Geography Book 4 - Tie - Compressed

Geography
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for Secondary Schools

Student's Book
Form Four
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Tanzania Institute of Education
Geography for Secondary Schools Book Four(TIE).indd 1 9/5/21 12:07 PM

Geography for Secondary Schools
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

© Tanzania Institute of DO NOT
Education DUPLICATE
2021
Published 2021
ISBN 978-9987-09-280-2

P. O. Box 35094 LY
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Dar es Salaam - Tanzania
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Mobile numbers: +255 735 041 168

+255 735 041 170
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Email: director.general@tie.go.tz
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Website: www.tie.go.tz
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All rights reserved. No part of this textbook may be reproduced, stored in any
retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the
Tanzania Institute of Education.
ii Student’s Book Form Four

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Acknowledgements
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The Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE) would like to acknowledge the

contributions of all organisations and individuals who participated in the
designing and development of this textbook. In particular, TIE wishes to thank the
University of Dar es Salaam (UDSM), Sokoine University of Agriculture (SUA),
Dar es Salaam University College of Education (DUCE), University of Dodoma
(UDOM), The State University of Zanzibar (SUZA), National Examinations
Council of Tanzania (NECTA), Kasulu Teachers' College, Zonal School Quality
Assurance Office (Dar es Salaam) and Secondary School Teachers (Mzumbe,
Kilakala, Ahmes, Ilboru, St. Francis, Morogoro, Kingalu, and Mikindani-
Zanzibar).
Besides, TIE also acknowledges the following individuals:
Writers: Mr Musa Mwalutanile & Mr Emanuel Stanislaus (TIE)
Editors: Dr Asubisye Mwamfupe, Dr Jackson Sawe & Dr Johnstone
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Andrea (UDSM), Dr Thani Said (SUZA), Dr Kelvin Haule,
Dr Mohamed Said & Mr Aggrey Chitimbe (UDOM)-Content;
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Dr Amani Mwakalapuka (SUA) & Dr Devet Goodness (DUCE)-
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Language
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Designer: Pamela Makusi

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Illustrator: Mr Fikiri Msimbe (TIE)

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Cartographer: Ms Sauda Kileo (UDSM)

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Coordinator: Mr Musa Mwalutanile (TIE)

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TIE also appreciates the secondary school teachers and students who participated
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in the trial phase of the manuscript. Likewise, the Institute would like to thank the
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Ministry of Education, Science and Technology for facilitating the writing and
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printing of this textbook.
Dr Aneth A. Komba
Director General
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Table of Contents
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Acknowledgements...........................................................................................iii
Preface.................................................................................................................v
List of figures.....................................................................................................vi
List of tables....................................................................................................viii
Chapter One: Introduction to geographic research............................................1

The concepts of geographic research...................................................................1
Stages of conducting a geographic research work...............................................5
Revision exercise ..............................................................................................20
Chapter Two: Climate and natural climate regions..........................................22
The concepts of climate and natural climate regions.........................................22
Natural climate regions of the world.................................................................35
Revision exercise ..............................................................................................87
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Chapter Three: Human population..................................................................90
The concept of human population......................................................................90
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Human population distribution..........................................................................91
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Human population change.................................................................................95

Human population data.................................................................................... 115
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Population issues or problems.........................................................................121

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Population Policy.............................................................................................123
Revision exercise ............................................................................................128
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Chapter Four: Settlements.............................................................................130

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The concept of settlements...............................................................................130

Growth of settlements......................................................................................142
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Chapter Five: Environmental issues and management..................................154

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The concept of environment............................................................................154

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Environmental problems..................................................................................155
Environmental conservation............................................................................185
Glossary..........................................................................................................195
Bibliography...................................................................................................199
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Preface
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This textbook, Geography for Secondary Schools is written specifically for Form
Four students in the United Republic of Tanzania. The book is prepared in accordance
with the 2005 Geography Syllabus for Secondary Schools, Form I-IV issued by
the then Ministry of Education and Vocational Training (MoEVT).
The book is divided into the following five chapters: Introduction to geographic
research, Climate and natural climate regions, Human population, Settlements,
and Environmental issues and management. In addition to the content, most of the
chapters comprise illustrations, activities and revision exercises. You are encouraged
to do all the activities and revision exercises together with other assignments
that will be provided by your teacher. This will enhance the development of the
intended skills and competencies for this level.
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List of figures
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2.1: Latitudes and their effects on temperature.............................................25

2.2: Temperature variation at different altitudes............................................26
2.3: Land breeze and sea breeze and their effect on temperature..................28
2.4: Ocean currents and their effect on temperature......................................29
2.5: Aspect and its effect on temperature .....................................................29
2.6: Cyclone...................................................................................................31
2.7: Anticyclone.............................................................................................31
2.8: Inter-tropical convergence zone.............................................................32
2.9: Convectional rainfall .............................................................................33
2.10: Relief or topographic rainfall.................................................................33
2.11: Cyclonic/ frontal or depression rainfall .................................................34
2.12: Equatorial climate regions......................................................................36
2.13: Climate of Younde, Cameroon...............................................................37
2.14: Equatorial rainforest...............................................................................37
2.15: Equatorial rainforest with layers.............................................................38
2.16: Savannah climate regions.......................................................................40
2.17: LY
Temperature and rainfall distribution for Bulawayo (Zimbabwe)..........41
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2.18: Temperature and rainfall distribution for Cuiaba (Brazil)......................41
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2.19: Livestock keeping in Savannah areas.....................................................43

2.20: Tourism activity in the Savannah region ...............................................44
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2.21: Temperature and rainfall distribution for Manila in the Philippines......45

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2.22: Tropical monsoon climate and tropical maritime climate regions.........46

2.23: Tropical desert climate regions ..............................................................48
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2.24: Influence of cloud cover on climate ......................................................50

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2.25: Temperature and rainfall distribution for In Salah (Algeria) .................51

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2.26: Temperature and rainfall distribution for Lima (Chile)..........................52

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2.27: Temperature and rainfall distribution for Windhoek (Namibia).............52

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2.28: Cactus plant............................................................................................53

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2.29: Camels in the desert ...............................................................................54

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2.30: Mediterranean climate regions...............................................................55

2.31: Temperature and rainfall distribution for Valparaiso (Chile).................56
2.32: Temperature and rainfall distribution for Athens, Greece......................57
2.33: Warm temperate eastern coast margin climate regions..........................58
2.34: Temperature and rainfall distribution for Tokyo, Japan.........................59
2.35: Temperature and rainfall distribution for Charleston, USA...................60
2.36: Temperature and rainfall distribution for Durban, South Africa............60
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2.37: Warm temperate DO NOT
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climate regions...............................................62
2.38: Temperature and rainfall distribution for Winnipeg (Canada)...............64
2.39: Temperature and rainfall distribution for Omaha (USA).......................65
2.40: Temperature and rainfall distribution for Bourke (Australia)................66
2.41: Temperature and rainfall distribution for Barnaul (Russia)....................67
2.42: Cool temperate western coast margin climate regions...........................68
2.43: Temperature and rainfall distribution for Sitka (Alaska)........................69
2.44: Temperature and rainfall distribution for Valentia (Ireland)...................70
2.45: Temperature and rainfall distribution for Dunedin (New Zealand)........71
2.46: Cool temperate eastern margin climate regions.....................................72
2.47: Temperature and rainfall distribution for New York (USA)...................73
2.48: Temperature and rainfall distribution for Vladivostok (Russia).............74
2.49: Cool temperate continental climate regions...........................................76
2.50: Temperature and rainfall distribution for Dawson (Canada)..................77
2.51: Temperature and rainfall distribution for Arkhangelsk (Russia)............78
2.52: Polar climate (tundra climate and ice cap climate) regions....................81
2.53: Mountainous climate regions..................................................................82
2.54: Influence of a mountain on vegetation...................................................83
3.1: LY
Population pyramid of a developing country by age group..................109
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3.2: Expansive population pyramid.............................................................110
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3.3: Regressive population pyramid............................................................111

