origins of Domestication and
Pacific Coastal Route  Agriculture 342
AT A GLANCE: Entry of the First Humans into Defining Agriculture and Domestication 
the New World 313 Environmental Approaches 
AT A GLANCE: Important Northeastern Asia Sites AT A GLANCE: Environmental Factors in the Development of
and Regions 314 Agriculture 346
The Earliest Americans 315 Cultural Approaches 
Physical and Genetic Evidence  AT A GLANCE: Cultural Factors in the Development of
Cultural Traces of the Earliest Americans  Agriculture 347
AT A GLANCE: Important Pre–Paleo-Indian Sites in the New From Collecting to Cultivating 
World 320 Archaeological Evidence for Domestication and
Paleo-Indians in the Americas 320 Agriculture 349
Paleo-Indian Lifeways  Plants 
AT A GLANCE: Important Paleo-Indian Sites in the Animals 
New World 324 Old World Farmers 354
AT A GLANCE: North American Paleo-Indian Cultures 325 The Near East 
Pleistocene Extinctions  AT A GLANCE: Important Near Eastern Sites and Regions 355
Early Holocene Hunter-Gatherers 326 Africa 
Environmental Changes  AT A GLANCE: Important African Sites and Regions 358
Cultural Adjustments  Asia 
Case Studies of Early Holocene Cultures 330 AT A GLANCE: Important South Asian Sites and Regions 360
Archaic Hunter-Gatherers of North America  Europe 
AT A GLANCE: Important Archaic Sites in the New World 332 AT A GLANCE: Important Chinese Sites and Regions 361
Mesolithic of Northern Europe  AT A GLANCE: Important European Sites and Regions 363
AT A GLANCE: Important Mesolithic and Epipaleolithic Sites in the New World Farmers 363
Old World 335 New World Domesticates 
Epipaleolithic of the Near East  Mexico 
Summary of Main Topics 337 AT A GLANCE: Important Mexican and South American Sites
WHAT’S IMPORTANT: The Most Significant Archaeological Sites and Regions 365
Discussed in This Chapter 338 South America 
Critical Thinking Questions 338 Southwestern United States 
Eastern North America 
AT A GLANCE: Important North American Sites and Regions 369
Other New World Regions 
Summary of Main Topics 371
WHAT’S IMPORTANT: The Most Significant Archaeological Sites
Discussed in This Chapter 372
Critical Thinking Questions 372
William Turnbaugh

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
CONTENTS

xiv

Dr. Robert Clouse


CHAPTER 15 CHAPTER 16
The First Civilizations 373 Biocultural Evolution and the Anthropocene 407
Civilizations in Perspective 374 Human Success and the Anthropocene 408
Cities  Consequences of Biocultural Evolution 408
States  Hominins to the End of the Ice Age 
Civilizations  Earliest Farmers and Cities 
Why Did Civilizations Form? 378 Industrial Revolution to the Present 
Environmental Explanations  Global Climate Change 
AT A GLANCE: Environmental Factors in the Development of Early Learning from the Past and Facing an Uncertain
Civilizations 379 Future 413
Cultural Explanations  Summary of Main Topics 414
AT A GLANCE: Kwang-chih Chang’s View of Cultural Factors in the Critical Thinking Questions 414
Development of Early Civilizations 380
Old World Civilizations 381 Appendix A: Atlas of Primate Skeletal Anatomy 
Mesopotamia 
Appendix B: Summary of Early Hominin Fossil Finds from
AT A GLANCE: Important Near Eastern Sites and Regions 383 Africa 
Egypt 
Appendix C: Population Genetics 
AT A GLANCE: Important Egyptian Sites and Regions 387
Indus  Glossary 
AT A GLANCE: Important Asian Sites and Regions 390 Bibliography 
Northern China  Index 
New World Civilizations 393
Lowland Mesoamerica 
AT A GLANCE: Important Lowland Mesoamerican Sites
and Regions 395
Highland Mexico 
AT A GLANCE: Important Highland Mesoamerican Sites
and Regions 400
Peru 
AT A GLANCE: Important Peruvian Sites and Regions 403
Summary of Main Topics 406
WHAT’S IMPORTANT: The Most Significant Archaeological Sites
Discussed in This Chapter 406
Critical Thinking Questions 406

Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
xv
Preface

The study of human evolution and cul- Although each edition of this text The paleoanthropology chapters
ture is a rapidly changing field. More is committed to providing up-to-date (Chapters 9 through 12) include more
researchers are working in more places subject content for students and their material and photos on Paleolithic
around the world than ever before in instructors, we authors are also teach- tool traditions, a new transition from
human history. They are asking new ers and even sometimes students our- the Upper Paleolithic to the Holocene,
questions and applying new methods selves. We know that instructional and an expanded section on the his-
and techniques in their search for the software, the Internet, multimedia, tory of race and modern examples. The
roots of the human past. The results are new teaching approaches, and a host first half of Chapter 9 has been reorga-
dynamic, exciting, and full of surpris- of other factors (including techno- nized so that the major topics flow in
es as scientists continually reevaluate logically adept students!) are reshap- an order that students will find easier
what we know about how and why our ing classrooms and the ways in which to understand. Up-to-date material on
ancestors evolved biologically and cul- students and instructors engage the an important new species, A. sediba, is
turally to produce us. course material. To meet the pedagogi- included, as well as a revised discus-
The eleventh edition of cal challenges of today’s classrooms, sion of the earliest appearance of the
Understanding Humans: Introduction to we enhance each edition with in- genus Homo. Chapter 10 includes recali-
Physical Anthropology and Archaeology chapter learning aids (see “In-Chapter brations of crucial dating for H. erectus
addresses these new developments in Learning Aids,” p. xvi) to help ensure finds from Dmanisi, Koobi Fora, and
an engaging manner and presents stu- that learning and teaching the course Ceprano. We also revised and updated
dents with the most important aspects material continue to be positive and interpretations of stone tool technolo-
of the current understanding of human productive experiences. gies of the earliest African immigrants
development. Working with the help (that is, defining where and with whom
of many constructive comments and Oldowan and Acheulian industries are
suggestions from instructors and stu- What’s New in the found and what they tell us about the
dents who used the tenth edition in the Eleventh Edition? behavioral capabilities of these homi-
classroom, we improved and updated nins). The major changes to Chapters 11
its content, tightened up its coverage Much is new. Every chapter has been and 12 rest on new molecular evidence
of key topics, enhanced the quality of revised and updated to ensure that as well as important new fossil and
its pictures and graphs, and held it to students are introduced to the most archaeological discoveries. These data
the same length as the tenth edition. current and timely interpretations of reinforce recent theories concerning the
Cengage Learning, our publisher, also human biocultural evolution. Chapter origins of modern humans in Africa
worked hard to improve the quality of 1 sets the ball rolling with an impor- (Chapter 12), as well as the earlier dis-
its production. tant new chapter opener that makes the persal of Neandertals and the inter-
The new edition stays true to our case for the relevance of the study of breeding of Neandertals and modern
long tradition of providing introduc- biocultural evolution to modern every- humans outside of Africa (Chapter 11).
tory students and their instructors with day life. The chapters on heredity and The chapters that deal with the
a current and comprehensive under- evolution (Chapters 2 through 5) were human experience from the end of
standing of human biological and cul- trimmed and updated, and more mate- the Ice Age to the earliest civiliza-
tural development from an evolution- rial was added on the mechanisms tions (Chapters 13 through 15) have
ary point of view. As always, the most of evolution and examples of natu- been thoroughly updated. In Chapter
compelling justification for a new ral selection in action. Chapter 5 also 13, we tightened up the discussion
edition is simply that the story of the includes the new section “What Are of competing theories for the earliest
human past changes rapidly. New dis- Fossils and How Do They Form?” sup- entry of humans into the New World.
coveries, fresh theories, and new meth- ported by a new photo display. More The weight of evidence supports the
ods and technologies force revisions, material on social organization and a interpretation that the earliest North
sometimes fundamental revisions, in new archaeology section was added to Americans entered the New World
the understanding of how the world the chapters on primates (Chapters 6 from northeastern Asia. In the dis-
around us works. through 7). cussion of the origins of agriculture

Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
PREFACE

xvi

(Chapter 14), we expanded our cover- from, where we are going, and how ▶ At a Glance features briefly summa-
age of Africa and East Asia and added we know this. Learning objectives rize complex or controversial mate-
more material on the many recent con- have been added to the beginning of rial in a visually understandable
tributions based on plant microfossil each chapter to help students identify fashion.
(for example, phytolith) research and and understand what important con-
▶ Figures, including numerous pho-
DNA analyses. In Chapter 15, which cepts and material they are expected
tographs, line drawings, and maps,
deals with the origins of the earli- to learn, and chapter summaries have
most in full color, are carefully
est civilizations, we updated the sec- been updated in bullet format for eas-
selected to clarify and support
tion “Why Did Civilizations Form?”; ier access. Finally, the photos and art-
discussion in the text.
we also shortened and updated the work have been substantially expand-
Mesopotamian and Peruvian sections ed and updated, not just to make the ▶ Critical Thinking Questions, at
and expanded coverage of the earliest book more visually appealing, but also the end of each chapter, have been
Chinese civilizations. to provide a better sense of what phys- completely revised to reinforce key
Finally, we added a new concluding ical anthropologists and archaeolo- concepts and encourage students
chapter entitled “Biocultural Evolution gists do and why they enjoy doing it! to think critically about what they
and the Anthropocene,” which returns For those familiar with earlier editions, have read.
to the theme of the relevance of bio- you’ll notice that all the maps have
▶ What’s Important tables that sum-
cultural evolution to modern everyday been redrawn, as has much of the other
marize the most significant fossil
life. It draws important implications artwork. In addition, many photos have
discoveries and archaeological sites
from the course of human evolution been replaced with upgraded versions
are included at the end of relevant
and heightens student awareness of and new ones added.
chapters to help students as they
the consequences that the extraordi-
review the chapter material.
nary success of our species holds for
In-Chapter Learning Aids ▶
the future of all living things and the Full bibliographical citations
earth itself. ▶ Learning Objectives, at the begin- throughout the book provide
Throughout this textbook, we ning of each chapter, help students sources from which the materials
streamlined the presentation of mate- identify the important concepts are drawn. This type of documen-
rial in every chapter with a thorough and material they are expected tation guides students to published
editing to simplify explanations and to learn. source materials and illustrates for
added more headings to better define them the proper use of referencing.
and focus on shorter text segments. We ▶ A running glossary in the margins All cited sources are listed in the
devoted considerable effort to improv- provides definitions of important comprehensive bibliography at
ing the conversational tone of the text, terms on the page where the term the back of the book.
as well as forging a stronger expla- is first introduced. A full glossary is
nation of the biocultural approach provided at the back of the book.
that tells the story of where we came

Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
xvii
Acknowledgments

We wish to thank our colleagues who vided photographs, comments, and Manzi, Monte McCrossin, Russell
so carefully reviewed the text and gave criticism, we are greatly apprecia- Mittermeier, Lorna Moore, Stephen
us many helpful suggestions: tive: Zeresenay Alemsegel, Lee Berger, Nash, Gerald Newlands, John Oates,
Anne Browning, University of Colin Betts, Jonathan Bloch, C. K. Bonnie Pedersen, David Pilbeam,
Arizona; Richard Deutsch, John A. Brain, Günter Bräuer, Peter Brown, Dolores Piperno, William Pratt,
Logan College; Mark Mehrer, Northern Joanna Casey, Chip Clark, Desmond Judith Regensteiner, Debra Rich,
Illinois University; Carol Morrow, Clark, Ron Clarke, Robert Clouse, Sastrohamijoyo Sartono, Jeffrey
Southeast Missouri State University; Lisa Cordani-Stevenson, Raymond Schwartz, Eugenie Scott, Rose
Bob Mucci, Indiana University; Jon Dart, Louis de Bonis, Emanuelle Sevick, Helaine Silverman, Elwyn
Oplinger, University of Maine at de Merode, Jean DeRousseau, Tom Simons, Meredith Small, Fred Smith,
Farmington. Emerson, Dennis Etler, Andy Fortier, Thierry Smith, Suzanne Spencer-
In addition, we want to thank Diane France, Robert Franciscus, Wood, Li Tianyuan, Philip Tobias,
the team at Cengage Learning: Erin David Frayer, Glen Freimuth, Erik Trinkaus, Shane Vanderford,
Mitchell, Lin Marshall Gaylord, Kathleen Galvin, Michael Hargrave, Richard VanderHoek, Alan Walker,
Mallory Ortberg, John Chell, Caryl Eve Hargrave, David Haring, Dietrich Wegner, James Westgate,
Gorska, and Cheri Palmer. Moreover, Nancy Hawkins, John Hodgkiss, Randy White, Milford Wolpoff, and
for their unflagging expertise and Almut Hoffman, Ellen Ingmanson, Xinzhi Wu.
patience, we are grateful to our copy Fred Jacobs, Don Johanson, Peter
editor, Janet Greenblatt, our produc- Jones, John Kappelman, Richard November 2011
tion coordinator, Gary Hespenheide, Kay, Kenneth Kelly, William Barry Lewis
and his skilled staff at Hespenheide Kimbel, Laura Kozuch, Arlene Robert Jurmain
Design: Patti Zeman, Bridget Neumayr, Kruse, Christopher Kunz, Richard Lynn Kilgore
and Randy Miyake. Leakey, Linda Levitch, Hannah
To the many friends and col- Lewis, Susan Lewis, Carol Lofton,
leagues who have generously pro- David Lordkipanidze, Giorgio

Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
xviii
Supplements

Understanding Humans: ▶ The text’s Instructor’s Resource Case Studies in Archaeology, edited
Introduction to Physical Manual and Test Bank in electronic by Jeffrey Quilter These engaging
Anthropology and Archaeology, format. accounts of cutting-edge archaeologi-
Eleventh Edition, comes with a strong cal techniques, issues, and solutions—
The Wadsworth Anthropology Video
supplements program to help instruc- as well as studies discussing the col-
Library, Vol. 1–3 The Wadsworth
tors create an effective learning envi- lection of material remains—range
Anthropology Video Library drives
ronment both inside and outside the from site-specific excavations to types
home the relevance of course top-
classroom and to aid students in mas- of archaeology practiced.
ics through short, provocative clips of
tering the material.
current and historical events. Perfect
for enriching lectures and engaging Lab Manual and Workbook for
students in discussion, many of the Physical Anthropology, Seventh
Supplements for Instructors
segments on this volume have been Edition Written by Diane L. France,
Online Instructor’s Manual with Test gathered from BBC Motion Gallery. this edition of the workbook and lab
Bank This online resource includes Ask your Cengage Learning represen- manual includes a new “Introduction
a sample syllabus and offers detailed tative for a list of contents. to Science and Critical Thinking”
chapter outlines, lecture suggestions, that precedes the first chapter. Using
key terms, student activities, and hands-on exercises, this richly illus-
Internet exercises. In addition, each Supplements for Students trated full-color lab manual bal-
chapter offers over 50 test questions, Companion website for ances the study of genetics, human
including multiple-choice, true-false, Understanding Humans: osteology, anthropometry, and foren-
short-answer, and essay questions. Introduction to Physical sic anthropology with the study of
Contact your local Cengage Learning Anthropology and Archaeology, primates and human evolution. In
sales representative for access. Eleventh Edition This compan- addition to providing hands-on lab
PowerLecture™ with ion website offers an in-depth and assignments that apply the field’s per-
ExamView® for Understanding interactive study experience that spectives and techniques to real sit-
Humans: Introduction to Physical will help students make their grade. uations, this edition provides more
Anthropology and Archaeology, Chapter resources include tuto- explanatory information and sample
Eleventh Edition This easy-to-use rial quizzes, glossary, flash cards, exercises throughout the text to help
one-stop digital library and presenta- and more! make the concepts of physical anthro-
tion tool includes the following book- pology easier to understand. Contact
specific resources as well as direct Classic and Contemporary your Cengage sales representative to
links to many of Wadsworth’s highly Readings in Physical package with the text.
valued electronic resources for Anthropology Edited by Mary K.
anthropology: Sandford and Eileen Jackson, this Virtual Laboratories for Physical
accessible reader presents prima- Anthropology, CD-ROM, Fourth
▶ Ready-to-use Microsoft®
ry articles with introductions and Edition, by John Kappelman
PowerPoint® lecture slides with
questions for discussion, helping Through the use of video segments,
photos and graphics from the text,
students to better understand the interactive exercises, quizzes, 3-D ani-
making it easy for the instructor to
nature of scientific inquiry. Students mations, and sound and digital imag-
assemble, edit, publish, and present
will read classic and contemporary es, students can actively participate in
customized lectures.
articles on key topics, including the 12 labs on their own terms—at home,
▶ ExamView testing software, which science of physical anthropology, in the library—at any time! Recent fos-
provides all the test items from evolution and heredity, primates, sil discoveries are included, as well as
the text’s test bank in electronic human evolution, and modern exercises in behavior and archaeolo-
format, enabling the instructor to human variation. gy and critical thinking and problem-
create customized tests of up to 250 solving activities. Virtual Laboratories
items that can be delivered in print includes weblinks, outstanding fos-
or online. sil images, exercises, and a post-lab
self-quiz.

Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
SUPPLEMENTS

xix

Genetics in Anthropology: Principles Cengage Modules in Physical Forensics Anthropology Module:


and Applications CD-ROM, Version Anthropology series Each free- A Brief Review, by Diane France The
2.0, by Robert Jurmain and Lynn standing module is actually a complete forensic application of physical anthro-
Kilgore This student CD-ROM text chapter, featuring the same qual- pology is exploding in popularity. This
expands on basic biological concepts ity of pedagogy and illustration con- module explores the myths and reali-
covered in the book, focusing on bio- tained in Cengage’s physical anthropol- ties of the search for human remains
logical inheritance (such as genes and ogy texts. in crime scenes, what can be expected
DNA sequencing) and its applica- from a forensic anthropology expert
tions to modern human populations. Evolution of the Brain: Neuroanatomy, in the courtroom, some of the special
Interactive animations and simula- Development, and Paleontology, by challenges in responding to mass fatali-
tions bring these important concepts Daniel D. White The human species is ties, and the issues a student should
to life so that students can fully under- the only species that has ever created a consider if considering a career in
stand the essential biological princi- symphony, written a poem, developed forensic anthropology. This module in
ples underlying human evolution. Also a mathematical equation, or studied chapter-like print format can be pack-
available are quizzes and interactive its own origins. The biological struc- aged free with the text.
flash cards for further study. ture that has enabled humans to per-
form these feats of intelligence is the Molecular Anthropology Module, by
Hominid Fossils: An Interactive Atlas human brain. This module explores the Leslie Knapp This module explores
CD-ROM, by James Ahern The inter- basics of neuroanatomy, brain develop- how molecular genetic methods are
active atlas CD-ROM includes over 75 ment, lateralization, and sexual dimor- used to understand the organization
key fossils important for a clear under- phism and provides the fossil evidence and expression of genetic informa-
standing of human evolution. The for hominin brain evolution. This mod- tion in humans and nonhuman pri-
QuickTime Virtual Reality (QTVR) ule in chapter-like print format can be mates. Students will learn about the
“object” movie format for each fos- packaged free with the text. common laboratory methods used to
sil enables students to have a near- study genetic variation and evolution
authentic experience of working with Human-Environment Interactions: in molecular anthropology. Examples
these important finds by allowing them New Directions in Human Ecology, are drawn from up-to-date research on
to rotate the fossil 360°. Unlike some VR by Kathy Galvin This module begins human evolutionary origins and com-
media, QTVR objects are made using with a brief discussion of the history parative primate genomics to dem-
actual photographs of the real objects and core concepts of the field of human onstrate that scientific research is an
and thus better preserve details of color ecology, the study of how humans ongoing process with theories frequent-
and texture. The fossils used are high- interact with the natural environment, ly being questioned and reevaluated.
quality research casts and real fossils. before looking in depth at how the Mitochondrial DNA and the human-
The organization of the atlas is non- environment influences cultural prac- chimp biological connection are also
linear, with three levels and multiple tices (environmental determinism) as examined in this fascinating and time-
paths, enabling students to see how the well as how aspects of culture, in turn, ly module. This module in chapter-like
fossil fits into the map of human evo- affect the environment. Human behav- print format can be packaged free with
lution in terms of geography, time, and ioral ecology is presented within the the text.
evolution. The CD-ROM offers students context of natural selection, examin- These resources are available
an inviting, authentic learning envi- ing how ecological factors influence to qualified adopters, and order-
ronment, one that contains a dynamic the development of cultural and behav- ing options for student supplements
quizzing feature that allows students to ioral traits and how people subsist in are flexible. Please consult your local
test their knowledge of fossil and spe- different environments. The module Cengage sales representative for more
cies identification as well as providing concludes with a discussion of resil- information or to evaluate examina-
more detailed information about the ience and global change as a result of tion copies of any of these resources or
fossil record. Available at a discount human-environment interactions. This receive product demonstrations.
with the text upon request. module in chapter-like print format can
be packaged free with the text.

Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
xx
About the Authors

Barry Lewis Robert Jurmain Lynn Kilgore


Barry Lewis received his Ph.D. from Robert Jurmain received an A.B. in Lynn Kilgore earned her Ph.D. from
the University of Illinois at Urbana- anthropology from UCLA and a the University of Colorado, Boulder,
Champaign, where he is Professor Ph.D. in biological anthropology from where she currently is an adjunct
Emeritus of Anthropology. During Harvard University. He taught at San Assistant Professor. Her primary
his 27-year tenure at the University of Jose State University from 1975 to 2004 research interests are osteology and
Illinois, he taught courses on introduc- and is now Professor Emeritus there. paleopathology. She has taught numer-
tory archaeology, quantitative methods During his teaching career, he taught ous undergraduate and graduate
in archaeology, geographic information courses in all major branches of physi- courses in human osteology, primate
systems, and social science research cal anthropology, including osteology behavior, human heredity and evolu-
methods. He has published extensively and human evolution, with the great- tion, and general physical anthropol-
on the archaeology of late prehistoric est concentration in general education ogy. Her research focuses on develop-
Native American towns and villages teaching for introductory students. His mental defects, disease, and trauma in
in the southeastern United States. His areas of research interest include the human and great ape skeletons.
recent research and publications focus skeletal biology of humans and non-
on the archaeology and history of early human primates; paleopathology; and
modern South India. paleoanthropology. In addition to his
three textbooks, which together have
appeared in 28 editions, he is author
of numerous articles in research jour-
nals as well as the book Stories from
the Skeleton: Behavioral Reconstruction
in Human Osteology (1999, Gordon &
Breach Publishers).

Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Anthropology
C H A P T E R

1
Introduction
to Anthropology
© Dr. Robert Clouse

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After you have mastered the material in this chapter, you will be able to:

▶ Explain and give examples of the relevance of anthropology to modern everyday life.

▶ Describe the concept of biocultural evolution and explain why it is an essential


component of understanding human evolution.

▶ Define basic anthropological concepts and understand their relationship to the goals
of anthropological research.

▶ Describe the main similarities and differences between physical anthropology and
archaeology as approaches for understanding the human past.

▶ Explain the logic of the scientific method as it is applied in anthropological research.

Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO ANTHROPOLOGY

2 twenty-first-century lifestyles are like


that, but our bodies are well designed for
our biological past, not our very differ-
ent present (Fig. 1-1). The more that we
Figure 1-1 understand our biological past, the bet-
ter we will understand many modern
We are complex products of both culture and
biology. In many ways, the evolutionary his-
health issues.
tory of modern humans left us better adapted This and many other examples dem-
to life as a hunter-gatherer than as a modern onstrate that modern humans are cultur-
city dweller. al and biological beings whose present
and future reflect their past. Humans are
also probably unique among animals in
the capacity to ask the question why. We
can learn about our deep, rich past, and
by doing so we gain the opportunity to
profit from the experience. These quali-
ties are fundamental motivations for the

© Paul Harizan / Getty Images


field of anthropology and for this book
as an introduction to the biocultural per-
spective of human evolution.
Anthropology addresses the entire
scope of the human experience and
brings multiple perspectives to bear
Here you are, taking an anthropology on the study of what it is to be human.
course about human origins and evo- Such a broad focus encompasses all top-
lution. Why should you learn about ics related to behavior, including social
“stones and bones”? It’s irrelevant to relationships (for example, kinship and
evolution A change in the genetic struc- modern everyday life, right? marriage patterns), religion, ritual, tech-
ture of a population from one generation to Think again. nology, subsistence, and economic and
the next. The term is also frequently used political systems. Anthropology is also
In Collapse: How Societies Choose to
to refer to the appearance of a new species.
Fail or Succeed, Jared Diamond says concerned with the biological and evolu-
anthropology The field of inquiry that stud- that he remains optimistic about the tionary dimensions of our species, such
ies human culture and evolutionary aspects future because of the interconnected- as genetics, anatomy, skeletal structure,
of human biology; includes cultural anthro- ness of modern societies: “Past societ- adaptation to disease and other environ-
pology, archaeology, linguistics, and physical ies lacked archaeologists and televi- mental factors, growth, nutrition, and,
anthropology. ultimately, all the evolutionary processes
sion” (Diamond, 2005, p. 525). His point
scientific method An approach to research is that we are much better prepared to that resulted in the development of mod-
whereby a problem is identified, a hypothesis face future challenges because, unlike ern humans.
(or hypothetical explanation) is stated, and our ancestors, so many of us know so In keeping with anthropology’s
that hypothesis is tested through the collec- much about how and why past societ- commitment to a broad perspective,
tion and analysis of data. ies developed and failed. We have the aspects of this discipline rest firm-
biocultural evolution The mutual, inter-
opportunity to learn from these mis- ly in both science and the humanities:
active evolution of human biology and cul- takes and successes and, hopefully, to Anthropologists answer many ques-
ture; the concept that biology makes culture build a better, more sustainable, and tions by applying the scientific method,
possible and that developing culture further brighter future for everyone. but they also apply interpretive meth-
influences the direction of biological evolu- On a more personal level, consider ods to achieve an understanding of
tion; a basic concept in understanding the the recent rise of obesity as a serious such human qualities as love, individ-
unique components of human evolution. ual or group identity, compassion, and
health problem in many affluent coun-
culture All aspects of human adaptation, tries. The underlying causes are com- ethnicity.
including technology, traditions, language, plex, but the human biological past is
religion, and social roles. Culture is a set of one important factor (Bellisari, 2008). All
learned behaviors; it is transmitted from one but a tiny fraction of the existence of our The Biocultural
generation to the next through learning and
not by biological or genetic means.
species was spent as physically active Approach
hunter-gatherers whose everyday staple
species A group of organisms that can inter- foods tended to be low in fat, sugar, and The concept of biocultural evolution
breed to produce fertile offspring. Members salt and high in fiber, going from nature underlies the anthropological perspec-
of one species are reproductively isolated to table with minimal processing. Few tive. Humans are the product of the
from members of all other species (i.e., they
can’t mate with them to produce fertile
offspring).
Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
THE BIOCULTURAL APPROACH

combined influences of biology and ingly threaten the existence of many 3


culture that have shaped our evolution- plants and animals, including ourselves.
ary history over the last several million Culture is therefore an extremely impor-
years. It is by tracing the changing inter- tant concept, not only as it pertains to
action between biology and culture and modern humans but also in terms of its
understanding how the process worked critical role in human evolution, past as
in the past and how it continues to work well as future.
today that we are able to come to grips Viewed in an evolutionary perspec-
scientifically with what we are, how and tive, human culture can be described as
why we came to be the animal that we the strategy by which people adapt to

