The nervous system Reflexes:

Some movement is ​involuntary​; organisms have adapted to carry out automatic reflexes
when in danger in order to quickly remove themselves from a hazard such as fire or sharp
Both ​controlled movement and autonomic reflexes​ are carried out by the body’s ​nervous
objects. As these reactions must occur almost instantly to protect the organism, the nervous
system​. The nervous system controls movement by sending ​electrical signals​ known as ​nerve
impulse​ does not travel to the brain​. ​Voluntary ​impulses are controlled by the brain.
impulses ​along a network of​ specialised​ nerve cells called ​neurons​. This allows​ coordinated
movement ​and a ​constant internal environment ​to be maintained (homeostasis).
Reflex arc:
1. A ​stimulus​, such as heat from a flame, is detected by​ receptors​.
The nervous system consists of two main sections: the ​central nervous system ​(CNS) and the
2. The receptor sends an impulse down the​ sensory neuron​ to the ​spinal cord​.
peripheral nervous system​. The CNS is made up of the​ brain and spinal cord, ​whereas the
3. The​ relay neuron​ in the CNS passes the impulse to the​ motor neuron​.
peripheral nervous system contains ​motor and sensory neurons,​ which carry impulses to and
4. The impulse travels along the motor neuron to an ​effector​ (e.g. a muscle), which reacts
from the CNS.
to remove the organism from the danger.

CIE Biology GCSE Types of neuron:

● Sensory​ ​- carries impulses from a receptor to the spinal cord and brain The eye
● Relay (connector)​ ​- carries impulses between different parts of the central nervous
system Sense organs​ are groups of receptor cells which ​respond to a specific stimulus​. The eye is a
● Motor (effector)​ ​- carries nervous impulses from the central nervous system to the sense organ which responds to​ light​. Other sense organs may respond to​ temperature, touch,
14: Coordination and Response effector, e.g. a muscle sound and chemicals​.

Notes Synapses: Eye structure:

Where two neurons meet is called a ​synapse​. ​The synapse forms a gap called a ​synaptic cleft
between the presynaptic neuron and the postsynaptic neuron. When an impulse arrives at
(Content in ​bold​ is for Extended students only) the presynaptic neuron, ​vesicles​ in the neuron fuse with the membrane, releasing a
neurotransmitter​ into the synaptic cleft. The neurotransmitter​ diffuses across the synapse​,
binding to receptors​ on the postsynaptic neuron. This​ triggers a nervous impulse ​in the
postsynaptic neuron, thus the impulse can continue.
Synapses ensure unidirectionality of nervous impulses​, as the vesicles containing the
neurotransmitter are only present in the presynaptic neuron, whilst the receptors are only
present in the postsynaptic neuron, thus the​ impulse cannot travel backwards​.
Many drugs act upon synapses.​ Stimulants​, such as caffeine, can cause the release of
neurotransmitters like dopamine and serotonin into the synapse, whereas​ depressants​, such
as heroin and alcohol,​ inhibit synapses by blocking the receptors ​on the postsynaptic neuron
so that​ impulses cannot be sent​.
● Cornea​ - A clear layer which coats the iris. The cornea refracts light into the eye.
● Iris​ - The coloured section of the eye. This controls the amount of light that enters the
eye by contracting and dilating the pupil.
● Pupil​ ​- Allows light into the eye
● Lens ​- Positioned behind the iris. The lens changes shape in order to focus the image on
the retina.
● Retina ​- Contains rod and cone cells which are sensitive to light, these are also called
photoreceptors. There are also many blood vessels which supply nutrients to these cells.
● Fovea​ - a section in the middle of the retina which contains a large amount of cone
cells; this section provides the clearest image.
● Optic nerve​ - Each photoreceptor cell is attached to a neuron. These neurons group
together to form the optic nerve, which carries the impulse to the brain.