3.4: Stationary population pyramid.............................................................112
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4.1: Nucleated settlement pattern................................................................134

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4.2: Linear settlement pattern......................................................................135

4.3: Dispersed settlement pattern.................................................................136
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4.4: Cultural heritage centre in Arusha........................................................139

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4.5: The Nyerere bridge in Kigamboni, Dar es Salaam...............................141

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4.6: A factory emitting smoke.....................................................................148

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4.7: Traffic jams in Dar es Salaam...............................................................148

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4.8: Slum and squatter settlement in an urban area.....................................149

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5.1: Deforestation........................................................................................159
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5.2: A leopard (carnivorous) catches a rabbit (prey)...................................161

5.3: Some of the alternative carrier bags in Tanzania..................................169
5.4: The Ozone layer....................................................................................184
5.5: People plant trees on an open space.....................................................186
5.6: Terracing method of farming................................................................187
5.7: Shelterbelt trees in a farm.....................................................................188
5.8: Mulching in agriculture........................................................................189
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List of tables
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2.1: Climatic data for Younde (Cameroon)................................................... 36
2.2: Climatic data for Bulawayo (Zimbabwe)............................................... 40
2.3: Climatic data for Cuiaba (Brazil)............................................................ 41
2.4: Climatic data for Manila (Philippines)................................................... 45
2.5: Climatic data for In Salah (Algeria)........................................................ 51
2.6: Climatic data for Lima (Chile)................................................................ 51
2.7: Climatic data for Windhoek (Namibia)................................................... 52
2.8: Climatic data for Valparaiso (Chile)....................................................... 56
2.9: Climatic data for Athens (Greece).......................................................... 56
2.10: Climatic data for Tokyo (Japan).............................................................. 59
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2.11: Climatic data for Charleston (USA)....................................................... 59
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2.12: Climatic data for Durban (Natal), South Africa...................................... 60
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2.13: Climatic data for Winnipeg (Canada)..................................................... 63

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2.14: Climatic data for Omaha (USA)............................................................. 64

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2.15: Climatic data for Bourke (Australia)...................................................... 65

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2.16: Climatic data for Barnaul (Russia)......................................................... 66

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2.17: Climatic data for Sitka (Alaska)............................................................. 69

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2.18: Climatic data for Valentia (Ireland)........................................................ 70

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2.19: Climatic data for Dunedin (New Zealand).............................................. 70

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2.20: Climatic data for New York (USA)......................................................... 73
2.21: Climatic data for Vladivostok (Russia)................................................... 74
2.22: Climatic data for Dawson (Canada)........................................................ 76
2.23: Climatic data for Arkhangelsk (Russia).................................................. 77
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Chapter One
Introduction to
geographic research
Introduction
In this chapter, you will learn about the meaning of geographic research, importance
of geographic research, types of and approaches to research, research data, field
research, stages of conducting geographic research, ethical considerations as
well as the uses of research findings and recommendations. The competencies
developed from this chapter will enable you to conduct geographic research,
present and discuss research findings and make recommendations to improve the
existing situation.
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The concepts of geographic research Findings from geographic research
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This part consists of the following provide knowledge that is useful

concepts: in solving problems faced by our
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environment and societies. It enables

one to get knowledge on unknown
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The meaning of geographic research

Geographic research is a scientific issues. For example, greenhouse gases
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investigation or inquiry that were known to cause greenhouses

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involves the collection, analysis and effects after a geographic research that
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interpretation of data to generate investigated why the Earth’s temperature

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knowledge on the geographical increases.

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phenomena. Examples of geographical

phenomena include occurence of global Importance of geographic research
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warming, environmental pollution and in daily life

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earthquakes. For planning: In our everyday life,

geographic research is useful in planning
Geographic research can be conducted to and making proper decisions. Examples,
get an explanation on the nature of these for urban planning, planning for irrigation
phenomena, their causes and effects on projects, hydroelectric power plant and
the environment or human societies. for waste management.
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For understanding the DO NOT
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and research can be done to improve national
laws of nature in the universe: It is useful population policy and family planning
in understanding the principles and laws in Tanzania.
of nature as well as the surrounding
environment. Examples, gravitation For testing validity of theories: It can
forces, movement of the Earth and solar be used to test the validity of theories
system. and, possibly, develop new theories and
laws. Through research, the existing
For searching new knowledge: It theories and models can be tested to
contributes new knowledge on a certain measure their applicability in different
phenomenon. Every research should contexts. Research may also generate
contribute new knowledge to the existing new knowledge that will lead to the
body of knowledge. For a research to formulation of new theories. Example,
contribute to new knowledge, it needs the disappearance of planet Pluto from
a review of the existing literature so as the solar system can be proved by doing
to be familiar with what is known and geographic research.
what is not known. Generally, research
is the source of new knowledge. For informing the citizens about the
socio-economic activities: It enables
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For solving problems in the society: It citizens to be informed about their socio-
helps to identify and solve particular economic activities. Most of the social
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problems in our society. One of science researches investigate socio-
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the primary roles of research is to economic aspects of the communities

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investigate problems facing societies such as age, sex, marital status, income,
to find solutions to those problems. By economic activities (occupation), assets
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investigating geographical phenomenon, and expenditure. Such information

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researchers get to know the causes of and is important for economic planning
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the solution to the problems. Example, and individual wellbeing. Through

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measures to reduce land pollution on geographic research, socio-economic

Earth. information is collected and analysed
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to inform the community. Example, the

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For developing various programmes and Government of Tanzania will use tablets
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policies: It is important in developing to collect population data during the

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various programmes and policies national population census in 2022.