Figure 1-2
are today, and the successes and failures the natural and social environments in
we made along the way. which they live. Culture includes tech-
As we’ll emphasize in this book, nologies that range from stone tools to (a) An early stone tool from East Africa. This
humans have occupied center stage computers; subsistence patterns rang- type of tool was used there about 1.5 million
years ago. (b) Hubble space telescope against
in only one short scene of life’s evolu- ing from hunting and gathering to agri-
the earth’s horizon. (c) A Samburu woman
tionary play. Our role is fascinating, business; housing types from thatched building a simple, traditional dwelling of stems,
but many of the cultural factors that huts to skyscrapers; and clothing plant fibers, and mud. (d) These Hong Kong
we point to as evidence of our extraor- from animal skins to synthetic fibers skyscrapers are typical of cities in industrialized
dinary success as a species increas- (Fig. 1-2). Because religion, values, social countries today.
Lynn Kilgore

(a)

Lynn Kilgore
NASA / Space Telescope Science Institute

(c)

(b)

(d)

© iStockphoto.com / Justin Horocks

Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO ANTHROPOLOGY

4 organization, language, kinship, mar- factors are influencing the spread of HIV
riage rules, gender roles, and so on, are throughout populations in both devel-
all aspects of culture, culture shapes oped and developing countries.
people’s perceptions of the external envi- Biologists study all the biologi-
ronment, or worldview, in particular cal aspects of humankind, including
ways that distinguish each society from adaptation and evolution, but when
all others. such research also considers the role of
One fundamental point to remem- cultural factors, it falls within the dis-
ber is that culture is learned and not bio- cipline of anthropology. This approach
logically determined. In other words, recognizes that the human predisposi-
we inherit genes that influence our bio- tion to assimilate a culture and to func-
logical characteristics, but those genes tion within it is influenced by biologi-
have no impact on cultural behavior. cal factors. But in the course of human
Beginning in infancy, each of us begins evolution, as you’ll see, the role of cul-
slowly to learn, through the process ture has increasingly assumed an added
called enculturation, the language and importance. In this respect, humans are
dialect of our family and community, as unlike all other animals.
well as the shared norms, values, beliefs,
and other aspects of culture that we need
to be a productive member of the society What Is Anthropology?
of which we are a part. Our worldviews
are shaped much more by our respec- Stated ambitiously but simply, anthro-
tive enculturation experiences than by pology is the study of humankind. The
our unique genetic ancestry. We are all term itself is derived from the Greek
products of the culture in which we are words anthropos, meaning “human,”
socialized, and since most human behav- and logos, meaning “word” or “study
ior is learned, it clearly is also culturally of.” Clearly, anthropologists aren’t the
patterned. only scientists who study humans, and
As biological beings, humans are also the goals of anthropology are shared
subject to the same evolutionary forces by other disciplines within the social,
that act on all living things On hearing behavioral, and biological sciences. As
the term evolution, many people think of we noted earlier, the main difference
the appearance of new species. Certainly, between anthropology and other relat-
new species formation is one conse- ed fields is anthropology’s broad per-
quence of evolution; however, biologists spective, which integrates the findings
see evolution as an ongoing process with of many disciplines, including sociolo-
a precise genetic meaning. Quite sim- gy, economics, history, psychology, and
ply, evolution is a change in the genetic biology.
makeup of a population from one gener- In the United States, anthropology
ation to the next. It’s the accumulation of comprises three main subfields: cultural
such changes over considerable periods anthropology, archaeology, and physical
of time that can result in the emergence anthropology. Additionally, many uni-
or extinction of species. In the course versities include linguistic anthropology
society A group of people who share a of human evolution, biocultural inter- as a fourth subfield. Each of these sub-
common culture. actions have resulted in such anatomi- disciplines, in turn, is divided into more
cal, biological, and behavioral changes specialized areas of interest. The follow-
enculturation The process by which indi- as increased brain size, reorganization ing section briefly describes the main
viduals, generally as children, learn the values
of neurological structures, decreased subdisciplines of anthropology.
and beliefs of the family, peer groups, and
society in which they are raised.
tooth size, and development of language,
to list a few. Biocultural interactions are
Cultural Anthropology
adaptation Functional response of organ- still critically important today; among
isms or populations to the environment. other things, they are changing patterns Cultural anthropology (also called social
Adaptation results from evolutionary change of disease worldwide. As one example, anthropology) is the study of all aspects
(specifically, as a result of natural selection).
changing social and sexual mores in of human behavior. Its beginnings are
Enlightenment An eighteenth-century many countries may have influenced the rooted in the Enlightenment of the eight-
philosophical movement in western Europe evolutionary rate of HIV, the virus that eenth century, which exerted consider-
that assumed a knowable order to the natu- causes AIDS. Certainly, these cultural able influence on how Europeans viewed
ral world and the interpretive value of reason
as the primary means of identifying and
explaining this order.
Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
WHAT IS ANTHROPOLOGY?

the place of humans in nature, ques- receive much of their training in physical 5
tioned the extent to which there exists a anthropology.
knowable order to the natural world, and Many subfields of cultural anthro-
introduced fresh concepts of “primitive,” pology have practical applications and
or traditional, societies. These changes in are pursued by anthropologists working
political and social philosophy were par- both within and outside the university
ticularly felt in the spread of European setting. This approach is aptly termed
colonial powers between 1500 and 1900. applied anthropology. Although most
The interest in traditional societies applied anthropologists regard them-
led many early anthropologists to study selves as cultural anthropologists, the
and record lifeways that are now mostly designation is also sometimes used to
extinct. These studies yielded descrip- describe the activities of archaeologists
tive ethnographies that later became the and physical anthropologists. Indeed,
basis for comparisons between societ- the various fields of anthropology, as
ies. Early ethnographies were narratives they are practiced in the United States,
emphasizing such phenomena as reli- overlap to a considerable degree. After
gion, ritual, myth, use of symbols, sub- all, that was the rationale for combining
sistence and dietary preferences, technol- them under the umbrella of anthropol-
ogy, gender roles, child-rearing practices, ogy in the first place.
taboos, medical practices, and how kin-
ship was reckoned.
Physical Anthropology
The focus of cultural anthropology
changed considerably with the global Physical anthropology (also called bio-
social, political, and economic upheav- logical anthropology) is the study of
als of the twentieth century. Researchers human biology within the framework
using traditional ethnographic meth- of evolution and with an emphasis on
ods still spend months or years living in the interaction between biology and cul-
and studying various societies, but the ture. The origins of physical anthro-
nature of the study groups has shifted. pology are found in two main areas of
For example, in recent decades, ethno- nineteenth-century research. First, there
graphic techniques have been applied was increasing curiosity among many
to the study of diverse subcultures scientists (at the time called natural his-
and their interactions with one anoth- torians) regarding the mechanisms by
er in contemporary metropolitan areas. which modern species had come to be.
The subfield of cultural anthropology In other words, they were beginning
that deals with issues of inner cities is to doubt the literal, biblical interpreta-
appropriately called urban anthropology. tion of creation. Although most scientists
Among the many issues addressed by weren’t prepared to believe that humans
urban anthropologists are relationships had evolved from earlier forms, discov-
between various ethnic groups, those eries of several Neandertal fossils (see
aspects of traditional societies that are Chapter 11) in the 1800s raised questions
maintained by immigrant populations, about the origins and antiquity of the
poverty, labor relations, homelessness, human species.
access to health care, and problems fac- The sparks of interest in biologi-
ing the elderly. cal change over time were fanned into
Medical anthropology is the subfield flames by the publication of Charles
that explores the relationship between Darwin’s On the Origin of Species in
various cultural attributes and health 1859. Today, paleoanthropology, or
and disease. Areas of interest include the study of human evolution, particu-
how different groups view disease larly as revealed in the fossil record, is
processes and how these views affect a major subfield of physical anthropol-
treatment or the willingness to accept ogy (Fig. 1-3). There are now thousands
treatment. When medical anthropolo- of specimens of the remains of human ethnographies Detailed descriptive studies
gists focus on the social dimensions of ancestors housed in research collec- of human societies. In cultural anthropology,
ethnography is traditionally the study of non-
disease, they may collaborate with phy- tions. Taken together, these fossils span
Western societies.
sicians and physical anthropologists. at least 4 million years of prehistory;
Indeed, many medical anthropologists and although incomplete, they provide paleoanthropology The interdisciplinary
approach to the study of earlier hominins—
their chronology, physical structure, archaeo-
logical remains, habitats, etc.
Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
on rakentanut vuosia sitten, ja he hoitavat itse karjansa. Joella ei ole
paljon voimaa, mutta hän on kätevämpi kuin luulisi, jos vain joku
sanoo, mitä hänen kulloinkin on tehtävä, ja pitää häntä kurissa. Ja
Nick puolestaan tekee kahden miehen työn.»

