GENERAL PHYSICS 2

MAGNETIC INDUCTION
What does EMF stands for?
ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE
Is it possible to produce
an electric current using
only wires and NO
battery?
Electric Generating Station:
1. gravitational potential energy
Hydroelectric plant
2. chemical energy
coal- or oil-fired plant
3. Nuclear energy
Nuclear plant
The process of inducing a
current in a circuit with a
changing magnetic field is called
Electromagnetic Induction or
Magnetic Induction
In a power-generating station,
magnets move relative to coils of
wire to produce a changing magnetic
flux in the coils and hence an emf.
Other key components of electric
power systems, such as
transformers, also depend on
magnetically induced emfs.
Key Terms:
Electromotive Force (EMF) – the voltage generated by a
battery or by the magnetic force according to Faraday’s Law. It
is measured in the units of volts, not Newtons, and thus, is not
actually a Force.
Solenoid - coil of wire that acts as a magnet when an
electric current flows through it
Flux - The rate of transfer of energy (or another physical
quantity) through a given surface, specifically electric flux or
magnetic flux
Suppose you have a long solenoid placed
in a vacuum, and a fixed current is
supplied to the coil. An induced magnetic
field (Bvacuum) exists at a point in the
solenoid. Filling the solenoid with a
different material will yield a different
magnetic field (B). Relating this two
magnetic fields will produce quantity
referred to as the relative permeability of
the material that was used to fill the
solenoid. Mathematically, this quantity is
computed as:
Magnetic field
𝐵
Relative km =
permeability of Bvacuum Induced Magnetic field
the material
Relating the relative permeability of a material to the
permeability of free space or vacuum (µ0 = 4π x
−7
10 𝑇 − 𝑚/𝐴) yields the permeability of the material
mathematically expressed as
Relative
permeability of
material

permeability
µ = km µ 0 Permeability of
free space
of material
MAGNETIC EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT
MATERIALS
Type of Material 𝒌𝒎 (Material’s Effect on the
magnetic Magnetic Field of
permeability) the Solenoid
Diamagnetic Slightly lower than 1 Slightly decrease B
Paramagnetic Slightly higher than 1 Slightly increase B
Ferromagnetic 50 or larger Greatly increases B

*B – magnetic field
MAGNETIC FLUX
Every magnetic pole is surrounded by a magnetic field,
wherein the magnetic force from the pole could affect
other magnetic poles.
The measurement of the strength of the magnetic
force from the pole is referred to as the magnetic flux.
Mathematically, this is computed using the equation:
Φ = BAcosӨ
Unit: Weber (Wb)
Example 1:
A 40-cm solenoid with a cross-sectional area of 8 cm2 is wound
with 300 turns of wire and made to carry a current of 1.2A. Its
core has a relative permeability of 600. Calculate the flux in the
solenoid.
Number of turns
µ0 𝑁𝐼 Current
Bvacuum = length
𝐿

(4π x 10−7 𝑇−𝑚/𝐴 )(300 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠)(1.2𝐴)

=
𝟎.𝟒𝟎𝒎
= 1.13 x 10-3T
Consider that the core has km value of 600. Thus, you have
B = kmBvacuum
−3
= (600)(1.13 𝑥 10 𝑇)
= 0.68 T
Note that because the field lines are perpendicular to the cross
section of the solenoid, the magnetic flux is thus computed as
follows:
Φ = BA = (0.68 T)(8 x 10−4 m2)
= 54.4 x 10-6 Wb 𝑚 2
8 cm x 2
(100𝑐𝑚)2
Example 2:
Consider a solenoid that is 50cm long and has a cross-sectional
area of 5 cm2. It is wound with 400 turns of wire, and a current
of 2.3A is supplied to it. Assume that its core has a relative
permeability of 400. How much flux is in the solenoid?
Number of turns
µ0 𝑁𝐼 Current
Bvacuum = length
𝐿

(4π x 10−7 𝑇−𝑚/𝐴 )(400 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠)(2.3𝐴)

=
𝟎.𝟓𝟎𝒎
= 2.31 x 10-3T
Note that the core has km value of 400. Thus, you have
B = kmBvacuum
−3
= (400)(2.31 𝑥 10 𝑇)
= 0.92 T
Because the field lines are perpendicular to the cross-section of
the solenoid, the magnetic flux is computed as follows:

Φ = BA = (0.92 T)(5 x 10−4 m2)

= 46 x 10-6 Wb
Example 3:
Suppose you have a 70cm solenoid having a cross-sectional
area of 9 cm2. This is wound with 900 turns of wire and carries
a current of 3.4A. Suppose that its core has a relative
permeability of 400. What is the flux in the solenoid?
Number of turns
µ0 𝑁𝐼 Current
Bvacuum = length
𝐿

(4π x 10−7 𝑇−𝑚/𝐴 )(900 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠)(3.4𝐴)

=
𝟎.𝟕𝟎𝒎
= 5.49 x 10-3T
The core has km value of 400. Thus, you have
B = kmBvacuum
−3
= (400)(5.49 𝑥 10 𝑇)
= 2.20 T
Because the field lines are perpendicular to the cross-section of
the solenoid, the magnetic flux is computed as follows:

Φ = BA = (2.2 T)(9 x 10−4 m2)

= 19.8 x 10-6 Wb
Reflect Upon
Gauss’s Law implies that magnetic monopoles
cannot exist. Magnetic poles will always exist in
pairs or as dipoles.
Likewise, can you also say that you cannot exist
by yourself alone?
Problem Solving 1:
The core of a solenoid produces a magnetic flux of
6 x 10-4 Wb. Meanwhile, removing the core produces a
flux of 4 x 10-7 Wb in the solenoid with the same
amount of current. Compute the relative permeability of
the core.
2. A 100-cm long solenoid is wound with 10,000 turns
on an aluminum rod with a radius of 20m. Compute the
flux through the solenoid if a current of 4A is supplied to
it. The relative permeability of aluminum is 250. (Area
of circle: A=π𝑟 2 )
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

Suppose you have a loop of current-carrying

conductor. This loop carries a magnetic field with
constant magnetic flux. Experiments have shown
that an EMF will be induced in the flop of the flux
changes. This process is referred to as
electromagnetic induction.
FARADAY’S LAW
The induced EMF in a coil is proportional to the
number of loops in the coil and the rate of
change of the magnetic flux within the coil loops
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

Faraday concluded that electric current could

also be induced by a changing magnetic flux in a
system of circuits aside from being produced by a
battery.
USING FARADAY’S LAW

Transformers are used to adjust AC (alternating

current) voltages and currents in circuits. It is
made up of two coils of wire wound on the same
core. It has a primary coil or the input coil and a
secondary coil or the output coil.
If the secondary coil has more turns than the primary, then the alternating
voltage produced is increased. On the other hand, if the secondary coil has
fewer turns than the primary, the voltage produces is decreased.
The following shows the relationship between
the primary and secondary voltages with respect
to the number of turns:
𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
=
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠

For ideal transformers, the input power is the

same as the output power,
𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝑉𝐼𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
In Faraday’s law, increasing the number of loops
will strengthen the induced voltage (produced or
induced by any source) in the coil. On the other
hand, reducing the number of loops will likewise
decrease the induced voltage. Another factor
affecting the value of the induced voltage is the
rate of change in the magnetic field with respect
to time. A rapid change in the flux induces a high
voltage. Similarly, a slow change in the flux
produces a low induced voltage.
Mathematically, Faraday’s Law is stated as
follows:
Change in
∆Φ
EMF = N magnetic flux
∆𝑡
Elapse time
Electromotive
Force, Wb/s
Number of Loops
Example 1
A circular coil with a radius of 3cm is made up of 50 loops.
Its orientation makes the magnetic field lines normal to the
area of the coil. If the magnetic field is varied from 0.10T to
0.35T in 2 milliseconds, what is the average induced EMF in
the coil?
Solution: The change in the magnetic flux is computed as:
∆Φ = 𝐵𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 A - 𝐵𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 A
Because the area are the same, the expression can be
simplified as follows:
∆Φ = (𝐵𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 - 𝐵𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 )A
∆Φ = (0.35𝑇 - 0.10) π 0.03m 2