because research aims to find accurate
information on a certain phenomenon. For creating economic opportunities to
Research findings facilitate the making researchers: Research activities create
of informed decisions on the type of jobs. Many individuals get opportunities
programmes to be developed and policies to be employed either temporarily or
to be formulated. Example, a geographic permanently by various institutions,
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companies and DO NOTon
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Quantitative research approach
research activities. Through research, This type of research approach is based
some individuals build their careers. on the measurement of quantity or
Examples, land surveyors, cartographers amount. It is applicable to phenomena
and urban planners. that can be expressed in terms of quantity,
for example, population data, tonnage
It clarifies confusion: Research helps of oil, crops and minerals. Research
to clarify complicated facts. It also data are in numerical form, thus known
helps to remove all sorts of confusion as quantitative data. These data may
and provides a proper understanding include height, weight, distance, age
of various issues. Examples, formation and any information that can be assigned
of continents, formation of universe, numerical value.
solar eclipse, and causes of climate
change. Methods used in quantitative research
approach include surveys that use
Types of and approaches to research a questionnaire with closed-ended
questions as a tool to collect data.
Basically, research is mainly of two
Instruments that can yield quantitative
types: Basic and applied research.
data include rain gauge, thermometer,
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Basic research aims to gain a better and tape measure. Quantitative methods
understanding of a subject, phenomenon focus on gathering numerical data from
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or basic laws of nature. This type of a sample. Findings from that sample are
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research primarily focuses on the generalised to a population that has been

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advancement of knowledge rather targeted by a study.

than own solving a specific practical
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problem. For example, a research can Qualitative research approach

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be conducted to generate knowledge on

Qualitative research approaches study
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causes of Earthquakes and deforestation.

subjects in their natural habitat. The
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Applied research, on the other hand, is focus is on understanding the why and
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conducted to guide actions for solving how of human behaviour in situations.

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particular practical problems rather than It is a scientific research approach of

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for the sake of generating knowledge. For investigation that gathers non-numerical
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instance, the government may conduct data such as people’s opinions, views
a study on causes of farmer-pastoral and narratives. It uses methods which
conflicts in order to resolve them. seek to develop a deep understanding of
how people perceive their social realities
There are two main research approaches: and, in consequence, how they act within
Quantitative research and qualitative the social world. It is concerned about
research. a qualitative phenomenon. Qualitative

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research normally uses the DO NOT DUPLICATE
following streets, towns, forest, school environment,
methods of data collection: Observation, industrial environment and libraries
interview, focus group discussion, oral or other places where data are stored.
stories, and document review. Field research has some advantages
and challenges as described below:
Research data
In research, information is collected Advantages of field research
from different sources to describe a Field research:
certain phenomenon. The information (i) Provides researcher(s) with first-
collected is known as data. hand experience and knowledge
about people, events and processes
Types of data in research
of the study;
There are two main types of data:
(ii) Allows researchers to observe
primary and secondary data.
the relationship between various
Primary data things, events, behaviour and
Primary data are data collected directly trends. For example, in field
from a source as first-hand information. research, the relationship between
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They are original in character. Data the application of farm inputs
collected through experiments or and crop production can be well
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field research (field surveys) are good observed;
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examples of primary data. (iii) Allows researcher(s) to understand

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the relationship between human

Secondary data beings and the natural environment;
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Secondary data, on the other hand, and

are collected from researches done by
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(iv) Provides practical knowledge to

other reseachers. These data can be
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researchers through selecting,

obtained from published documents
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observing, reporting and presenting

such as papers and books. Also, they
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geographical data from the field.

can be obtained from reports prepared
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by various organisations or institutions.

Challenges of field research
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They are secondary data because they

The challenges of field research include
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are not directly collected from the field

by the researcher. the following:
(i) Field researches are expensive and
Field research time-consuming;
Field research is a task of collecting data (ii) It is difficult for the researchers to
physically from the field. Data could be distance themselves from biasness
collected from areas such as villages, in the research study;

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(iii) Documentation of observations is A reseacher, should identify a general
usually difficult. For example, it area or topic of interest, relevant for
is not easy to decide which details geographic research. The topic could
are important to write down. In be climate change, urbanisation, or
addition, it is difficult to remember environmental pollution. Initially, the
all the details if you write your problem may be stated in a broad or
notes later; general manner. The general problem
(iv) When the researcher is perceived will then be narrowed into a focused
as a stranger to the community, problem that needs to be studied. A
he or she may lack trust from the statement of the research problem,
community members and fail to therefore, is developed to show a gap
access some data; in knowledge that needs to be filled by
a particular research. For example, if
(v) Sensitivity of the topic researched
climate change is a topic of interest, there
may affect adequate access to data
could be knowledge on the causes and
or respondents. For example,
the effects. The knowledge on human
researches on farmer-pastoral
responses to effects of climate change
conflicts or environmental
might be scant in relation to a particular
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crimes may make it difficult for
society. This may prompt a geographic
a researcher to get data related
research to fill that gap.
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to the nature of the phenomena;
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and
Sources of geographic research
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(vi)
Failure of researchers to be problems
flexible in the field in terms of There are different sources of a
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time, financial resources (cost) and geographic research problems. The

unexpected events. Thus, things in
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sources include the following:

the field may vary contrary to what
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was planned or expected. Personal experience: A person may

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experience a variety of issues surrounding

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Stages of conducting a geographic human kind and the environment that

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research work can be developed into a geographic

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A research process follows the following research problem. For example, a person
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stages: or researcher living in urban areas is

likely to experience issues such as
Identification and formulation of traffic congestion, urbanisation and
geographic research problems environment pollution. Such experiences
The first stage in conducting geographic may act as sources of geographic research
research is to identify, select and define problems. Also, a person familiar with
properly a geographic research problem. areas where farmer-pastoral conflicts are

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which project or a process can reach set targets
requires research attention to understand or goals.
causes of conflicts.
Societal issues: Sometimes, research
Practical experience: A researcher can problems or topics could be obtained
get ideas from a work-place. As a forest from real problems that face societies,
officer, you can gain experience on issues for example, plastic waste pollution,
you want to research on. Example, a traffic congestion in urban areas and
forest officer working in a forestry land degradation are some of the current
department may recognise indicators of social problems potential for further
forest destruction from his or her routine research.
activities and decide to study the causes
of such destruction. Also, a geography Mass media: The mass media may report
teacher can develop a research problem on a number of environmental issues.
on why students perform poorly in These issues can be sources of research
Practical Geography subject. topics. For example, in 2008 the media
reported conflicts between farmers and
Literature review: Literature consists of pastoralists in Kilosa District, which later
scholarly publications. Literature review captured the research attention of several
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involves a critical review of the existing researchers and research institutions.
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publications such as books, journal papers
and other reports relevant to a topic Areas for further studies identified by
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under consideration. Literature review other researches: While conducting

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is done to identify gaps of knowledge research, one could face a new situation
from existing body of knowledge. that may trigger a new research topic or
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For example many scholars may have problem. For example, researchers may
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written about causes of migration but go to the field to study land conflicts and
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may not have written about the effects encounter another issue such as land
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of migration. Thus, a review of literature pollution and decide to investigate the

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may provide gaps of knowledge which new issue.

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call for further research to fill those gaps.