»Mutta onpa ihmeellistä, että Nickin kaltainen mies ottaa tuollaisen


kurjan raukan paimennettavakseen», pitkitti Patches. »Ovatko he
sukua?»

»Sitä ei kukaan tiedä», vastasi Phil. »Joe tuli Prescottiin neljä


vuotta sitten erään Dryden nimisen miehen kanssa, ja Joen pitäisi
olla hänen poikansa. He asuivat teltassa kaupungin ulkopuolella ja
elivät kokoamalla kaikkea, minkä näkivät. Dryden ei tahtonut tehdä
työtä eikä kukaan huolinut Joesta. Viimein Dryden joutui kiinni
murtovarkaudesta ja oli vähällä, ettei Joe joutunut vankilaan hänen
kanssaan. Mutta hänet päästettiin irti luultavasti siitä syystä, että hän
ilmeisesti oli vain Drydenin kätyri ja ettei hänellä olisi ollut tarpeeksi
rohkeutta tehdä mitään pahaa omasta aloitteestaan. Hän ajelehti
useamman kuukauden kuin kulkukoira, kunnes Nick otti hänet
huostaansa. Nick kohtelee häntä suorastaan häpeämättömästi,
mutta mies raukka pysyy hänen luonaan, sillä eihän hänellä ole
muutakaan paikkaa mihin mennä.»

»Onko hän aina samanlainen kuin tänään?» kysyi Patches


osoittaen harvinaista mielenkiintoa tätä kurjaa miestä kohtaan. »Eikö
hän koskaan puhu mitään?»

»Puhuu kylläkin, kun Nick ei ole lähettyvillä tai kun seura ei ole
liian suuri. Kun tutustutte häneen ja viette hänet kahdenkesken
johonkin, ei hän ole lainkaan niin typerä kuin näyttää. Se onkin kai
syynä siihen, miksi Nick pitää häntä. Katsokaahan, kukaan kunnon
karjanhoitaja ei menisi työhön Tailholt Mountainiin, ja yksinään on
Nickin ajan mittaan ikävä olla. Mutta Joe ei koskaan kerro, mistä hän
on tullut tai kuka hän on. Hän vaikenee kuin kala, jos vain sanotte
sanankaan, joka kuulostaa siltä, kuin yrittäisitte urkkia häneltä hänen
syntyperäänsä. Hän ei ole niin narrimainen kuin hänen
ulkomuotonsa, mutta hän on kerta kaikkiaan pälyilevä ja mateleva, ja
mitä hän tekeekin, on se aina samaan tyyliin.»

»Toisin sanoen», virkkoi Patches miettiväisenä, »Joe raukalla


täytyy aina olla joku, johon nojata. Yksinään hän on täydellinen
nolla.»

»Niin on asia», myönsi Phil. »Mutta jos joku ruokkii häntä ja


ajattelee hänen puolestaan, pitää hänestä huolta ja on vastuussa
hänestä, on hän miltei täysi mies.»

»Oikeastaan, Phil», virkkoi Patches ivallisesti, »ei Yavapai Joe ole


sen huonompi kuin sadat tuntemani miehet. Heidän kannaltaan
katsoen hän on suorastaan kadehdittava.»

Philiä kiinnostivat kumppanin sanat, sillä ne näkyivät viittaavan


hänen entisyyteensä, ja Patches oli omista asioistaan yhtä vaitelias
kuin Yavapai Joe.

»Mitä tarkoitatte?» kysyi Phil. »Minkälaisista miehistä puhutte?»

»Tarkoitan miehiä, jotka eivät koskaan tee mitään omasta


vapaasta tahdostaan. Miehiä, joiden puolesta aina jonkun toisen
pitää ajatella ja olla vastuussa. En usko, että se vähääkään muuttaa
asiaa, olivatpa he rikkaita ja sivistyneitä, kuten on tapana sanoa, tai
köyhiä nahjuksia kuten Joe: pohjaltaan se on yhdentekevää.»
Heidän laskeutuessaan satulasta kotiveräjällä katsahti Phil
veitikkamaisesti kumppaniinsa. »Tepä osoitatte harvinaista
mielenkiintoa Joea kohtaan», hän sanoi hymyillen.

»Niin teenkin», vastasi Patches. »Hän muistuttaa minua eräästä,


jonka tunnen», hän lopetti hymyillen jälleen entistä itsehalveksuvaa
ivahymyään. »Tunnen samanlaista sukulaisuutta häneen kuin te
siihen hurjaan oriiseen. Ottaisinpa kernaasti hänet pois Nickillä ja
koettaisin, eikö hänestä voisi tehdä miestä», hän jatkoi puhuen
enemmän itsekseen kuin toverilleen.

»Sellaiset kokeet eivät ole suositeltavia, Patches», varoitti Phil.


»Täytyy olla jotakin, jolle rakentaa, jos tahtoo tehdä miehen. Joessa
ei ole siihen ainesta, ja sitä paitsi», hän lisäsi merkitsevästi, »ihmiset
eivät ymmärtäisi sitä.»

Patches naurahti katkerasti.

Seuraavana aamuna Phil sanoi uhraavansa tämän päivän


hevosilleen ja lähetti Patchesin yksinään noutamaan satulan ja
suitset, jotka he edellisenä päivänä olivat jättäneet
onnettomuuspaikalle.

Patches oli ehtinyt sille paikalle, jossa hän ja Phil olivat eronneet
Tailholt Mounlainin miehisiä, ja tunsi itsensä janoiseksi. Hän muisti
Philin sanoneen, että hiukan ylempänä selänteen rinteellä oli pieni
lähde, ja ajatellen pitkää matkaa, joka hänellä oli ratsastettavana,
hän hetkisen epäröityään poikkesi tieltä ja ohjasi hevosensa
rinteelle.

Ratsastettuaan jonkin matkaa kapeata solaa, joka johti tiheän


metsän läpi rinnettä ylös, huomasi Patches tien käyvän jyrkemmäksi
ja kivisemmäksi. Hän laskeutui satulasta, sitoi hevosen pensaaseen
kallionlohkareen varjoon ja jatkoi matkaansa jalan, arvellen lähteen
olevan lähellä. Siinä hän ei erehtynytkään, ja pian hän saapui
sievälle pienelle aukeamalle, jossa sammaltuneen kallion kyljestä
löysi kirkkaan ja raikkaan lähteen. Iloisena hän kumartui juomaan ja
istuutui sitten hetkiseksi lepäämään lähteen partaalle. Pehmeä,
musta maa sen ympärillä oli täynnä karjan jälkiä, ja tiheän metsikön
läpi johti useita pieniä karjapolkuja aukeamalle. Niin tiheä oli
ympäröivä metsä ja niin pieni aukeama, että aurinko vain tuuhean
lehvikön läpi valoi kultaansa tämän vilpoisan virkistyspaikan yli ja
silmän oli mahdotonta nähdä lähimpiä puita kauemmaksi.

Patches oli juuri lähtemäisillään, kun kuuli ihmisääniä ja kavioiden


kapsetta. Hetkisen hän istui liikkumattomana kuunnellen. Hän tunsi
äänet: toinen oli hiljainen ja piipittävä, toinen karkea ja kiukkuinen.
Noudattaen äkkinäistä mielenjohdetta, joka niin usein ratkaisi hänen
toimintansa, solahti Patches äänettömästi tiheikköön, ja tuskin hän
oli ennättänyt piilopaikkaansa, kun Nick Cambert ja Yavapai Joe
ratsastivat esiin.

Jos Patches olisi ehtinyt ajatella, olisi hän varmaan halveksinut


kätkeytyneen urkkijan osaa, mutta hän oli jälleen toiminut
ajattelematta, ja nyt oli myöhäistä katua. Rovastin palveluksessa
ollessaan hän oli nähnyt ja kuullut tarpeeksi ymmärtääkseen, että
Neljä-Viiva-M:n polttoraudan omistajaan kohdistui vakava epäluulo,
ja oltuaan muutamia päiviä Philin seurassa hän tiesi, kuinka vaikeata
karjanhoitajien oli saada todisteita miestä vastaan, jonka he epäilivät
varastavan karjaa. Mahdollisuus saada todisteita, ja siten suojata
isäntänsä omaisuutta olikin saanut hänet käyttämään hyväkseen
tilaisuutta.
Miesten ratsastaessa esiin oli kätkeytyneen kuuntelijan helppo
huomata, että Joe syystä tai toisesta oli herättänyt isäntänsä
suuttumuksen. Kookkaan miehen kasvot olivat kiukusta punaiset, ja
hänen silmissään oli kova ja julma ilme, Joen näyttäessä koiralta,
joka on tehnyt pahaa ja odottaa selkäsaunaa.

