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Cengage Advantage Books Understanding Humans An Introduction To Physical Anthropology and Archaeology 11th Edition Barry Lewis
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UNDERSTANDING HUMANS
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UNDERSTANDING HUMANS
Introduction to Physical
Anthropology and
Archaeology
Eleventh Edition
Barry Lewis
Professor Emeritus, University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign
Robert Jurmain
Professor Emeritus, San Jose State University
Lynn Kilgore
University of Colorado, Boulder
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Physical Anthropology and Archaeology,
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyright
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v
Brief Contents
Anthropology
CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Anthropology
Primates
CHAPTER 6 An Overview of the Primates
CHAPTER 7 Primate Behavior
Paleoanthropology/Fossil Hominins
CHAPTER 8 Understanding The Past: Archaeological and Paleoanthropological Methods
CHAPTER 9 Hominin Origins
CHAPTER 10 The First Dispersal of the Genus Homo: Homo erectus and Contemporaries
CHAPTER 11 Premodern Humans
CHAPTER 12 The Origin and Dispersal of Modern Humans
Archaeology
CHAPTER 13 Early Holocene Hunters and Gatherers
CHAPTER 14 Food Production
CHAPTER 15 The First Civilizations
CHAPTER 16 Biocultural Evolution and the Anthropocene
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vii vii
Contents
Preface xv
Acknowledgments xvii
Supplements xviii
About the Authors xx
Anthropology
CHAPTER 1
Introduction to Anthropology 1
The Biocultural Approach 2
What Is Anthropology? 4
Cultural Anthropology
Physical Anthropology
Archaeology
Linguistic Anthropology
The Scientific Method 15
Opposition to Evolution 34
Summary of Main Topics 36
Critical Thinking Questions 36
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CONTENTS
viii
CHAPTER 3 CHAPTER 4
Heredity and Evolution 37 Modern Human Variation and Adaptation 69
The Cell 38 Historical Views of Human Variation 70
DNA Structure and Function 39 The Concept of Race 71
DNA Replication Contemporary Interpretations of Human Variation 73
Protein Synthesis Human Polymorphisms
Cell Division: Mitosis and Meiosis 42 Polymorphisms at the DNA Level
Mitosis Human Biocultural Evolution 76
Meiosis AT A GLANCE: Former and Contemporary Approaches to the Study
The Genetic Principles Discovered by Mendel 48 of Human Variation 77
Mendel’s Principle of Segregation Population Genetics 79
Dominance and Recessiveness The Adaptive Significance of Human Variation 80
Mendel’s Principle of Independent Assortment Solar Radiation, Vitamin D, and Skin Color
Mendelian Inheritance in Humans The Thermal Environment
Misconceptions Regarding Dominance High Altitude
and Recessiveness 54 Infectious Disease
Polygenic Inheritance 55 AT A GLANCE: Zoonoses and Human Infectious Disease 90
AT A GLANCE: Mendelian and Polygenic Traits 57 The Continuing Impact of Infectious Disease 91
Genetic and Environmental Factors 57 Summary of Main Topics 94
Mitochondrial Inheritance 58 Critical Thinking Questions 94
New Frontiers 58
Modern Evolutionary Theory 60
The Modern Synthesis CHAPTER 5
A Current Definition of Evolution Macroevolution: Processes of Vertebrate
Factors That Produce and Redistribute Variation 61 and Mammalian Evolution 95
Mutation How We Connect: Discovering the Human Place in the
Gene Flow Organic World 96
Genetic Drift and Founder Effect Principles of Classification 98
Sexual Reproduction and Recombination
Constructing Classifications and Interpreting Evolutionary
Natural Selection Acts on Variation 65 Relationships 99
Summary of Main Topics 67 Comparing Evolutionary Systematics with Cladistics
Critical Thinking Questions 68 An Example of Cladistic Analysis: The Evolutionary History of Cars