Consultations with experts: Experts
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Monitoring and evaluation activities: generally have sound experience in their

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These activities can be carried as respective fields, which may suggest

research projects at different stages by a significant problem for research.
mid or end of the year to measure the In addition, experts may help to find
performance of a project or development a current problem to be solved in a
processes. Usually, targets or goals help particular discipline. This may serve
to determine on the extent to which a as a basis for formulating a research

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problem. For example, by DO NOT DUPLICATE
investing in is researchable or requires scientific
solar technology, especially in central procedures to be solved.
and northern parts of Tanzania, we can
gain sound knowledge from developed A geographic research problem should
countries such as Germany, Italy, China, be clearly stated: The language used
the USA and Japan as experts in solar should not be ambiguous or too technical
technology in the world. to be understood by people or learners.
The language should be simple enough
Steps in developing a geographic to be understood by any reader.
research problem
A geographic research problem should
(i) Identify an issue that requires stem from issues: A research problem
research attention. An issue can be should be limited in scope and specific.
a problem facing society or a need A research problem should focus on
of knowledge on something; the topic (problem) to be studied and it
(ii) State what would be a favourable should not be too broad. Its scope should
situation if that issue is resolved; be clearly defined. The stated geographic
(iii) State what the current situation research problem should also be specific
is that exists in relative to the to the study area. Not every problem
favourable situation; LY
deserves a research attention.
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(iv) Review the literature available
A geographic research problem
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to determine whether there has

should be time limited: A research
been any research or documented
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is conducted with a purpose; thus, it

knowledge on the problem to fill
needs to be carried out within a specific
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the knowledge gap; and

time-frame to achieve the intended
(v)
Show how important is your goal. Therefore, a geographic research
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research in filling that knowledge problem should be manageable within

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gap.
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a given period.
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Characteristics of a good geographic A geographic research problem should

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research problem aim at generating new knowledge and

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The following are the characteristics of not repetitive: Research should not be
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a good geographic research problem: repetitive. If the research is not novel, it

is difficult for the researcher to generate
A good geographic research problem new knowledge.
should be clear: The researcher
should indicate clearly the knowledge A geographic research problem should
gap to be filled to generate relevant be researchable: A research topic must
knowledge. After all, not every problem be doable in terms of time, resources,

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expertise and practicability. The NOT DUPLICATE
(v) Explains the relationship between
topic selected must allow for empirical previous studies and the current
investigation to be carried out. study;
(vi) Determines gaps, consistencies and
Literature review
inconsistencies about a subject,
Once the research problem is formulated, concept or problem;
the researcher should undertake extensive
(vii) Helps to discover unanswered
literature review relating to the research
questions on a subject, concept
problem. This review entails reading
or problem; and
various publications to grasp what is
already known about a research problem. (viii) Helps to understand the strengths
In literature review, books, academic and weaknesses of a research
journals, magazines and various reports design, methods of inquiry and
are consulted to get relevant information instruments used in earlier stages
on the suggested research problem to of a research work.
be studied.
Research objectives
Importance of literature review in In any research, the researcher should
research LY
seek to attain specific research objectives.
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Literature review is important in research A research has one general objective
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as it: from which several specific objectives
(i) Provides an understanding of the are derived. The general objective seeks
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topic, what has already been done to give a broad response to the research
and how it has been researched. problem. It should be output or outcome
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Hence, it helps the researcher to oriented. Specific objectives, on other

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identify methods of collecting and hand, break down the general objective
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analyzing data; into smaller logically connected parts.

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Specific objectives systematically

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(ii) Enables the researcher to build address various aspects of the research
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on previous research rather than problem. Also, specific objectives

duplicating findings; are specific, measurable, attainable
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(iii) Enables the researcher to know the (achievable), realistic, and time-bound,
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relevance of different theories and and are commonly abbreviated as

principles relating to the identified “SMART” as shown below:
topic;
• Specific: The specific objectives
(iv) Helps the researcher to build should have a clear statement
the rationale for conducting the focusing on a specific issue;
study;

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• Measurable: The specificDO NOT DUPLICATE
objectives drought (climate) is the cause of food
should consist of measurable shortage in Dakawa-Dodoma. Here, the
variables; variables of study are drought and food
shortage.
• Attainable: The specific objectives
must state or ensure that those The null hypothesis: This is a statement
objectives are achievable; which suggests non existence of
• Realistic: The specific objectives relationship between the variables of
must be relevant or focus on the the study. It is stated as a negation to
outcome; and the alternative hypothesis. Example,
drought (climate) is not the cause of
• Time-bound: The specific objectives food shortage in Dakawa.
must be accomplished within a
specified time limit. Variables
A variable is a measurable characteristic
Formulation of hypotheses and
in a research. Research is about
research questions
examining the relationship between or
At this stage, the researcher should among variables. For example, one can
state clearly the research questions or study the relationship between drought
LY
research hypotheses. Usually, qualitative (climate) and food production. The
studies use research questions instead assumption here is that drought (climate)
N
of hypotheses. Both hypotheses and conditions influence food production. In
O
research questions are written before this example, drought (climate) and food
SE
the research process begins and serve production are two variables that the
to guide the researcher. researcher would want to test in research.
U
An hypothesis is a tentative statement

E
There are two major types of variables:

that gives an intellectual guess showing
N
Independent and dependent variables.

the relationship between variables under
LI
Dependent variable: A dependent

study. It can also be testable explanation
N
variable is also known as an outcome

of the relationship between variables in
O
research. variable. It is a variable which is

R
influenced by independent variables.

FO
Types of hypotheses In the example above, food production

There are two types of hypotheses: is a dependent variable which is affected
alternative and null hypothesis. by drought (climate).
The alternative hypothesis: This suggests Independent variable: An independent

the existence of relationship between variable, also known as the predictor
variables of the study. For example, variable, is the one which causes changes

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or influence or affect anotherDOvariable.
NOT DUPLICATE
(iii) Identify
logistical requirements
In the example above, drought (climate) based on local conditions and plan
is an independent variable which may for field data collection;
affect food production in Dakawa. (iv) Familiarise with the area or
site where the research will be
Activity 1.1 conducted; and
In groups, find any academic research (v) Prepare a work plan for conducting
report and: research activities.
(a) Identify the main and specific
objectives of the report; Determination a research design
(b) Identify the hypotheses tested or A research design is a framework or
the research questions; plan on how data will be collected and
processed. A research design consists
(c) Identify the independent and
of research methods and techniques
dependent variables; and
chosen by a researcher. It is an outline of
(d) Explain how the variables you have what the researcher will do in the whole
identified in (c) differ. research process. It involves providing
Pre-survey or reconnaissance LY
answers to questions such as where,
what, when, how much and by what
N
Pre-survey or reconnaissance refers to a means. It is also a strategy which specifies
O
brief survey of the study area or site. This what approach to use for gathering and
brief survey familiarises a researcher analysing data.
SE
with an area. He or she gets valuable

U
information that helps him or her to plan Selecting a target population and
sample
E
for field data collection. It undertakes

N
observation and documentation of Research targets specific categories of

LI
bio-physical characteristics, socio- elements. Population in research forming

economic features, issues, problems, a research population may be defined by
N
threats and opportunities, and concerns human or animals, objects, institutions,

O
not mentioned in literature or interviews. interest groups, and many others, with
R
Specifically, pre-survey enables common characteristics that are of

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researchers to: interest to the researcher. For example,

(i) Finalise the selection of the study if your study is about coffee farming
sites or areas for field data collection; in Bukoba, the target population of the
study will be composed of only coffee
(ii) Collect preliminary information
farmers in Bukoba. Non-coffee farmers
on the number and location of the
study population; will not be part of the target population