= 7.1 x 10-4 Wb
Then the average EMF is computed as follows:
∆Φ
EMF = N
∆𝑡
7.1 x 10 -4 Wb
= 50 x
2 𝑥 10−3 𝑠
= 17.7 V or 17.7 Wb/s
Example 2
Consider a circular coil of radius 6 cm that has 70 loops. Its
orientation forms magnetic field lines that are perpendicular
to the area of the coil. Suppose the magnetic field changed
from 0.20T to 0.65T in 5 milliseconds, how much average
EMF is induced in the coil?
Solution: The change in the magnetic flux is computed as:
∆Φ = 𝐵𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 A - 𝐵𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 A
Note that the area are the same. Thus, the expression can
be simplified as follows:
∆Φ = (𝐵𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 - 𝐵𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 )A
∆Φ = (0.65𝑇 - 0.20) π 0.06m 2

= 5.1 x 10-3 Wb
The average EMF is computed as follows:
∆Φ
EMF = N
∆𝑡
5.1 x 10 -3 Wb
= 70 x
5 𝑥 10−3 𝑠
= 71.4 V or 71.4 Wb/s
Example 3
Suppose you have a circular coil with a radius of 7 cm that
has 50 loops. The way it is oriented make if form magnetic
field lines normal to the area of the coil. If the magnetic field
changed from 0.10T to 0.75T in 3 milliseconds, what is the
average EMF induced in the coil?
Solution: The change in the magnetic flux is computed as:
∆Φ = 𝐵𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 A - 𝐵𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 A
Because the areas are identical, the expression can be
simplified as:
∆Φ = (𝐵𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 - 𝐵𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 )A
∆Φ = (0.75𝑇 - 0.10) π 0.07m 2

= 2.21 x 10-3 Wb
Computing the average EMF, you have
∆Φ
EMF = N
∆𝑡
2.21 x 10-3 Wb
= 50 x
3 𝑥 10−3 𝑠
= 36.83 V or 36.83 Wb/s
You can infer from Faraday’s law that with the
changing magnetic flux, electric coils can also
induced EMF in itself. A change in the current in
the coil also changes the flux through the coil.
This produces an EMF in the same coil. The
induced EMF is proportional to a change in the
magnetic flux over a change in time or
∆Φ
∆𝑡
Note that ∆Φ must be proportional to ∆𝑖, where i
is the current that causes the flux. Then you have
Change in
∆𝑖 current
|EMF| = | L |
∆𝑡
Change in time
Electromotive
Force, Wb/s
Proportionality
constant
depends on the
geometry of the
coil, Henry(H)
Example 4
A constant current of 2A in a coil with 400 loops generates a
magnetic flux of 10-4 Wb within the loops of the coil in 0.08
seconds. What is the self-inductance of the coil?
Solution: The average EMF of the coil is computed as:
∆Φ
|EMF| = N
∆𝑡
10-4 Wb - 0 Wb
= 400 x
0.08𝑠
= 0.5 V or 0.5 Wb/s
Consider the following EMF equation involving self-
inductance:
∆𝑖
|EMF| = | L |
∆𝑡
EMF (∆𝑡)|
L = | |
∆𝑖
0.5𝑉(0.08𝑠)
= | |
2𝐴−0𝐴
= 0.02H
Example 5
A 30-cm long solenoid is made by winding 2000 loops of
wire around an iron rod with a cross-sectional area of 1.5
cm2. Considering the relative permeability of the iron to be
600, compute the self-inductance of the solenoid. How
much average EMF is induced in the solenoid as its current is
decreased from 0.6A to 0.1A in 0.03s?
Solution: Consider these two expressions for EMF.
∆Φ
|EMF| = N
∆𝑡
∆𝑖
|EMF| = L
∆𝑡
Because these are equal, you can equate these
so that you have
∆Φ ∆𝑖
N =L
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡

∆Φ∆𝑡
N =L
∆𝑡∆𝑖

∆Φ
L=N
∆𝑖
Note that if the current changes from zero to I,
the flux must change from zero to Φ. Thus, ∆𝑖 is
equal to I, and ∆Φ is equal to Φ. Then you
have
Φ 𝐵𝐴
L=N =N
𝐼 𝐼
Due to substitution considering an air-core
solenoid will yield
µ0 2 𝑁𝐴
L=
𝑑
 µ
With 𝑘𝑚 = , you have
µ0
µ0 𝑁2 𝐴
L=
𝑑
600 4π x −7
10 𝑇−
𝑚
𝐴
2000 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 2(1.5𝑥10−4 𝑚2
L =
0.30 𝑚
= 1.51 H
Thus, the self-inductance of the coil is approximately 1.51H.
Also,
∆𝑖
|EMF| = L | |
∆𝑡
0.5𝐴
= 1.5 H | | = 25V
0.03𝑠
Problem Solving 2:
1. An induced EMF of 24V exists in a coil when the current in the coil
changes at a rate of 50 A/s. What is the self-inductance of the coil?

2. A steady current of 6A generates a flux of 3.5 Wb in a coil with 5000

turns. Compute the self-inductance of the coil.

3. A solenoid has an iron core that is 10cm long and has a cross-sectional
area of 8.0 cm3. Wire is wound with 400 turns. Compute the self-
inductance of the solenoid, considering 500 to be the relative
permeability of iron
Lenz’s Law
Another law of interest in the study of electromagnetic induction is
Lenz’s Law, which is named after the Russian scientist Heinrich Lenz.

“An induced EMF will always be opposed in direction to the change in

magnetic flux that produces it”

This statement implies that if the flux is increasing in a coil, then the
current from the induced EMF will generate a new flux to cancel the
increasing flux. On the other hand, if the flux is decreasing in the coil,
then the current of the induced EMF will produce the flux that will
restore the decreasing flux.
If the bar magnet is moved toward
the coil, the magnetic field is
increased in the loop. The coil will
induced another magnetic field to
oppose the increase of magnetic
field in the loop
The induced magnetic field is moved
upward inside the coil. This causes a
decrease in the magnetic field on
the loop. This effect should be
opposed by the induced magnetic
field
As a conductor moves through a magnetic field, the lines of flux of the
field are cut and an EMF is produced. In this case, the change in flux
∆Φ) is the number of flux lines cut by the moving conductor. Thus, you
have

∆Φ
|EMF| = N
∆𝑡
Example 6
A 50-loop coil is pulled in 0.02 s in-between the poles of a
magnet. Its area intercepts a flux of 3.1 x 10-4 Wb and
reduces it to 0.1 x 10-4 Wb. What is the average EMF
induced in the coil?
Solution: By direct substitution to the formula for average
EMF, you have
∆Φ (3.1 x 10-4 Wb−0.1 x 10-4 Wb)
|EMF| = N = (50)
∆𝑡 0.02𝑠
= 0.75 V
Example 7
Consider a coil with 30 loops that is pulled in 0.05 s between
the magnetic poles. The area of the coil intercepts a flux of
4.2 x 10-4 Wb and reduces it to 1.3 x 10-4 Wb. How much is
the average EMF induced in the coil?
Solution: directly substituting to the formula for average
EMF, you have
∆Φ (4.2 x 10-4 Wb−1.3 x 10-4 Wb)
|EMF| = N = (30)
∆𝑡 0.05𝑠
= 0.17 V
Example 8
Suppose you have a coil with 90 loops that passes between
the poles of a magnet in 0.07s. The coil intercepts a flux of
7.2 x 10-4 Wb and reduces it to 0.13 x 10-4 Wb. Compute the
average EMF induced in the coil.
Solution: by substituting directly to the formula for average
EMF, you have
∆Φ (7.2 x 10-4 Wb−0.13 x 10-4 Wb)
|EMF| = N = (90)
∆𝑡 0.07𝑠
= 0.91 V
Consider a straight conductor of length L. The induced EMF that moves
with a velocity (v) perpendicular to a magnetic field (B) is given by
Length of wire
EMF=BLv
velocity
Magnetic field

In this equation, B, v, and the wire must be perpendicular

Example 9
A 30 cm copper wire is perpendicular to a magnetic field of
flux density of 0.8 Wb/m2. It moves perpendicular to the
field with a speed of 0.5 m/s. What is the induced EMF in
the wire?
Solution: by direct substitution to the formula, you have