Nick kumartui juomaan lähteestä ja kääntyi sitten kumppaninsa


puoleen, joka yhä istui kuin kivettyneenä satulassa yrittäen vapisevin
sormin kiertää savuketta. Hetkisen Nick silmäili arkaa seuralaistaan,
sitten hän otti satulastaan piiskan ja virkkoi ivallisesti hymyillen: »No,
miksi et tule juomaan?»

»Minun ei ole jano, Nick», kujersi toinen.

»Sinun ei ole jano?» pilkkasi Nick ilkeästi naurahtaen. »Valehtelet


ja tiedät sen varsin hyvin. Tule alas!»

»Jumalan nimessä, Nick, en tahdo juoda!» vaikeroi Joe, hänen


isäntänsä läimäytellessä uhkaavasti piiskaansa.

»Tule alas, sanon minä!»

Joe totteli vapisten pelosta ja seisoi tutisten hevosensa vieressä.

»Tule tänne!»

»Älä, Nick, älä Herran tähden lyö! En tarkoittanut pahaa! Päästä


minut tällä kertaa, tee se, Nick.»

»Tule tänne! Saat totisesti maistaa ruoskaa ja tiedät ansainneesi


sen.
Tule tänne, sanon minä!»
Mies parka otti pari askelta isäntäänsä kohden, jonka raaka voima
pakotti hänet tottelemaan, sitten hän pysähtyi ja kääntyi puolittain
kuin paetakseen. Mutta uhkaava ääni pysähdytti hänet.

»Tule tänne!»

Vaikeroiden ja rukoillen isäntäänsä katkonaisin, epäselvin sanoin


kääntyi Joe jälleen häneen päin.

Mutta ratkaisevalla hetkellä keskeytti rauhallinen, hillitty ääni


vastenmielisen kohtauksen.

»Pyydän anteeksi, herra Cambert!»

Kiroten hämmästyksestä Nick pyörähti Patchesiin päin, joka


rauhallisesti astui häntä kohden.

»Mitä teillä on tekemistä täällä?» kysyi Nick, hänen uhrinsa


livahtaessa hevosensa luo ja tuijottaessa tulijaan sanomattoman
ällistyksen vallassa.

»Tulin juomaan», vastasi Patches tyynesti. »Mainiota vettä, eikö


olekin? Ja päivä on helteinen — raikas juoma tekee totisesti hyvää.»

»Te kuulitte meidän lähestyvän ja päätitte esittää nuuskijaa, vai


mitä?» tulistui Tailholt Mountainin isäntä.

Patches hymyili. »Pelkäänpä, etten lainkaan päättänyt sitä», hän


vastasi hyväntahtoisesti. »Olen siinä suhteessa hiukan omituinen»,
hän lisäsi kohteliaasti. »Teen usein, mitä minulle kulloinkin pistää
päähän, käsitättehän — joskus vallan yllättäviä tekoja.»
Nick katsahti tähän kohteliaaseen mieheen puolittain
huvittuneena, puolittain raivoissaan. »Kuulin, että Risti-Kolmiossa
vetelehtii eräs nahjus», hän virkkoi viimein. »Te näytättekin olevan
aika junkkari. No, nyt olette juonut. Laittautukaa äkkiä tiellenne
täällä!»

»Anteeksi!» sanoi Patches kysyvästi ja katsoi häneen vilpittömän


näköisenä.

»Saamari! Korjatkaa luunne! Menkää työhönne!»

»Luulin tosiaan tätä avoimeksi laitumeksi, herra Cambert.»


Patches katsahti ympärilleen kuin vakuuttuakseen siitä, ettei ollut
erehtynyt paikasta.

Nickin silmät vetäytyivät uhkaavina kokoon. »Mutta teille se on


suljettu, kuuletteko!» Kun Patches ei liikahtanutkaan paikaltaan, hän
tulistui: »No, lähdettekö siitä vai pitääkö minun antaa teille kyytiä?»
Hän otti uhkaavana askelen rauhanhäiritsijää kohden.

»Ei», vastasi Patches rauhallisesti, »en aio lähteä — juuri nyt —


ja», hän lisäsi miettiväisenä, »teidän sijassanne en yrittäisi antaa
kyytiä kenellekään.»

Rauhallisen muukalaisen harvinainen itsehillintä sai kookkaan


miehen empimään. »Vai ette, häh?» vastasi hän. »Aiotte siis
sekaantua minun asioihini?»

»Jos te asioillanne tarkoitatte sellaisen miehen ruoskimista, joka ei


kykene puolustautumaan, niin varmasti aion.»

Tuokion verran Nick tuijotti mieheen sanattomana aivan kuin ei


olisi uskonut korviaan. Sitten hänet valtasi silmitön raivo. Karkeasti
kiroten hän tarttui jälleen piiskaansa ja syöksyi muukalaista kohden.

Mutta samassa silmänräpäyksessä kuin piiska viuhui ilmassa,


sattui hänen leukaansa luja nyrkinisku. Tärähdyksen voima Nickin
hyökätessä puolitiehen iskua vasten oli kerrassaan kauhea. Hänen
päänsä retkahti taaksepäin ja hän kaatui tajuttomana maahan.

Patches kumartui kylmäverisesti maassa makaavan miehen yli ja


otti hänen pistoolinsa. Sitten hän vetäytyi muutaman askelen
taaksepäin ja jäi rauhallisena odottamaan.

Yavapai Joe, joka suu auki ja silmät selällään oli seurannut tätä
asian varsin odottamatonta käännettä, heilahdutti itsensä satulaan ja
nykäisi suitsista ikäänkuin ratsastaakseen tiehensä henkensä
edestä.

»Odottakaa, Joe!» käski Patches jyrkästi. »Nick palaa tajuihinsa


tuossa tuokiossa. Pysykää siinä, missä olette.»

Vielä hänen puhuessaan avasi maassa makaava mies silmänsä.


Hän katsahti ympärilleen yrittäen selvittää itselleen tilanteen. Sitten
hän hypähti raivoissaan jalkeille ja tarttui pistooliinsa, mutta kun
hänen kätensä sattui tyhjään koteloon, välähti hänen kasvoillaan
pelko, ja hän jäi tuijottamaan Patchesiin kunnioittavin ja nöyryytetyin
katsein.

»Niin, minulla on teidän pistoolinne», sanoi Patches rauhallisesti.


»Katsokaa, pidin parempana pelastaa teidät kiusauksesta käyttää
sitä. Ettehän te kuitenkaan itse asiassa tahtoisi ampua minua. Te
vain luulette tahtovanne. Kun rauhassa ajattelette asiaa, niin kiitätte
minua. Huomatkaa, kuolleena tuottaisin teille monta vertaa
enemmän harmia kuin elävänä. En luule, että herra Baldwin olisi
lainkaan mielissään nähdessään minut kuoliaaksi ammuttuna,
etenkin jos ampuja kuuluisi Tailholt Mountainin miehiin. Ja lisäksi
olen varma, että Villihevos-Phililläkin olisi silloin jotakin sanomista.»

»No, mitä tahdotte?» murahti Nick. »Olette antanut minulle


selkään.
Mikä teidän tarkoituksenne oikeastaan on?»

Patches silmäili miestä ivallisesti hymyillen, mikä sai Nickin


kuohahtamaan kiukusta.

»Jollei teillä olisi pistooliani, niin minä —» alkoi hän, mutta vaikeni
äkkiä, sillä Patches oli samassa silmänräpäyksessä varovasti
asettanut hänen pistoolinsa kalliolle ja otti nyt tyhjin käsin askelen
Nickiä kohti.

»Niin tekisitte mitä?»

Kuullessaan rivakan kysymyksen, joka muodosti täydellisen


vastakohdan Patchesin tähänastiselle sävylle, Nick epäröi ja otti
askelen taaksepäin.

Patches astui viipymättä vieläkin askelen lähemmäksi, ja nyt sanat


tulvivat hänen huuliltaan tiukkoina ja tarmokkaina. »Mitä tekisitte,
suuri sika? Teissä on miestä löylyttämään toista, joka on teitä puolta
pienempi, teissä on miestä lyömään avutonta raukkaa kuin koiraa,
teissä on miestä uhkailemaan ja pahoinpitelemään nahjusta, joka
pelkää teitä, teissä on miestä hyökkäämään ase sojossa miehen
kimppuun, jonka luulette olevan kykenemätön puolustautumaan,
mutta näyttäkääpä mihin te nyt pystytte!»
Tailholt Mountainin isäntä vetäytyi yhä enemmän taaksepäin ja
hypähti äkkiä hevosensa selkään.

»Tule, Joe!» kutsui hän toveriaan.

»Ei, te ette mene mihinkään», virkahti Patches päättävästi. »Joe,


pysykää siinä, missä olette!»

Nick ällistyi. »Mitä tarkoitatte?» hän murahti.

»Tarkoitan sitä», vastasi Patches, »että Joe saa itse valita,


tahtooko lähteä mukaanne vai ei. Joe», pitkitti hän kääntyen
vapisevaan miesraukkaan päin, »teidän ei tarvitse lähteä hänen
mukaansa. Jos tahdotte, saatte tulla minun kanssani. Minä pidän
huolta teistä ja annan teille tilaisuuden tulla mieheksi, jos vain
tahdotte.»