and Trucks
Using Cladistics to Interpret Real Organisms
Definition of Species 103
Interpreting Species and Other Groups in the Fossil
Record 104
Recognizing Fossil Species
Recognizing Fossil Genera
What Are Fossils and How Do They Form? 106
Vertebrate Evolutionary History: A Brief Summary 108
Mammalian Evolution 110
The Emergence of Major Mammalian Groups 112
Processes of Macroevolution 113
Adaptive Radiation
© Louie Psihoyos / Corbis
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CONTENTS
ix
Primates
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CONTENTS
Paleoanthropology/Fossil Hominins
CHAPTER 8
Understanding the Past: Archaeological and
Culture 223
Interpretations: What Does It All Mean? 226
Seeing the Big Picture: Adaptive Patterns
of Early African Hominins 228
Summary of Main Topics 229
WHAT’S IMPORTANT: Key Early Hominin Fossil Discoveries from
Africa 229
Critical Thinking Questions 230
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CONTENTS
xi
CHAPTER 10 CHAPTER 11
The First Dispersal of the Genus Homo: Premodern Humans 251
Homo erectus and Contemporaries 231 When, Where, and What 252
A New Kind of Hominin 233 The Pleistocene
The Morphology of Homo erectus 233 Dispersal of Middle Pleistocene Hominins
Body Size Middle Pleistocene Hominins: Terminology
Brain Size Premodern Humans of the Middle Pleistocene 254
Cranial Shape Africa
The First Homo erectus: Homo erectus from Africa 236 AT A GLANCE: Key Premodern Human (H. heidelbergensis) Fossils
AT A GLANCE: Key Homo erectus Discoveries from Africa 239 from Africa 255
Who Were the Earliest African Emigrants? 239 Europe
Homo erectus from Indonesia 241 AT A GLANCE: Key Premodern Human (H. heidelbergensis) Fossils
from Europe 257
Homo erectus from China 241
Asia
Zhoukoudian Homo erectus
Cultural Remains from Zhoukoudian AT A GLANCE: Key Premodern Human (H. heidelbergensis) Fossils
from Asia 257
Other Chinese Sites
AT A GLANCE: Key Homo erectus Discoveries from Asia 244 Lower Paleolithic Premodern Human Culture 260
Neandertals: Premodern Humans of the Late
Asian and African Homo erectus: A Comparison 245
Pleistocene 262
Later Homo erectus from Europe 245
Western Europe
Archaeology of Early Hominin Dispersal 246 Central Europe
AT A GLANCE: Key Homo erectus and Contemporaneous Western Asia
Discoveries from Europe 248
Central Asia
Seeing the Big Picture: Interpretations AT A GLANCE: Key Neandertal Fossil Discoveries 270
of Homo erectus 248
Middle Paleolithic Culture 271
Summary of Main Topics 250
Technology
WHAT’S IMPORTANT: Key Fossil Discoveries of
Subsistence
Homo erectus 250
Speech and Symbolic Behavior
Critical Thinking Questions 250 Burials
Molecular Connections: The Genetic Evidence 274
Seeing Close Human Connections: Understanding
Premodern Humans 275
Summary of Main Topics 278
WHAT’S IMPORTANT: Key Fossil Discoveries of Premodern
Humans 278
Critical Thinking Questions 278
© David Lordkipanidze
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CONTENTS
xii
CHAPTER 12
The Origin and Dispersal of Modern
Humans 279
Approaches to Understanding Modern Human
Origins 281
The Regional Continuity Model: Multiregional Evolution
Replacement Models
Partial Replacement Models
The Earliest Discoveries of Modern Humans 283
Africa
AT A GLANCE: Key Early Modern Homo sapiens Discoveries from
Africa and the Near East 287
The Near East
Asia
Australia
Central Europe
Western Europe
AT A GLANCE: Key Early Modern Homo sapiens Discoveries from
Europe and Asia 294
Something New and Different: The “Little People” 295
© Figure 13.1 of Zilhão, J.; Trinkaus, E. (eds.)— Portrait of the Artist as a Child. The Gravettian Human Skeleton from the Abrigo do Lagar Velho and its
Upper Paleolithic Technology and Art 297
Archaeological Context, Trabalhos de Arqueologia 22, Lisboa, Instituto Português de Arqueologia, 2002, 610 pages). Photo by José Paulo Ruas.