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for the study. Similarly, if DOstudy
the NOT DUPLICATE
is Types of sampling techniques
on the seaweed farming in Zanzibar, the The method of selecting a sample is
target population will only be seaweed important. It depends on the nature of
farmers. Other people can be involved data and investigation. The techniques
in particular studies as informants but for selecting a sample are categorised
not as the target population for the study. into probability and non-probability
sampling.
It is usually difficult to study everyone
in your target population due to financialProbability sampling: Also known
and time limitations. Thus, you should as random sampling or chance
choose a sample of people to represent sampling, this type of sampling allows
your target population. every item (individual) in a population to
have an equal chance of being selected.
A sample is a subset of the target
Probability sampling techniques are
population which is systematically
mostly used in quantitative research.
chosen from that population. Sampling
is a process of selecting individual Non-probability sampling: This sampling
members of the target population to approach does not give every member in
form a sample for study. A sample a population an equal chance of being
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should be representative for statistical included in the sample. The sampling is
N
inference to the whole target population. based on quality only. Non-probability
O
Inference means findings from the sampling techniques are mostly used in
sample are generalisable to the whole qualitative research.
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target population.
U
Characteristics of a good sample

Sampling techniques
E
A good sample should have the following

Sampling refers to the procedure that
N
characteristics:
a researcher adapts to select a sample
LI
from a target population. For example, Representativeness: A sample must

N
the sum of coffee farmers in Bukoba can be representative of the whole target
O
be a target population. If one decides to population. If the population of

R
pick a few coffee farmers to participate coffee farmers consists of male and
female farmers, the sample should also
FO
in a study, then this becomes a sample

of all coffee farmers in Bukoba that are proportionally consist of farmers from
the target of a study. The method used both genders.
or procedures one follows in picking the
few farmers to participate in research is Accuracy: This refers to the degree to
a sampling technique. which bias is absent from a sample. An
accurate (unbiased) sample is one which

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represents the population. It isDO NOT
free DUPLICATE
from are several methods for collecting
any influence that causes any difference data from a sample. These include a
between the sample value and the whole survey, interviews, observations, focus
population value. group discussions, experimentation
and measurements. Selection of an
Adequacy in size: A good sample must
appropriate research method for data
be adequate in size to be reliable.
collection depends on the nature, scope
and objectives of the study, and time
Sampling design available.
A sampling design is a framework
or roadmap that serves as a basis Before collecting data, the researcher
for the selection of a sample. This should prepare and pre-test the research
design constitutes plans and methods instruments or tools. Research instruments
for drawing a sample from a target or tools include the questionnaire,
population. Therefore, a sampling interview guide, observation guide,
design simply refers to the technique checklist, measurement apparatus, and
or procedure the researcher adopts for laboratory apparatus. Pre-testing of the
selecting items for the sample. instruments is also known as piloting.
It is done to collect data from a small
Activity 1.2
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sample. This important exercise enables
N
the researcher to establish whether the
O
In groups, discuss a research design, tools used can measure what is supposed
then explain what the researcher should to be measured. It also provides
SE
consider when drawing a good sample information to the researcher on whether

there is any bias. Pre-testing, gives a
U
in research.
researcher an opportunity of correcting
E
all shortcomings found in the research

Data collection
N
tools before administering them to the

LI
Data collection is a process of gathering whole sample in the field.

N
appropriate information on variables of

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interest, systematically to answer the Data collection methods and tools

research questions, test the hypotheses
R
The following are some of the methods

and evaluate research outcomes. In data
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and tools for collecting data from a

collection, a researcher must have a clear
sample:
understanding of what, why, how and
where to obtain data.
Survey
Once the sample has been obtained, A survey is a method of collecting
the next step is to get information quantitative data from a pre-defined
from individuals in the sample. There group of respondents. In survey a

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questionnaire is, thus, a toolDO NOT DUPLICATE
designed The researcher can use different ways
for collecting data from respondents. to administer a questionnaire. These
ways of administering a questionnaire
A questionnaire consists of a series include face-to-face, posting, emailing,
of questions. The questions are either or phone calling. Nowadays because of
closed-ended, or open-ended. Closed- technology, one can develop an online
ended questions use Yes or No, True questionnaire. The questionnaire can be
or False responses or multiple-choice sent to different people who have access
questions. Often, closed questions cover to the internet.
a large portion in the questionnaire.
The information collected from the
Advantages of a questionnaire
respondents sampled is quantified to
perform statistical analysis. Open-ended (i) A large amount of information can
questions leave a space at the end for a be collected from a large number of
respondent to mention the answer, list people in a short period;
items, or explain. (ii) A questionnaire survey is a relatively
cost-effective way of collecting data
Essentials of a good questionnaire are: from a large group of people;
the study; LY
(i) It should clearly explain the aim of (iii) The results of a questionnaire can
quickly and easily be quantified
N
(ii) Questions should be as simple as during analysis. The most common
O
possible and the organisation should software for quantitative analysis is

SE
start with simple to more complex the Statistical Package for Social
questions; Science (SPSS) but since 2019,
U
(iii) Questions should be arranged in a the name of this software for

E
logical sequence usually reflecting quantitative analysis changed to

N
the arrangement of research the Statistical Product and Service

LI
objectives; Solution (SPSS);

N
(iv) Personal and sensitive questions (iv) Data collected using a questionnaire
O
should be avoided; can be analysed more statistically

and objectively;
R
(v) Questions should be clear; as such,

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ambiguous questions should be (v) Data generated from a sample

avoided; and can be generalised to the entire
population; and
(vi) Questionnaire should be as short as
possible. A questionnaire with too (vi) Data from respondents can easily
many questions will tire or bore the be compared.
respondent.

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Challenges of a DO NOT DUPLICATE
questionnaire (iii) Interviewsgenerate in-depth data
(i) It is not flexible since the questions which is not possible to get in
are structured in advance; questionnaires;
(ii) It cannot capture people’s emotions, (iv) Interviews can clarify and elaborate
behaviour or feelings; and on the purpose of the research and
effectively convince respondents
(iii) It is most appropriate for those who
about its importance; and
can read and write.
(v) Unlike questionnaires, interviews
allow for probing and asking
Interview
of follow-up questions when
An interview is a verbal interaction needed.
between an interviewer and an
interviewee. An interviewee is a
Challenges of an interview method
respondent, the one who is targeted by
a study, or a key informant, one who (i) It is not appropriate for a large
is interviewed because of his or her number of respondents as it is time-
consuming;
knowledge of the topic of interest. It
is a face-to-face question and answer (ii) Some respondents may provide
conversation between an interviewer
and an interviewee or respondent.
LY
irrelevant or wrong information
especially when they are suspicious;
N
Interviews can also be conducted (iii) It cannot provide very reliable
O
through the telephone, zoom and skype information on issues which

SE
meetings. Interviews are mostly used to happened a long time ago;

collect qualitative data. The interview (iv) An interview requires a high level
U
gathers people’s opinions, attitudes and of skills for asking questions to get
E
experiences. The tool used to collect proper information;

N
data during interviews is an interview

(v) The method may face language
LI
guide. An interview guide consists of a

barriers; and
N
few questions the interviewer will ask

(vi) The interviewer may fail to record an
O
the interviewee.
interviewee’s responses promptly.
R
Advantages of an interview method