Nick nauroi karkeasti. »Vai niin, se oli siis teidän tarkoituksenne.


Mutta se keino ei tepsi. Nyt ymmärrän, miksi Bill Baldwin pitää teitä
palveluksessaan ja sanoo teitä viattomaksi nahkapojaksi, senkin
kirottu urkkija! Tule, Joe!» Hän kääntyi lähteäkseen, ja Joe vetäisi
suitsista seuratakseen häntä.

Jälleen Patches puhutteli häntä: »Odottakaa, Joe!» Hänen


äänensä oli miltei rukoileva. »Ettekö siis ymmärrä, Joe? Tulkaa
minun kanssani. Älkää jääkö tuon miehen koiraksi. Olkaa mies, Joe
— Jumalan tähden, olkaa mies! Seuratkaa minua!»

»No», kirahti Nick seuralaiselleen Patchesin vaiettua, »aiotko tulla


vai pitääkö minun antaa sinulle vauhtia?»

Pelokkaasti katsahtaen Patchesiin Joe mumisi jotakin ja ratsasti


isäntänsä jälkeen.
Heidän hävitessään metsikköön huusi Nick kääntyen satulassaan:
»Odottakaahan, senkin nuuskija, kyllä minä vielä teille näytän!»

»Sitä en usko», vastasi Patches hilpeästi. »Se ei olisi teille eduksi.


Pistoolinne voitte noutaa uittamon vanhalta veräjältä. Vien sen sinne.
Hyvästi, Joe!»

Hetkisen muukalainen seisoi liikkumattomana kuunnellen


kavioiden häipyvää kapsetta, ja hänen huulilleen levisi tuttu
itsehalveksunnan hymy.

»Mies raukka!» hän mutisi kääntyessään mennäkseen hevosensa


luo. »Joe raukka! Tiedän miltä hänestä nyt tuntuu.»

»Pelkäänpä tuottaneeni teille harmia», sanoi Patches katuvaisena


Rovastille kerrottuaan hänelle ja Philille päivän tapahtumasta.
»Antakaa minulle anteeksi: en tosiaan ajatellut nenääni pitemmälle.»

»Harmia!» vastasi Rovasti vilkuttaen silmää Philin nauraessa


tyytyväisenä. »Mehän olemme oikein toivoneet saavamme
riidanaihetta noiden kirottujen tailholtilaislen kanssa. Mutta mitä
ihmettä olisitte tehnyt tuolla Joe-raukalla, jos hän tosiaan olisi
lähtenyt mukaanne?»

»Totta puhuen, sitä en tiedä», vastasi Patches vilpittömästi.


»Ajattelin vain, kuinka mielenkiintoinen koe se olisi. Hän säälitti
minua niin, että —», hän vaikeni hämillään ja yhtyi toisten nauruun.

Mutta myöhemmin oli Rovastilla ja Philillä kahdenkeskinen


keskustelu, jonka tuloksena oli, että Patchesin oppiaineisiin lisättiin
pistoolinkäyttö.
Kuusipiippuisen lataaminen ja laukaiseminen nopeasti ja varmasti
on tärkeä osa oikean paimenen koulutuksessa, selitti Phil. »Jos
esimerkiksi joutuisitte otteluun hurjan härän kanssa tai jos
hevosenne kaatuisi tai muuta samanlaista.»
X LUKU.

Karjankierros.

Kesän viimeiset viikot Patches vietti enimmäkseen ratsain Philin


seurassa edistyen tämän kokeneen opettajan johdolla päivä päivältä
siinä työssä, josta hän oli päättänyt suoriutua. Hänen palava
harrastuksensa, nopea älynsä ja loistavat ruumiilliset edellytyksensä
auttoivat häntä varsin lyhyessä ajassa hallitsemaan paimenen
ammatin kaikkia eri puolia.

Silloin tällöin he ratsastusretkillään tapasivat Tailholt Mounlainin


miehet, toisinaan nähden heidät vain etäältä, toisinaan kohdaten
karjanjuottopaikalla. Kun Nick Cambert täten joutui Risti-Kolmio-
Kartanon miesten välittömään läheisyyteen, tervehti hän Philiä maan
tapaan, mutta kohteli sen sijaan hänen toveriaan aivan kuin tämä
olisi ollut ilmaa. Hän oli nähtävästi kuitenkin Patchesin ennustuksen
mukaan tullut huomaamaan, että hänelle itselleen oli edullisinta olla
täyttämättä uhkaustaan miestä kohtaan, joka niin perusteellisesti oli
hänet nöyryyttänyt.

Mutta Patchesin mielenkiinto Joe-parkaa kohtaan ei heikentynyt.


Tavatessaan tämän oli hänellä aina jokin ystävällinen sana varalla.
Phil ihmetteli tämän huomatessaan, mutta ei virkkanut mitään.

Tapahtui usein, että Kitty Reid tuli milloin yksin, milloin omaistensa
seurassa, suuren laitumen poikki viettämään iltahetkeä
naapurikartanoon. Toisinaan pysähtyivät Phil ja Patches Pata-
Koukku-S-Kartanoon juottamaan hevosiaan ja hetkiseksi
rupattelemaan Kittyn kanssa. Sattuipa niinkin, että tyttö kohtasi
kumppanukset heidän ratsastaessaan tarkastamassa karjaa ja yhtyi
heidän seuraansa tunniksi, pariksi.

Patchesin ja Kittyn tuttavuus syveni ystävyydeksi, sillä Kittyä


viehätti puheleminen tämän miehen kanssa asioista, jotka niin
suuresti kiinnittivät hänen mieltään. Tuntien Philin vilpittömän
kiintymyksen Patchesiin hän tiesi, ettei tämä käsittäisi häntä väärin,
ja niin Patches oppi vähitellen ymmärtämään Philin rakkauden
Kittyyn ja tämän suhtautumisen ihailijaansa — entiseen
koulutoveriinsa ja nuoruutensa rakastettuun.

Myöskin Risti-Kolmio-Kartanon kotoisessa elämässä valtasi


Patches vähitellen itselleen oman paikan. Hänen avuliaisuutensa ja
sydämellinen, vilpitön kohteliaisuutensa, mutta myöskin salainen
alakuloisuus, joka joskus karkotti hilpeyden hänen kasvoiltaan ja
synkensi hänen katseensa, voittivat rouva Baldwinin sydämen.
Istuessaan kesäiltoina pähkinäpuiden alla Stella, Phil, Curly, pikku
Billy ja Patches ympärillään Rovasti oppi vähitellen huomaamaan,
että hänen uusi apulaisensa jo oli kokenut Getsemanensa, joka
meidän kaikkien — Rovastin sanojen mukaan — ennemmin tai
myöhemmin on kestettävä. Ja paimenet, jotka tunsivat hänen
hyväsydämisyytensä, rohkeutensa ja vaatimattomuutensa,
hyväksyivät hänet toverikseen. Pikku Billy noudatti ihanteensa
Villihevos-Philin esimerkkiä ja varasi »nahkapojalle» suuren sijan
sydämessään.

Kun karjankierroksen aika oli käsillä, sai Patches kuten muutkin


miehet huostaansa useita hevosia ja astui toisten ratsastajien
joukkoon. Nyt ei ollut kysymystä muutamien eläinten tilapäisestä
merkitsemisestä, vaan kaikkien kartanoiden omistamien
karjalaumojen järjestelmällisestä lajittelemisesta ja tarkastamisesta.

Siihen aikaan kävi karjankierros näillä main yhteistyön merkeissä.


Eri kartanot, joiden karja laillisesti merkittynä omistajan polttomerkillä
kävi vain luonnollisten rajojen rajoittamalla yleisellä laitumella, olivat
karjankierroksessa edustettuina omistamainsa eläinten lukumäärän
mukaan. Ratsastajajoukko, jonka jokaisella jäsenellä oli kolme tai
viisi hevosta, tarkasti yhden kierrokseen kuuluvista laitumista
kerrallaan. Joukkue kerääntyi keskelle laidunta hajaantuen sitten eri
suuntiin niin etäälle kuin laidunta riitti, eritellen ja merkiten jokaisen
yksityisen eläimen isännältään saamiensa ohjeiden mukaan. Sitten
kierros siirtyi toiselle laitumelle, kunnes työ oli suoritettu. Jokaisen
kartanon isäntä tai päällysmies johti kierrosta sen liikkuessa hänen
kartanonsa mailla, siirtyen sitten ratsastajien riviin ja luovuttaen
johdon seuraavalle. Taitamattomia, haluttomia tai epärehellisiä
miehiä ei kierroksessa voitu käyttää, ja siksi jokainen karjakartanon
isäntä lähettikin parhaat miehensä tehtävään. Tehdäkseen kunnolla
työnsä karjankierroksessa täytyi miehen sanan parhaimmassa
merkityksessä olla mies.