Southwest Asia and Europe
Africa
Summary of Upper Paleolithic Culture 304
Summary of Main Topics 305
WHAT’S IMPORTANT: Key Fossil Discoveries of Early Modern
Humans and Homo floresiensis 305
Critical Thinking Questions 306
Harry Nelson
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CONTENTS
xiii
Archaeology
CHAPTER 13 CHAPTER 14
Early Holocene Hunters and Gatherers 307 Food Production 339
Entering the New World 309 The Neolithic Revolution 340
Bering Land Bridge Explaining the Origins of Domestication and
Pacific Coastal Route Agriculture 342
AT A GLANCE: Entry of the First Humans into Defining Agriculture and Domestication
the New World 313 Environmental Approaches
AT A GLANCE: Important Northeastern Asia Sites AT A GLANCE: Environmental Factors in the Development of
and Regions 314 Agriculture 346
The Earliest Americans 315 Cultural Approaches
Physical and Genetic Evidence AT A GLANCE: Cultural Factors in the Development of
Cultural Traces of the Earliest Americans Agriculture 347
AT A GLANCE: Important Pre–Paleo-Indian Sites in the New From Collecting to Cultivating
World 320 Archaeological Evidence for Domestication and
Paleo-Indians in the Americas 320 Agriculture 349
Paleo-Indian Lifeways Plants
AT A GLANCE: Important Paleo-Indian Sites in the Animals
New World 324 Old World Farmers 354
AT A GLANCE: North American Paleo-Indian Cultures 325 The Near East
Pleistocene Extinctions AT A GLANCE: Important Near Eastern Sites and Regions 355
Early Holocene Hunter-Gatherers 326 Africa
Environmental Changes AT A GLANCE: Important African Sites and Regions 358
Cultural Adjustments Asia
Case Studies of Early Holocene Cultures 330 AT A GLANCE: Important South Asian Sites and Regions 360
Archaic Hunter-Gatherers of North America Europe
AT A GLANCE: Important Archaic Sites in the New World 332 AT A GLANCE: Important Chinese Sites and Regions 361
Mesolithic of Northern Europe AT A GLANCE: Important European Sites and Regions 363
AT A GLANCE: Important Mesolithic and Epipaleolithic Sites in the New World Farmers 363
Old World 335 New World Domesticates
Epipaleolithic of the Near East Mexico
Summary of Main Topics 337 AT A GLANCE: Important Mexican and South American Sites
WHAT’S IMPORTANT: The Most Significant Archaeological Sites and Regions 365
Discussed in This Chapter 338 South America
Critical Thinking Questions 338 Southwestern United States
Eastern North America
AT A GLANCE: Important North American Sites and Regions 369
Other New World Regions
Summary of Main Topics 371
WHAT’S IMPORTANT: The Most Significant Archaeological Sites
Discussed in This Chapter 372
Critical Thinking Questions 372
William Turnbaugh
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CONTENTS
xiv
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xv
Preface
The study of human evolution and cul- Although each edition of this text The paleoanthropology chapters
ture is a rapidly changing field. More is committed to providing up-to-date (Chapters 9 through 12) include more
researchers are working in more places subject content for students and their material and photos on Paleolithic
around the world than ever before in instructors, we authors are also teach- tool traditions, a new transition from
human history. They are asking new ers and even sometimes students our- the Upper Paleolithic to the Holocene,
questions and applying new methods selves. We know that instructional and an expanded section on the his-
and techniques in their search for the software, the Internet, multimedia, tory of race and modern examples. The
roots of the human past. The results are new teaching approaches, and a host first half of Chapter 9 has been reorga-
dynamic, exciting, and full of surpris- of other factors (including techno- nized so that the major topics flow in
es as scientists continually reevaluate logically adept students!) are reshap- an order that students will find easier
what we know about how and why our ing classrooms and the ways in which to understand. Up-to-date material on
ancestors evolved biologically and cul- students and instructors engage the an important new species, A. sediba, is
turally to produce us. course material. To meet the pedagogi- included, as well as a revised discus-
The eleventh edition of cal challenges of today’s classrooms, sion of the earliest appearance of the
Understanding Humans: Introduction to we enhance each edition with in- genus Homo. Chapter 10 includes recali-
Physical Anthropology and Archaeology chapter learning aids (see “In-Chapter brations of crucial dating for H. erectus
addresses these new developments in Learning Aids,” p. xvi) to help ensure finds from Dmanisi, Koobi Fora, and
an engaging manner and presents stu- that learning and teaching the course Ceprano. We also revised and updated
dents with the most important aspects material continue to be positive and interpretations of stone tool technolo-
of the current understanding of human productive experiences. gies of the earliest African immigrants