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(i) The method allows the researcher Principles of conducting an interview

to be sure that the respondent In conducting an interview, an interviewer
understands questions properly; should observe the following:
(ii) Interviews can be held with both (i) Explain briefly the purpose of the
literate and illiterate respondents; interview to the interviewee;

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(ii) Create a friendly DO NOTfor
atmosphere DUPLICATE
facilitate the
discussion and record the
the interviewee to talk comfortably data resulting from the discussion by the
and provide his or her thoughts participants. The tool used in an FGD is
in-depth; called a checklist. A checklist consists
(iii) Instil confidence and trust in the of items expected to be touched upon
interviewees by assuring them that during a focused discussion.
the information (data) they provide
would remain confidential; Advantages of focus group discussion
(i) It provides room for participants to
(iv)
E ncourage the interviewees
understand the topic well;
to keep on talking and avoid
interrupting them unnecessarily; (ii) It develops critical thinking among
the participants;
(v) Do not record the responses,
unless it is necessary to do so. (iii) It makes the research topic live and
Recording might inhibit the interesting among participants;
interviewee from interpreting and (iv) Data collected are reliable because
talking effectively. If recording is of thorough checks and balances
necessary, it should be done with among the participants; and
an interviewee's consent.
LY
(v) A large amount of data can be
N
(vi) Be neutral in tone and do not collected from a small group of
O
suggest any answer by asking participants.
leading questions;
SE
Challenges of focus group discussion

(vii) Use simple language which will
be understood by the interviewee; (i) Some participants may not be in
U
and a good position to contribute to a

E
particular topic. So, it is important to

N
(viii) The questions to the interviewee

ensure that the participants selected
LI
should be direct and clear.

are knowledgeable enough about
N
the topic. The facilitator should

O
Focus group discussion (FGD)

ensure all participants participate
A focus group discussion is a method
R
during the FGD.

of data collection which involves an
FO
(ii) Since this data collection method

intensive discussion done by a small
produces a lot of information, it
group of 5 to 8 people. This number is
may be difficult to compile and
important to give an opportunity to every
analyse;
member to participate in the discussion
and provide diversity in perspective. This (iii) If the discussion is not well-guided,
method allows the researcher to guide or participants may extend discussion

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to irrelevant stories DO NOTthe
outside DUPLICATE
a group while
actively engaged in the
scope of the study; lives of those people. The researcher
(iv) It is a time-consuming method as observes all the activities and actions
the discussion involves interaction done by the group but without the
of different views; and members of the research population
realising that the researcher is observing
(v) If the discussion is not well- them.
organised, some of the participants
may dominate the discussion. The Non-participatory observation: This
facilitator should ensure that those observation entails limited interaction
less talkative also contribute to the between the people and the researcher,
discussion. or the observed and the observer. Here
the researcher observes people without
Observation interacting with them. Sometimes, the
Observation is a systematic data research group may be informed by the
collection method that allows researchers researcher that they are being observed,
use their sense organs to examine people but this is normally done if the research
in natural settings or naturally occurring is not confidential.
situations. This method allows the
LY
researcher to observe without asking Advantages of the observation method
N
anything from the respondents. For an
(i) It provides correct data since
O
effective observation, the researcher

the researcher observes the
SE
should consider issues such as; what

phenomenon in a natural setting;
should be recorded and how the accuracy
of the observation can be ensured. The (ii) The researcher gets to know ideas
U
researcher uses an observation guide as of the group he or she is observing

E
a tool. This tool itemises what should or studying;

N
be observed. Observation can either be (iii) The data are recorded as they occur
LI
participatory or non-participatory. or observed in their natural setting;

N
and
O
Participatory observation: This refers

(iv)
The method helps to develop
R
to direct observation. The researcher

skills for observing, recording,
FO
observes by making himself or herself

interpreting and imaging
more or less a member of the group
geographical phenomena.
under observation. This makes him or
her go through what members of the
group experience. It is a method in Challenges of the observation method
which the researcher observes actions, (i) It is risky to the researcher's life,
behaviours and activities of members of especially when the researcher

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observes people who DO
areNOT DUPLICATE
doing Data interpretation: This exercise entails
something illegal in the society; making sense of the data collected
(ii) The method is inappropriate for a and considering the implications of
large population; the findings after an analytical and
or experimental study. It involves
(iii) Non-participant observation does
examining wider meanings from the
not capture the natural context of
research findings. Interpretation involves
the social life of the group of people
drawing conclusions based on the
in the study; and
facts collected after an analytical and
(iv) It is a time-consuming method. experimental study. When interpreting
data, the analysed data are reviewed to
Data processing and analysis arrive at an informed conclusion.
Data processing: It involves
manipulation of raw data into their Report writing
readable form. It includes validation, Report writing is the last stage in a
sorting, classification, calculation and research process. A research report is
organisation of data. significant for the researcher because
it explains what has been done. It has
Data analysis: It is a process of inspecting,
rearranging, modifying and transforming LY
three parts: Preliminary pages, main
N
body and supplimentary pages (end
data to extract useful information from
O
matters). The end matters include
them. Also, data analysis involves
references or bibliography section and
SE
cleaning, analysing, interpreting and

appendices.
visualising data to discover valuable
U
insights into the problem. Once the data

Preliminary pages
have been collected, they have to be
E
processed and analysed. Preliminary pages carry the title of the

N
research, declaration and copyright,

LI
certification, abstract, dedication,

Data presentation and interpretation
N
list of abbreviations, verification

O
Data presentation: This depends on the and oath of the researcher. They also
nature of the data, whether quantitative include acknowledgement where the
R
or qualitative. Quantitative data researcher expresses gratitude to all

FO
presentation involves the use of statistical those who were involved in the study
techniques such as tables, graphs and and the table of contents. Here, the
diagrams. Qualitative data, on the other pages of the report are written in roman
hand, are presented in textual format. numbers.
They can be in form of direct quotes or
paraphrasing.

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Main body DO NOT DUPLICATE
Research findings and discussion
This part consists of a complete report This section presents the findings of the
with all the details. The details of the research or study. The presentation of
report are presented in chapters and research findings depends on the nature
pages are in arabic numerals. In general, of the study. A research, which uses a
the main body can be divided into the qualitative approach, usually presents
following areas: data in form of quotations and analysed
by thematic approach, which involves
Introduction classification of data into relevant
This part introduces the research to the themes. A quantitative research approach
readers. It contains the background to presents data using statistical methods
the research problem, statement of the such as tables, figures, and charts. The
research problem, research objectives, findings must be discussed, linked and
research questions or hypotheses, scope compared with other existing empirical
of the study, and significance of the study. studies.
The background should be sufficient
Summary, conclusion and
to justify why the problem was worth
recommendation
investigating.
Literature review
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In this part, the researcher provides a
summary of the whole study including
N
This section defines key terms and the research problem, methodology,
O
concepts used in the study. Moreover, main findings, conclusion and