EMF = BLv = (0.8 Wb/m2 )(0.30m)(0.5m/s)

= 0.12 V
Lenz’s Law implies that the induced EMF
indirectly opposes the change that produced it.
This opposition is due to the force from the
magnetic field of the induced current in the
conductor. Knowing the direction of the induced
current would make you identify the direction of
the induced EMF.
Problem Solving 3:
1. A flat coil with 120 loops of wire has a radius of 10mm. The coil is
placed in a magnetic field of 0.40T to enabled a maximum flux to go
through it. It later rotated in 0.05 s to a position that no flux can go
through. What is the average EMF included between the terminals of
∆𝐵𝑥𝐴
the coil? (formula: EMF = N )
∆𝑡
2. Consider a coil with 1000 loops that is pulled in-between magnetic
poles in 0.12s. The coil intercepts a flux of 15.5 x 10-4 Wb and reduces it
to 3x10-4 Wb. Compute the average EMF induced in the coil.
3. A straight line conductor of length 0.4m is moved with a speed of
7m/s perpendicular to a magnetic field of an intensity of 0.9Wb/m2.
What is the induced EMF across the conductor?
Direct Current and Alternating Current
Cells and batteries contain fixed positive and
negative terminals. This implies that current
from the battery flows in one way at all
times, from the positive end to the negative
end. This current is referred to as direct
current (DC). DC is used for all devices
powered by batteries. Devices requiring the
use of an AC adapter plugged to a wall
socket or USB cable also make use of DC.
Direct Current and Alternating Current
Along any conductor, current can flow in two
ways. Its flow is dependent on its associated
EMF. If the EMF alternately directs itself,
associated current also flows alternately
along the conductor. This leads to the
production of an alternating current (AC).
Wall outlets provide AC to appliances
connected to them. Electric motors such as
those in washing machines, dishwashers,
and refrigerators are powered by AC.
Properties of LC Circuits

An inductor is a coil of
conductor attached to a
circuit for the purpose of
inducing EMF.
Properties of LC Circuits

Connecting a capacitor and

an inductor together in a
circuit produces an LC
circuit. A simple LC circuit is
shown
Begin with the consideration that the capacitor is fully charged. This implies that all
of the electrical energy in the circuit is stored in the capacitor. Consequently, there
is no current in the circuit, and no energy is stored in the conductor. Closing the
circuit will discharge the current in the capacitor proportional to the flow of
current that is now in the circuit. As current flows into the circuit, some units of
energy start to be stored in the inductor. Full discharge of the capacitor means no
energy is left in it. Once the capacitor is fully discharged, the current in the circuit
reaches its maximum value, and all of the electrical energy is stored in the inductor.
When the switch is open, the current continues to flow in the same direction. Its
magnitude decreases as the capacitor eventually becomes fully charged again with
the polarity of its plates reversed as compared to when the switch is closed.
When the switch is closed,
all the energy stored in the
capacitor gets discharged
into the current, and then
stored in the inductor
When the switch is open,
then capacitor begins
storing electrical energy
again
Big Idea!

In an LC circuit, energy is passed to and from the

capacitor and the inductor. This can result in a
never-ending loop that has several applications.
Essential Learning
Every material produces magnetic effects depending on its
permeability. Low values of permeability results in slight changes in
the magnetic field; and large values cause significant changes.
The strength of the magnetic field around a magnetic pole is
the magnetic flux. The magnetic flux is measured using the unit
weber (Wb). This flux is constant at fixed distances around a magnetic
pole. If this is changed by a conductor that cuts through it, then and
EMF is induced (Faraday’s law). This is the main principle that makes
power generation and power distribution possible. Induced EMF
produces current with an associated magnetic flux. This flux tends to
cancel out the effects of the flux that induced the EMF (Lenz’s law)
Essential Learning
Direct current (DC) flows in a single direction along a conductor
depending on how the EMF source is connected to the circuit.
Alternating current (AC) flows in two directions alternately along a
circuit. These two types of current have respective uses, but one can
be used to produce the other.
LC circuits contain both a capacitor and an inductor. The passing
of energy from the conductor to the inductor can be likened to a
spring-mass system, which can be used to demonstrate an infinite
process under ideal conditions.