development. Working with the help (that is, defining where and with whom
of many constructive comments and Oldowan and Acheulian industries are
suggestions from instructors and stu- What’s New in the found and what they tell us about the
dents who used the tenth edition in the Eleventh Edition? behavioral capabilities of these homi-
classroom, we improved and updated nins). The major changes to Chapters 11
its content, tightened up its coverage Much is new. Every chapter has been and 12 rest on new molecular evidence
of key topics, enhanced the quality of revised and updated to ensure that as well as important new fossil and
its pictures and graphs, and held it to students are introduced to the most archaeological discoveries. These data
the same length as the tenth edition. current and timely interpretations of reinforce recent theories concerning the
Cengage Learning, our publisher, also human biocultural evolution. Chapter origins of modern humans in Africa
worked hard to improve the quality of 1 sets the ball rolling with an impor- (Chapter 12), as well as the earlier dis-
its production. tant new chapter opener that makes the persal of Neandertals and the inter-
The new edition stays true to our case for the relevance of the study of breeding of Neandertals and modern
long tradition of providing introduc- biocultural evolution to modern every- humans outside of Africa (Chapter 11).
tory students and their instructors with day life. The chapters on heredity and The chapters that deal with the
a current and comprehensive under- evolution (Chapters 2 through 5) were human experience from the end of
standing of human biological and cul- trimmed and updated, and more mate- the Ice Age to the earliest civiliza-
tural development from an evolution- rial was added on the mechanisms tions (Chapters 13 through 15) have
ary point of view. As always, the most of evolution and examples of natu- been thoroughly updated. In Chapter
compelling justification for a new ral selection in action. Chapter 5 also 13, we tightened up the discussion
edition is simply that the story of the includes the new section “What Are of competing theories for the earliest
human past changes rapidly. New dis- Fossils and How Do They Form?” sup- entry of humans into the New World.
coveries, fresh theories, and new meth- ported by a new photo display. More The weight of evidence supports the
ods and technologies force revisions, material on social organization and a interpretation that the earliest North
sometimes fundamental revisions, in new archaeology section was added to Americans entered the New World
the understanding of how the world the chapters on primates (Chapters 6 from northeastern Asia. In the dis-
around us works. through 7). cussion of the origins of agriculture
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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
PREFACE
xvi
(Chapter 14), we expanded our cover- from, where we are going, and how ▶ At a Glance features briefly summa-
age of Africa and East Asia and added we know this. Learning objectives rize complex or controversial mate-
more material on the many recent con- have been added to the beginning of rial in a visually understandable
tributions based on plant microfossil each chapter to help students identify fashion.
(for example, phytolith) research and and understand what important con-
▶ Figures, including numerous pho-
DNA analyses. In Chapter 15, which cepts and material they are expected
tographs, line drawings, and maps,
deals with the origins of the earli- to learn, and chapter summaries have
most in full color, are carefully
est civilizations, we updated the sec- been updated in bullet format for eas-
selected to clarify and support
tion “Why Did Civilizations Form?”; ier access. Finally, the photos and art-
discussion in the text.
we also shortened and updated the work have been substantially expand-
Mesopotamian and Peruvian sections ed and updated, not just to make the ▶ Critical Thinking Questions, at
and expanded coverage of the earliest book more visually appealing, but also the end of each chapter, have been
Chinese civilizations. to provide a better sense of what phys- completely revised to reinforce key
Finally, we added a new concluding ical anthropologists and archaeolo- concepts and encourage students
chapter entitled “Biocultural Evolution gists do and why they enjoy doing it! to think critically about what they
and the Anthropocene,” which returns For those familiar with earlier editions, have read.
to the theme of the relevance of bio- you’ll notice that all the maps have
▶ What’s Important tables that sum-
cultural evolution to modern everyday been redrawn, as has much of the other
marize the most significant fossil
life. It draws important implications artwork. In addition, many photos have
discoveries and archaeological sites
from the course of human evolution been replaced with upgraded versions
are included at the end of relevant
and heightens student awareness of and new ones added.