SE
it reviews empirical findings in the recommendations. This part also

body of literature on the research topic. involves checking whether the objectives
U
Furthermore, it reviews relevant theories of the study have been achieved. Any
and models which guide the study. In conclusion drawn and recommendations
E
this part, the researcher also establishes made should result from the study.
N
the knowledge gap from the existing The researcher presents his or her
LI
recommendations for improving the

N
literature.
situation and for further studies.
O
Methodology
R
In this part, the researcher describes the Supplementary pages (end matters)
FO
methodology adopted in conducting Bibliography and appendices: The

the study or research. It shows how the bibliography and appendices are
study was carried out and the research presented at the end of the report.
instruments or tools used to collect, Bibliography involves a list of references
process and analyse data. consulted when writing the research

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report. References are a DO
list NOT DUPLICATE
of all Furthermore,the information collected
reading materials cited in the report. should not be used for the purpose
Appendices are a list of attachments other than the intended one. Another
for referring when reading the report. ethical issue is that the researcher
A list of appendices include copies of should be honest and respectful to the
research tools, research permits and other respondents.
information, which could not be included
in the main document. Uses of research findings and
recommendations
Activity 1.3 The following are some of the
uses of the research findings and
In groups, do the following:
recommendations:
(i) Choose any geographic topic for
(i) They are useful in advancing
research within your area;
knowledge which improves and
(ii) Develop three specific objectives; develops the society;
(iii) Develop research tools for data
(ii) They enable the researcher to
collection;
identify the needs of the society;
(iv) Conduct a simple research in a form
of a project; LY
(iii) They help formulate new or
improve government policies,
N
(v) Write a research report; and
laws and principles which govern
O
(vi) Present the report in class. the citizens’ socio-economic

SE
development;
(iv) Through research findings, a
U
Ethical considerations
researcher can identify possible
In any research, the researcher must
E
areas for further research;

N
observe ethical issues during data

collection. Ethical issues include (v) Market for various products can
LI
receiving research clearance from be sought by conducting research

N
the authorities. The researcher must to identify areas with high and low
O
ensure confidentiality of respondents demand for goods and services; and

R
or informants. Moreover, the researcher (vi) They help to find solutions to

FO
would protect the respondents physically problems facing society such as

and psychologically while informing diseases, drought, famine, social
them about the aim and nature of the inequalities, unemployment, and
research and the inherent risks if any. environmental degradation.

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Revision exercise DO NOT DUPLICATE
Section A
Choose the letter of the correct answer:
(i) Identify the first stage of conducting a geographic research among the
following:
(a) Data presentation (d) Data collection
(b) Research design (e) Data analysis
(c) Identification of the geographic research problem
(ii) Edvan at Panda Hill Secondary School had an interest in conducting a

geographic research on challenges street-children face in cities. What will
be the last stage for his research?
(a) Data collection (d) Data analysis
(b) Data presentation (e) Data processing
(c) Report writing
(iii) Which stage of research enables the researcher to identify the needs of the
society? LY
N
(a) Research output (d) Research input
O
(b) Research methodology (e) Research design

SE
(c) Problem identification
(iv) Which of the following are the major types of variables in a research
U
process?
E
(a) Qualitative and quantitative

N
(b) Dependent and independent

LI
(c) Null and alternative

N
(d) Dependent and quantitative

O
(e) Alternative and independent

R
(v) Identify the two main types of hypotheses among the following:
FO
(a) Alternative hypothesis and positive hypothesis

(b) Null hypothesis and negative hypothesis
(c) Dependent hypothesis and independent hypothesis
(d) Null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis
(e) Directional hypothesis and non-directional hypothesis

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Section B DO NOT DUPLICATE
Answer the following questions:

(i) What do you understand by the following terms as used in a research report?
(a) Introduction (c) Research methodology
(b) Literature review (d) Recommendations
(ii) s. Joan is a teacher at Mtakuja Secondary School who intends to conduct

M
field research on the impact of settlement growth on Mtakuja Secondary
School:
(a) Identify the steps she would follow to conduct the reaserch.
(b) Mention at least three advantages of that research to that community
and the school.
(c) Give five possible challenges to that research.
Section C
Answer the following essay questions:
1. To get solutions to the problems people face in their daily lives pertaining
LY
to environmental issues, an expert should conduct a geographic research.
N
With six points, explain the importance of doing that research.
O
2. Explain the advantages and challenges of the following research methods:

SE
(a) Survey (c) Focus group discussion

(b) Interview (d) Observation
U
3. Suppose you want to conduct a geographic research on waste management

E
in your society and your interest is to know waste management practices

N
by residents, design a questionnaire which will enable you to get relevant

LI
information or data for your research or study.

N
O
4. Why is it necessary for a researcher to consider ethical issues when conducting

a geographic research?
R
FO
5. Flora is a Form Four student at Airwing Secondary School but her home
place is in Mbarali District where she used to observe several conflicts
between farmers and pastoralists. One day she heard through the Radio that,
a farmer was killed by the pastoralists in her home village. She decided to
conduct research about the conflict. Elaborate four possible research tools
she would use during data collection.

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Chapter Two
Climate and natural
climate regions
Introduction
The natural climate regions are classified according to the amount of temperature
and rainfall distribution. Although in each region the overall characteristics of the
climate may appear the same, there are some variations that may occur locally.
In this chapter, you will learn about the concepts of climate and natural climate
regions, geographical factors affecting the climate as well as the natural climate
regions of the world. In addition, you will learn to link each climate with its
respective economic activities, vegetation and animals, and how to solve climatic
LY
problems. The competencies developed from this chapter will help you to plan
and carry out several socio-economic activities based on the climatic conditions
N
O
of particular areas.
SE
The concepts of climate and natural Natural climate regions refer to the areas
U
climate regions with specific temperature, rainfall, relief,

E
Climate refers to the average weather natural vegetation, soil type and cultural
N
conditions of an area recorded for a environmental conditions which are

LI
long period, usually thirty (30) years or more or less similar. From an ecological
more. Climate provides an integrated point-of-view, the naturally occurring
N
picture of atmospheric conditions of a plants (flora) and animals (fauna) of

O
large area for a long time. The world's the regions are likely to be influenced
R
climate is neither uniform nor static. by geographical and geological factors,

FO
Climatic conditions vary from one such as soil and water availability in a
region to another throughout the world. significant manner. Thus, most of the
Temperature and rainfall (precipitation) natural climate regions are homogeneous
are two most important elements ecosystems. Human impact can be an
determining the climate. These elements important factor in shaping a particular
vary from one place to another. natural climate region.