Onnettomuustapaukset eivät olleet harvinaisia karjankierroksen


aikana. Milloin sai hevonen surmansa, milloin kannettiin mies
taittunein jäsenin tai murskaantunein päin kotikartanoon saamaan
hoitoa, milloin saatettiin uljas ratsastaja, joka aamulla hilpeänä oli
lähtenyt päivän työhön, illan hämärässä hiljaiseen lepopaikkaan
odottamaan viimeisen kierroksen aamua, joka kokoaa meidät kaikki
suurimman isännän luo.

Päivän toisensa jälkeen ratsasti Patches näiden voimakkaiden


miesten mukana, valloittaen vähitellen itselleen paikan heidän
joukossaan. Phil huomasi, että nämä ensiksi pakottivat hänet
näyttämään, mihin kelpasi, ja että he yhtä pian kuin Curly aikoinaan
saivat oppia, että oli raja, jonka yli heidän ei ollut hyvä mennä.

Nick Cambert, joka samaten kuin hänen ainoa miehensä Yavapai


Joekin otti osaa kierrokseen, vältti huolellisesti Patchesia. Mutta
Patchesin osoittama ystävällisyys Yavapai Joeta kohtaan ei
suinkaan ollut omiaan vähentämään häntä koskevia keskusteluja ja
arveluja. Kierros oli parhaiksi ehtinyt Pata-Koukku-S:n maille, kun
sattui tapahtuma, joka yhä lisäsi sitä mielenkiintoa, jota uusi
ratsastaja tovereissaan herätti.

Karjaa kierrettiin laitumelle lähellä Risti-Kolmio-Kartanon aitaa.


Phil ja Curly olivat juuri tarkastamassa joitakin Risti-Kolmion härkiä,
kun laumaa vartioivat ratsastajat äkkiä näkivät heidän erottavan
karjasta yhdeksänkuukautisen vasikan ja ajavan sen aitaukseen
merkitsemättömien eläinten joukkoon.

Nyt tiesi jokainen, mitä tulisi tapahtumaan.

Kukaan ei virkkanut sanaakaan, ennen kuin merkitsemättömät


vasikat oli ajettu aitaukseen. Phil jutteli hetkisen Jim Reidin kanssa ja
ratsasti sitten Nick Cambertin luo, joka istui satulassaan hiukan
etäämpänä. Risti-Kolmion päällysmiehen sävy oli varsin naseva.
»Saanko vaivata teitä kumoamaan polttomerkkinne tuossa Risti-
Kolmion vasikassa, Nick.»
Tailholt Mountainin isäntä ei hetkeäkään teeskennellyt
ymmärtämättömyyttä. »Sitä minä, piru soikoon, en tee», hän vastasi
karkeasti. »Minä en kasvata vasikoita Bill Baldwinille, ja tiedän, mitä
puhun. Tuo on Neljä-Viiva-M:n vasikka, ja minä itse merkitsin sen
Hevosuittamolla, ennen kuin se oli jättänyt lehmän. Muutamien
teidän miestenne kädessä polttorauta onkin liian löyhässä, herra
Villihevos-Phil.»

Silmänräpäyksen Phil katsoi mieheen Jim Reidin ratsastaessa


lähemmäksi ja muiden pidättäessä henkeään jännityksestä.
Irroittamatta katsettaan Nickistä virkahti Phil jäntevästi:

»Tulkaa tänne, Patches.»

»Onko se vasikka aitauksessa, josta kerroitte minulle, Patches?»


kysyi
Phil kutsutun ehdittyä hänen luokseen.

»Kyllä, se on tuolla tuon täplikkään lehmän vieressä.» Patches


osoitti kyseessä olevaa eläintä.

»Ja te merkitsitte sen?» kysyi Phil yhä tarkastellen Nickiä.

»Sen tein», vastasi Patches rauhallisesti.

»Kertokaa tapahtumasta», käski Phil.

Ja Patches totteli lyhyesti ja virallisesti. »Se oli sinä päivänä, jona


te lähetitte minut korjaamaan aitaa ison laitumen lounaiskulmassa.
Näin karjaa hiukan alempana ja ratsastin katsomaan sitä. Tuo
vasikka seurasi Risti-Kolmion lehmää.»

»Oletteko varma siitä?»


»Olen. Katselin niitä puolen tunnin ajan.»

»Mitä muita eläimiä siinä laumassa oli?»

»Neljä härkää, Pata-Koukku-S:n sonni, viisi lehmää ja tämä


vasikka. Vasikka pysytteli koko ajan Risti-Kolmion lehmän kintereillä.
Ja sitä paitsi se on merkitty aivan kuten emokin. Näin sen taas
tänään iltapäivällä tarkastaessamme karjaa.»

Phil nyökkäsi. »Tiedän sen.»

Jim Reid piti tarkasti silmällä Patchesia katsahtaen silloin tällöin


Nickiin.

Ratsastajat mutisivat keskenään.

»Hitonmoisen hienoa nahkapojan tekemäksi.»

»Nahkapoika, hyvä!»

»Tällä kertaa Nick joutui kiinni!»

Phil kääntyi jälleen Nickin puoleen. »No, oletteko tyytyväinen ja


suostutteko kumoamaan merkkinne?»

Nickin kasvot vääntyivät kiukusta. »Minä en peruuta mitään!» hän


raivosi, »tuon kirotun nuuskijan käskystä. Minä —»

Hän pysähtyi kesken lausetta Patchesin äkkiä kannustaessa


hevosensa
Philin rinnalle.

Kaikki vaikenivat ja hiljaisuudessa kaikui uuden miehen ääni


tyynenä ja kirkkaana. »Olen varma siitä, että erehdyksessä poltitte
oman merkkinne tuohon vasikkaan, herra Cambert. Ja», hän lisäsi
verkkaan ja mitä ystävällisimmällä äänellä, »olen yhtä varma siitä,
että tyydytte minun sanaani ilman sen enempiä todisteita.»

Nick katsahti Patchesiin silmänräpäyksen verran kykenemättä


sanomaan sanaakaan. Sitten hän kaikkien hämmästykseksi irroitti
lasson satulasta ottaakseen kiinni vasikan ja peruuttaakseen
merkkinsä.

Jim Reid pudisti päätään ällistyneenä.

»Se näytti kaikki kylläkin yksinkertaiselta», selitti hän myöhemmin


illalla Rovastille, »mutta en pääse irti tunteesta, että teidän miehenne
ja tuon kirotun Tailholt Mountainin varkaan välillä oli jotakin salaista
ymmärtämystä. Se näytti liian rauhalliselta, aivan kuin koko juttu olisi
etukäteen suunniteltu.»

Rovasti selitti nauraen naapurilleen, että hän todellakin oli


oikeassa, että Patchesin ja Nickin välillä tosiaan oli salainen
ymmärtämys. Hänen oli nyt pakko kertoa, kuinka Patches oli
lähteellä tavannut Tailholt Mountainin miehet ja miten hän siellä oli
nöyryyttänyt Nickiä.

Kun Rovasti oli päättänyt kertomuksensa, oli Jimillä joukko


vastaväitteitä ja kysymyksiä. Mistä Rovasti tiesi, ettei juttu ollut vain
viekkaasti keksitty valhe epäluulojen poistamiseksi? Jos Patches
kerran oli niin luotettava mies, miksi hän silloin niin tarkoin säläsi
entisyytensä? Oliko kenenkään miehen välttämätöntä salata, kuka
oli ja mistä tuli? Mitä Rovasti itse asiassa tiesi hänestä? Rovastin oli
muistettava, että Nickiä jo kauan oli epäilty karjan liian nopean
enenemisen takia ja että hän ei ollut typerä mies. Kenties hän arveli
olevan syytä vetäytyä itse syrjään pelistä ja antaa jonkun toisen, jota
kukaan ei osannut epäillä, hoitaa merkitsemistyön.

Tähän kaikkeen oli Rovastin varsin vaikea vastata.

»Mutta kuulehan, Jim», hän muistutti naapuriaan, »älä vain anna


Patchesin huomata näitä epäluuloja. Mitä ikinä hänestä ajatteletkin,
niin muista, ettet tiedä sen enempää kuin mekään. Me luulemme
yhtä ja sinä luulet toista. Myönnän, että se, mitä sanot, kuuluu varsin
järkevältä, mutta yhtäkaikki pidän Patchesista. Ja mitä hänen
nimeensä tulee — sinähän tiedät, että tässä maassa ei katsota
nimeen, vaan mieheen. Pojalla on kenties syynsä vaieta
entisyydestään. Anna hänen olla rauhassa, älä pane takiaisia hänen
satulansa alle eikä taulaa hänen hevosensa korviin — muuta en
pyydä.»

Jim ei voinut olla nauramatta. Tämä puhe oli niin luonteenomaista


Rovastille, ja Jimin samoin kuin kaikkien muidenkin, jotka tulivat
tekemisiin hänen kanssaan, täytyi rakastaa vanhaa naapuriaan
hänen vilpittömyytensä vuoksi.

»Ole rauhassa, Bill», hän vastasi. »En minä aio tehdä mitään. Jos
sattuisin olemaan oikeassa, on hän täällä parhaiten ulottuvillamme.
Mutta aion pitää häntä silmällä. Ja luulisinpa, että Philin olisi parasta
tehdä samoin.»

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