chapters to help students as they
the consequences that the extraordi-
review the chapter material.
nary success of our species holds for
In-Chapter Learning Aids ▶
the future of all living things and the Full bibliographical citations
earth itself. ▶ Learning Objectives, at the begin- throughout the book provide
Throughout this textbook, we ning of each chapter, help students sources from which the materials
streamlined the presentation of mate- identify the important concepts are drawn. This type of documen-
rial in every chapter with a thorough and material they are expected tation guides students to published
editing to simplify explanations and to learn. source materials and illustrates for
added more headings to better define them the proper use of referencing.
and focus on shorter text segments. We ▶ A running glossary in the margins All cited sources are listed in the
devoted considerable effort to improv- provides definitions of important comprehensive bibliography at
ing the conversational tone of the text, terms on the page where the term the back of the book.
as well as forging a stronger expla- is first introduced. A full glossary is
nation of the biocultural approach provided at the back of the book.
that tells the story of where we came
Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
xvii
Acknowledgments
We wish to thank our colleagues who vided photographs, comments, and Manzi, Monte McCrossin, Russell
so carefully reviewed the text and gave criticism, we are greatly apprecia- Mittermeier, Lorna Moore, Stephen
us many helpful suggestions: tive: Zeresenay Alemsegel, Lee Berger, Nash, Gerald Newlands, John Oates,
Anne Browning, University of Colin Betts, Jonathan Bloch, C. K. Bonnie Pedersen, David Pilbeam,
Arizona; Richard Deutsch, John A. Brain, Günter Bräuer, Peter Brown, Dolores Piperno, William Pratt,
Logan College; Mark Mehrer, Northern Joanna Casey, Chip Clark, Desmond Judith Regensteiner, Debra Rich,
Illinois University; Carol Morrow, Clark, Ron Clarke, Robert Clouse, Sastrohamijoyo Sartono, Jeffrey
Southeast Missouri State University; Lisa Cordani-Stevenson, Raymond Schwartz, Eugenie Scott, Rose
Bob Mucci, Indiana University; Jon Dart, Louis de Bonis, Emanuelle Sevick, Helaine Silverman, Elwyn
Oplinger, University of Maine at de Merode, Jean DeRousseau, Tom Simons, Meredith Small, Fred Smith,
Farmington. Emerson, Dennis Etler, Andy Fortier, Thierry Smith, Suzanne Spencer-
In addition, we want to thank Diane France, Robert Franciscus, Wood, Li Tianyuan, Philip Tobias,
the team at Cengage Learning: Erin David Frayer, Glen Freimuth, Erik Trinkaus, Shane Vanderford,
Mitchell, Lin Marshall Gaylord, Kathleen Galvin, Michael Hargrave, Richard VanderHoek, Alan Walker,
Mallory Ortberg, John Chell, Caryl Eve Hargrave, David Haring, Dietrich Wegner, James Westgate,
Gorska, and Cheri Palmer. Moreover, Nancy Hawkins, John Hodgkiss, Randy White, Milford Wolpoff, and
for their unflagging expertise and Almut Hoffman, Ellen Ingmanson, Xinzhi Wu.
patience, we are grateful to our copy Fred Jacobs, Don Johanson, Peter
editor, Janet Greenblatt, our produc- Jones, John Kappelman, Richard November 2011
tion coordinator, Gary Hespenheide, Kay, Kenneth Kelly, William Barry Lewis
and his skilled staff at Hespenheide Kimbel, Laura Kozuch, Arlene Robert Jurmain
Design: Patti Zeman, Bridget Neumayr, Kruse, Christopher Kunz, Richard Lynn Kilgore
and Randy Miyake. Leakey, Linda Levitch, Hannah
To the many friends and col- Lewis, Susan Lewis, Carol Lofton,
leagues who have generously pro- David Lordkipanidze, Giorgio
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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
xviii
Supplements
Understanding Humans: ▶ The text’s Instructor’s Resource Case Studies in Archaeology, edited
Introduction to Physical Manual and Test Bank in electronic by Jeffrey Quilter These engaging
Anthropology and Archaeology, format. accounts of cutting-edge archaeologi-
Eleventh Edition, comes with a strong cal techniques, issues, and solutions—
The Wadsworth Anthropology Video
supplements program to help instruc- as well as studies discussing the col-
Library, Vol. 1–3 The Wadsworth
tors create an effective learning envi- lection of material remains—range
Anthropology Video Library drives
ronment both inside and outside the from site-specific excavations to types
home the relevance of course top-
classroom and to aid students in mas- of archaeology practiced.