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Rods and cones: The endocrine system Homeostasis

Rods and cones are the two types of ​photoreceptor cells​ found in the eye:

The endocrine system ​produces and secretes hormones​. Hormones are molecules that travel in Homeostasis is the maintenance of a​ constant internal environment​ in organisms, despite
Rods Cones the blood and are used for ​signalling ​in the body. They are ​produced in glands​ such as the external changes. This allows the environment to be at an ​optimum for cells​ to function.
pituitary and adrenal glands, before being​ excreted into the blood​, where they travel to ​target Internal conditions must be maintained between ​set limits​ and if these limits are exceeded,
Shape Rod-shaped Cone-shaped
organs ​and cause a change in the cells. negative feedback mechanisms​ work to correct the change and restore the internal
Function Used for ​monochromatic night Used for ​colour vision​ in bright light. environment to the optimum.
vision​ as they are more There are three types of cone cells, Endocrine glands:
sensitive to low levels of light each sensitive to a different colour A network of hormone-secreting glands make-up the endocrine system. This system helps to Regulating blood-glucose concentration:
(red, green and blue)
control growth, metabolism and homeostasis​, among other functions. The level of glucose in the blood must be maintained as part of homeostasis:
Distribution Evenly distributed at the Concentrated at the fovea
periphery of the retina; absent Example glands and functions: ● If the level of glucose in the blood is too high, the​ water potential​ of the blood
at the fovea becomes very low, thus ​water moves out of cells​ into the blood by​ osmosis​. This leads
Gland Hormone Function to cells ​shrinking​ and eventually dying.
Pupil reflex:
The ​pupil​ of the eye can​ expand and contract ​to ​control the amount of light​ that enters the Adrenal gland Adrenaline Secreted during the ‘fight or flight’ response, and when ● If the level is too low, water potential is high and thus ​water moves from the blood
eye. ​This action is carried out by two sets of muscles, ​circular muscles ​and ​radial muscles​, (located at the top stressed or excited. It leads to an​ increase in pulse rate into the cells​, causing them to ​burst​. Maintaining a constant blood-glucose level
of the kidneys) and ​widened pupils​.
which work ​antagonistically​.​ At low light intensities, the pupil dilates to allow more light to therefore maintains a ​constant water potential​ so no unwanted osmosis occurs. In
It also causes glycogen to be converted to glucose in
enter the eye ​by relaxing the​ circular muscles ​and contracting the ​radial muscles​. ​At high light cells so that it can be used in ​respiration​ for energy. addition, it means that there is a ​reliable source of energy​ for cells.
intensities, the pupil constricts to limit the amount of light entering the eye ​by relaxation of the Heart rate increases to provide more ​oxygen​ for this.
radial muscles​ and contraction of the ​circular muscles​. ​This is to prevent the eye being There are two hormones that are used to regulate blood-sugar levels: ​glucagon and insulin​.
damaged by the bright light. Pancreas Insulin Maintains​ blood-glucose concentration. Both of these are synthesised in cells in the ​pancreas​ and are released into the blood from
Testes Testosterone Maintains ​muscle and bone strength​ and plays a role in here when the levels of blood-glucose are too high or too low:
Accommodation: reproduction​.
The eye can​ focus​ on both near and far objects. This is achieved by changing the shape of the ● Insulin​ is released when blood-glucose concentration is​ too high​. This is detected in
lens,​ which is controlled by ​ciliary muscles​ and​ suspensory ligaments​. These work Ovaries Oestrogen Regulates female ​reproductive system​. the pancreas. Insulin causes ​glucose to be converted to glycogen​ in the​ liver​. This
antagonistically​. The shape of the lens, as well as its curvature, is altered to change the way lowers the concentration of glucose in cells​, thus ​glucose diffuses into cells​ from the
light is ​refracted​ onto the retina, focusing the image. blood, lowering the amount of glucose in the blood.
Endocrine system vs nervous system:
To focus on near objects, the ciliary muscles contract whilst the suspensory ligaments relax, ● Nervous impulses travel along ​neurons​ whereas hormones travel in the​ blood​. ● Glucagon ​is released when blood-glucose concentration is​ too low​. Glucagon inhibits
making the lens ​fatter and curved​. To focus on distant objects, the ciliary muscles relax whilst ● Nervous impulses are much quicker​ than hormones, as hormones must be transported glucose being converted to glycogen in the liver and activates an enzyme that ​converts
the suspensory ligaments contract, making the lens​ thinner and less curved​. in the ​blood ​whereas nervous impulses can travel along specialised ​nerve cells​. glycogen to glucose​, making more glucose available to cells. It also ​decreases the
● Nervous impulses are instantaneous and short-lived​, whereas a hormonal response respiratory rate​ in cells so that less glucose is used in respiration.
can be ​long-lasting.
● The endocrine system uses​ chemicals (hormones)​ whereas the nervous system uses People with diabetes cannot produce insulin​. Type 1 diabetes is caused by an ​autoimmune
electrical signals​. response​ in which antibodies attack cells in the pancreas which usually make insulin. This
means that ​no insulin can be produced​. In type 2 diabetes, either not enough insulin is
produced by the pancreas, or the cells do not respond correctly to the insulin. Type 1 diabetes