ics through short, provocative clips of
tering the material.
current and historical events. Perfect
for enriching lectures and engaging Lab Manual and Workbook for
students in discussion, many of the Physical Anthropology, Seventh
Supplements for Instructors
segments on this volume have been Edition Written by Diane L. France,
Online Instructor’s Manual with Test gathered from BBC Motion Gallery. this edition of the workbook and lab
Bank This online resource includes Ask your Cengage Learning represen- manual includes a new “Introduction
a sample syllabus and offers detailed tative for a list of contents. to Science and Critical Thinking”
chapter outlines, lecture suggestions, that precedes the first chapter. Using
key terms, student activities, and hands-on exercises, this richly illus-
Internet exercises. In addition, each Supplements for Students trated full-color lab manual bal-
chapter offers over 50 test questions, Companion website for ances the study of genetics, human
including multiple-choice, true-false, Understanding Humans: osteology, anthropometry, and foren-
short-answer, and essay questions. Introduction to Physical sic anthropology with the study of
Contact your local Cengage Learning Anthropology and Archaeology, primates and human evolution. In
sales representative for access. Eleventh Edition This compan- addition to providing hands-on lab
PowerLecture™ with ion website offers an in-depth and assignments that apply the field’s per-
ExamView® for Understanding interactive study experience that spectives and techniques to real sit-
Humans: Introduction to Physical will help students make their grade. uations, this edition provides more
Anthropology and Archaeology, Chapter resources include tuto- explanatory information and sample
Eleventh Edition This easy-to-use rial quizzes, glossary, flash cards, exercises throughout the text to help
one-stop digital library and presenta- and more! make the concepts of physical anthro-
tion tool includes the following book- pology easier to understand. Contact
specific resources as well as direct Classic and Contemporary your Cengage sales representative to
links to many of Wadsworth’s highly Readings in Physical package with the text.
valued electronic resources for Anthropology Edited by Mary K.
anthropology: Sandford and Eileen Jackson, this Virtual Laboratories for Physical
accessible reader presents prima- Anthropology, CD-ROM, Fourth
▶ Ready-to-use Microsoft®
ry articles with introductions and Edition, by John Kappelman
PowerPoint® lecture slides with
questions for discussion, helping Through the use of video segments,
photos and graphics from the text,
students to better understand the interactive exercises, quizzes, 3-D ani-
making it easy for the instructor to
nature of scientific inquiry. Students mations, and sound and digital imag-
assemble, edit, publish, and present
will read classic and contemporary es, students can actively participate in
customized lectures.
articles on key topics, including the 12 labs on their own terms—at home,
▶ ExamView testing software, which science of physical anthropology, in the library—at any time! Recent fos-
provides all the test items from evolution and heredity, primates, sil discoveries are included, as well as
the text’s test bank in electronic human evolution, and modern exercises in behavior and archaeolo-
format, enabling the instructor to human variation. gy and critical thinking and problem-
create customized tests of up to 250 solving activities. Virtual Laboratories
items that can be delivered in print includes weblinks, outstanding fos-
or online. sil images, exercises, and a post-lab
self-quiz.
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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
SUPPLEMENTS
xix
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xx
About the Authors
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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Anthropology
C H A P T E R
1
Introduction
to Anthropology
© Dr. Robert Clouse
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After you have mastered the material in this chapter, you will be able to:
▶ Explain and give examples of the relevance of anthropology to modern everyday life.
▶ Define basic anthropological concepts and understand their relationship to the goals
of anthropological research.
▶ Describe the main similarities and differences between physical anthropology and
archaeology as approaches for understanding the human past.
Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO ANTHROPOLOGY
Figure 1-2
are today, and the successes and failures the natural and social environments in
we made along the way. which they live. Culture includes tech-
As we’ll emphasize in this book, nologies that range from stone tools to (a) An early stone tool from East Africa. This
humans have occupied center stage computers; subsistence patterns rang- type of tool was used there about 1.5 million
years ago. (b) Hubble space telescope against
in only one short scene of life’s evolu- ing from hunting and gathering to agri-
the earth’s horizon. (c) A Samburu woman
tionary play. Our role is fascinating, business; housing types from thatched building a simple, traditional dwelling of stems,
but many of the cultural factors that huts to skyscrapers; and clothing plant fibers, and mud. (d) These Hong Kong
we point to as evidence of our extraor- from animal skins to synthetic fibers skyscrapers are typical of cities in industrialized
dinary success as a species increas- (Fig. 1-2). Because religion, values, social countries today.
Lynn Kilgore
(a)
Lynn Kilgore
NASA / Space Telescope Science Institute
(c)
(b)
(d)
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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO ANTHROPOLOGY
4 organization, language, kinship, mar- factors are influencing the spread of HIV
riage rules, gender roles, and so on, are throughout populations in both devel-
all aspects of culture, culture shapes oped and developing countries.
people’s perceptions of the external envi- Biologists study all the biologi-
ronment, or worldview, in particular cal aspects of humankind, including
ways that distinguish each society from adaptation and evolution, but when
all others. such research also considers the role of
One fundamental point to remem- cultural factors, it falls within the dis-
ber is that culture is learned and not bio- cipline of anthropology. This approach
logically determined. In other words, recognizes that the human predisposi-
we inherit genes that influence our bio- tion to assimilate a culture and to func-
logical characteristics, but those genes tion within it is influenced by biologi-
have no impact on cultural behavior. cal factors. But in the course of human
Beginning in infancy, each of us begins evolution, as you’ll see, the role of cul-
slowly to learn, through the process ture has increasingly assumed an added
called enculturation, the language and importance. In this respect, humans are
dialect of our family and community, as unlike all other animals.
well as the shared norms, values, beliefs,
and other aspects of culture that we need
to be a productive member of the society What Is Anthropology?
of which we are a part. Our worldviews
are shaped much more by our respec- Stated ambitiously but simply, anthro-
tive enculturation experiences than by pology is the study of humankind. The
our unique genetic ancestry. We are all term itself is derived from the Greek
products of the culture in which we are words anthropos, meaning “human,”
socialized, and since most human behav- and logos, meaning “word” or “study
ior is learned, it clearly is also culturally of.” Clearly, anthropologists aren’t the
patterned. only scientists who study humans, and
As biological beings, humans are also the goals of anthropology are shared
subject to the same evolutionary forces by other disciplines within the social,
that act on all living things On hearing behavioral, and biological sciences. As
the term evolution, many people think of we noted earlier, the main difference
the appearance of new species. Certainly, between anthropology and other relat-
new species formation is one conse- ed fields is anthropology’s broad per-
quence of evolution; however, biologists spective, which integrates the findings
see evolution as an ongoing process with of many disciplines, including sociolo-
a precise genetic meaning. Quite sim- gy, economics, history, psychology, and
ply, evolution is a change in the genetic biology.
makeup of a population from one gener- In the United States, anthropology
ation to the next. It’s the accumulation of comprises three main subfields: cultural
such changes over considerable periods anthropology, archaeology, and physical
of time that can result in the emergence anthropology. Additionally, many uni-
or extinction of species. In the course versities include linguistic anthropology
society A group of people who share a of human evolution, biocultural inter- as a fourth subfield. Each of these sub-
common culture. actions have resulted in such anatomi- disciplines, in turn, is divided into more
cal, biological, and behavioral changes specialized areas of interest. The follow-
enculturation The process by which indi- as increased brain size, reorganization ing section briefly describes the main
viduals, generally as children, learn the values
of neurological structures, decreased subdisciplines of anthropology.
and beliefs of the family, peer groups, and
society in which they are raised.
tooth size, and development of language,
to list a few. Biocultural interactions are
Cultural Anthropology
adaptation Functional response of organ- still critically important today; among
isms or populations to the environment. other things, they are changing patterns Cultural anthropology (also called social
Adaptation results from evolutionary change of disease worldwide. As one example, anthropology) is the study of all aspects
(specifically, as a result of natural selection).
changing social and sexual mores in of human behavior. Its beginnings are
Enlightenment An eighteenth-century many countries may have influenced the rooted in the Enlightenment of the eight-
philosophical movement in western Europe evolutionary rate of HIV, the virus that eenth century, which exerted consider-
that assumed a knowable order to the natu- causes AIDS. Certainly, these cultural able influence on how Europeans viewed
ral world and the interpretive value of reason
as the primary means of identifying and
explaining this order.
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WHAT IS ANTHROPOLOGY?
the place of humans in nature, ques- receive much of their training in physical 5
tioned the extent to which there exists a anthropology.
knowable order to the natural world, and Many subfields of cultural anthro-
introduced fresh concepts of “primitive,” pology have practical applications and
or traditional, societies. These changes in are pursued by anthropologists working
political and social philosophy were par- both within and outside the university
ticularly felt in the spread of European setting. This approach is aptly termed
colonial powers between 1500 and 1900. applied anthropology. Although most
The interest in traditional societies applied anthropologists regard them-
led many early anthropologists to study selves as cultural anthropologists, the
and record lifeways that are now mostly designation is also sometimes used to
extinct. These studies yielded descrip- describe the activities of archaeologists
tive ethnographies that later became the and physical anthropologists. Indeed,
basis for comparisons between societ- the various fields of anthropology, as
ies. Early ethnographies were narratives they are practiced in the United States,
emphasizing such phenomena as reli- overlap to a considerable degree. After
gion, ritual, myth, use of symbols, sub- all, that was the rationale for combining
sistence and dietary preferences, technol- them under the umbrella of anthropol-
ogy, gender roles, child-rearing practices, ogy in the first place.
taboos, medical practices, and how kin-
ship was reckoned.
Physical Anthropology
The focus of cultural anthropology
changed considerably with the global Physical anthropology (also called bio-
social, political, and economic upheav- logical anthropology) is the study of
als of the twentieth century. Researchers human biology within the framework
using traditional ethnographic meth- of evolution and with an emphasis on
ods still spend months or years living in the interaction between biology and cul-
and studying various societies, but the ture. The origins of physical anthro-
nature of the study groups has shifted. pology are found in two main areas of
For example, in recent decades, ethno- nineteenth-century research. First, there
graphic techniques have been applied was increasing curiosity among many
to the study of diverse subcultures scientists (at the time called natural his-
and their interactions with one anoth- torians) regarding the mechanisms by
er in contemporary metropolitan areas. which modern species had come to be.
The subfield of cultural anthropology In other words, they were beginning
that deals with issues of inner cities is to doubt the literal, biblical interpreta-
appropriately called urban anthropology. tion of creation. Although most scientists
Among the many issues addressed by weren’t prepared to believe that humans
urban anthropologists are relationships had evolved from earlier forms, discov-
between various ethnic groups, those eries of several Neandertal fossils (see
aspects of traditional societies that are Chapter 11) in the 1800s raised questions
maintained by immigrant populations, about the origins and antiquity of the
poverty, labor relations, homelessness, human species.
access to health care, and problems fac- The sparks of interest in biologi-
ing the elderly. cal change over time were fanned into
Medical anthropology is the subfield flames by the publication of Charles
that explores the relationship between Darwin’s On the Origin of Species in
various cultural attributes and health 1859. Today, paleoanthropology, or
and disease. Areas of interest include the study of human evolution, particu-
how different groups view disease larly as revealed in the fossil record, is
processes and how these views affect a major subfield of physical anthropol-
treatment or the willingness to accept ogy (Fig. 1-3). There are now thousands
treatment. When medical anthropolo- of specimens of the remains of human ethnographies Detailed descriptive studies
gists focus on the social dimensions of ancestors housed in research collec- of human societies. In cultural anthropology,
ethnography is traditionally the study of non-
disease, they may collaborate with phy- tions. Taken together, these fossils span
Western societies.
sicians and physical anthropologists. at least 4 million years of prehistory;
Indeed, many medical anthropologists and although incomplete, they provide paleoanthropology The interdisciplinary
approach to the study of earlier hominins—
their chronology, physical structure, archaeo-
logical remains, habitats, etc.
Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Another random document with
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asian varsin odottamatonta käännettä, heilahdutti itsensä satulaan ja
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Karjankierros.
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