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is usually treated by patients​ injecting insulin​ themselves. There are several new treatments
being developed, including the use of stem cells and artificial pancreases, although these
treatments will be very expensive.
Regulating temperature:
It is important to maintain a constant temperature of 37°C in humans as this is the ​optimum
temperature for enzyme reactions​. If the temperature was lower, the ​rate of reaction would
decrease​ so reactions would take too long to occur. If it was too high, the enzymes may
denature ​and prevent reactions from occurring. The temperature is regulated by the
hypothalamus​ in the brain, which contains​ thermoreceptors​. If the temperature moves away
from the optimum, a response is triggered to return the temperature to the optimum.
Phototropic response:
1. Auxins​ are produced in the shoot tips, which are then transported down the shoot.
2. Light causes the auxin to move to the ​shady side​ of the shoot.
3. The auxin causes ​cell elongation​ on the shady side.
4. The cells grow faster on the shaded side, thus the shoot ​bends towards the light​.
Weed killers:
Weed killers are used to ​selectively kill plants​. One of the main herbicides contains an organic
compound known as ​2,4-D​, which is a ​synthetic plant hormone​. When a plant is exposed to
2,4-D, it results in ​uncontrolled growth​, leading to the plant’s death.

Reactions to a ​low​ internal temperature:

● Shivering ​- muscles contract to produce heat.
● Vasoconstriction​ - blood vessels constrict to reduce surface area and move away from
the surface of the skin to reduce heat loss.

Reactions to a ​high​ internal temperature:

● Sweating​- sweat evaporates from the skin, reducing the surface temperature.
● Vasodilation ​- blood vessels dilate, causing more heat loss to the environment​.

Tropic Responses
Tropisms are ​growth movements​ in plants that occur in reaction to​ external stimuli​. Plants can
show a ​positive​ or ​negative​ response, and different parts of the plants can show different
responses. ​These responses are controlled by ​plant hormones​ called ​auxins ​which cause ​cell
elongation​. Auxins are made in ​shoot tips​ and move through the plant by ​diffusion and active
transport ​(short distances), or via the​ phloem​ (longer distances).

Gravitropism:
Gravitropism​ (also known as geotropism) is a response to ​gravity​.​ Shoots are negatively
gravitropic​, as they grow upwards against gravity, whereas ​roots are positively gravitropic​.

Phototropism
Phototropism​ is a response to​ light​. Plant ​shoots are positively phototropic​, as they ​move
towards light​ in order to allow the plant to absorb more light to photosynthesise. Plant ​roots
are negatively phototropic​ as they move away from light.

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