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Types of world climate DO NOT
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their Variations in different seasons are
characteristics dominated by rainfall. Tropical climates
Classification of climate of the world is cover only two seasons which are the dry
done to understand how a combination season and the wet season. The annual
of different climatic elements determine rainfall is around 762 millimetres. This
a specific type of climate. There are type of climate is found in areas such
various systems for classifying the as central Africa, some parts of South
climate globally. However, the Köppen America as well as northern and eastern
Climate Classification System is the Australia. Biomes that have tropical
most accepted and widely used system climates include rainforests and savannas.
for classifying the world’s climate. This
system was developed by Wladimir Dry climate
Köppen in the 1900s and is named This type of climate experiences very
after him. In 1900 and afterwards, he little rainfall and has, therefore, no
continued to revise his system until he permanent source of streams. Dry
passed away in 1940. According to the climates are also marked by a wide
Köppen Climate Classification System, range of daily temperatures ranging from
global climates are often divided into five 32°C to 35°C. A dry climate is divided
types as elucidated by Michael Pidwirmy
in 2014: Tropical, dry, temperate, cold
LY
into semi-arid and arid zones. These
zones have three main characteristics:
N
and polar climates. These divisions of Very low precipitation, high evaporation
O
the climate consider a variety of factors rates that typically exceed precipitation,
SE
such as altitude, atmospheric pressure, and wide temperature swings, that is

wind patterns, latitude and geographical both daily and seasonally. Dry climates
U
characteristics, for example, mountains are found mostly between 15° and 35°
E
and oceans. North and South of the Equator and large

N
continental regions of the mid-latitudes,

LI
Tropical climate particularly in the western parts of North

N
Tropical climate is a non-arid climate America, Australia, southern parts of

O
in which the mean temperature is above South America, central and southern
18°C throughout the year. This type Africa and much of middle Asia.
R
of climate is experienced within 23 12 Under this type of climate, the primary

FO
°S and 2312°N of the Equator. Tropical characteristic is low and unpredictable

climate is characterised by high average precipitation. The lowest rainfall is
temperatures and heavy rainfall. about 150 millimetres occurring in arid
Temperatures in tropical climate are or desert areas where the precipitation
between 21°C and 32°C, and remain average is less than 35 millimetres per
relatively constant throughout the year. annum. Moreover, some deserts may

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go several years with no DO NOT
rainfall. DUPLICATE
A dry prevailing wind direction, continentality
climate often has greater evaporation than (how large a landmass is), and altitude
precipitation. This results in a climate influence temperature changes.
that lacks ground moisture due to low
average rainfall and rapid evaporation. Cold climate
For example, arid regions in the Middle The cold climate zone lies between
East have an average rainfall of less than
40° and 65° North and South of the
20 millimetres every year whereas the Equator and the poles. It includes the
annual evaporation rate is more than Arctic and Antarctic such as parts of
200 millimetres. This is ten times that Russia and Alaska. Mountain tops have
of precipitation. Extreme evaporation their own cold climate no matter where
contributes to dry and coarse soils that they are located. Above the tree line,
support little plant life. Semi-arid regions
mountains have a climate similar to that
with slightly more precipitation will of near the poles. At lower altitudes the
support some grass and shrubs. This climate becomes less cold. Cold climate,
climate has significant variations in also known as snow, microthermal or
seasonal and daily temperatures. This continental climates, have a moderate
climate is found in some parts of centralrainfall of about 231 millimetres and
Tanzania.
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high seasonal variations in temperature.
N
These climates tend to be found in
Temperate climate
O
central regions of land masses and
Temperate climate is also known have an average temperature of above
SE
as mesothermal or middle latitude 10°C in their warmest months. In the

climate. It is found between 30° and winter, the coldest month has an average
U
60° North and South of the Equator. temperature of below -3°C.

E
Summers tend to be quite warm with

N
little rainfall of about 610 millimetres Polar climate

LI
a year. Winters are moderately wet. Polar climate is found across the
N
Temperate biomes include sub-tropical continents that border the Arctic Ocean,
O
regions, mediterranean areas and marine Greenland and Antarctica. This climate
or maritime regions. These zones
R
region has year-round cold temperature.

generally have wider temperature ranges
FO
It is characterised by lack of a true

of between 17°C and 24°C throughout
summer. Parts of the world where a
the year and more distinct seasonal
polar climate exists include northern
changes than tropical climates, whose
Canada, Siberia, and Antarctica. Weather
variations are often small.
in these areas is very cold for most of the
In temperate climates, latitudinal year and land is covered by thick sheets
positions, sea or ocean currents, of ice. Large blocks of permanent ice

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DO regions
and tundra are what make these NOT DUPLICATE
various geographical factors causing
distinctive. these variations in climate.
During the winter, the regions are Latitude

entirely dark and extremely cold Latitude is the angular distance north
whereas during the summer, days are and south of the Equator. Latitudes do
long but receive a very small amount affect the temperature of a particular
of insolation, which makes summers area, due to the Earth’s inclination;
cool as well. The average temperature the mid-day Sun is almost overhead
of the warmest month is less than 10ºC. within the tropics but sunrays reach the
The annual temperature ranges between Earth at an angle outside the tropics.
-40°C and 0°C. The region is dry with Areas within and near the Equator are
less than 25 millimetres of precipitationhot because sunrays directly reach the
annually; most precipitation occurs Earth’s surface and hit the smallest area.
during the summer. The Polar climate Temperature, thus, tends to decrease
regions experience only four months of from the equatorial regions towards the
temperature above the freezing point. poles. This is because sunrays travel
They also tend to have months of little over longer distance before they reach
daylight.
LY
the Earth’s surface at the polar areas.
Moreover, the more the area is hit by
N
Geographical factors affecting climate
sunrays the higher the temperature of
O
Climate of a particular place can differ the area. Figure 2.1 shows how latitudes
SE
when compared to another. There are may affect temperature:

U
E
Low angle of 60oN

N
incoming sunlight (North pole)

LI
23 12 °N (Tropic
N
of cancer)
Sun
O
Sunlight directly 0o (Equator)

overhead
R
FO
23 12 °S (Tropic
of capricorn
Low angle of
incoming sunlight 60oS
Atmosphere (South pole)
Figure 2.1: Latitudes and their effects on temperature

Source: https://latitude+affect+the+amount+of+solar+radiation+direct+ sunlight

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Altitude DO NOT DUPLICATE
Altitude is the height of a point above mean sea level. Earth’s atmosphere is mainly
heated through conduction from the surface. As such, places near the surface are
warmer than those far from the surface. Temperature, therefore, decreases with
height above the sea level at the rate of 0.6˚C per 100 metres of height. The higher
you go, the cooler it becomes because temperature falls. Normally this happens
in the first layer of the atmosphere known as troposphere. This rate of decrease in
temperature with altitude (lapse rate) is not constant as it varies from one place
to another as well as from one season to another. As such, East Africa is cooler
than the Congo Basin area though they fall within the same latitudes. Figure 2.2
shows the temperature at different altitudes.
LY
N
O
Mountain
SE
U
Sea
E
Figure 2.2: Temperature variation at different altitudes

N
LI
N
One would expect higher temperature Distance from the sea

O
at higher altitudes, but this is not what Heating properties of land and water
happens. Water vapour and dust in the surface vary considerably because they
R
atmosphere at lower altitudes prevent react differently to solar radiation. The

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the heat from escaping back into space. land surface heats and cools faster than
At higher altitudes, there is very little the water surface. This is because in
vapour or dust, so there is a rapid transfer water there are fast moving mobile
of heat through the air which results in matters and redistribution of heat occurs
the fall of temperature of the particular mainly through turbulence. On the land
air. surface, there is less presence of mobile

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DO NOT
matters and redistribution of heat DUPLICATE
is done temperatures. If winds blow from cold
through molecular heat conduction and areas, they will lower the temperature of
proceed by moving from particle to a local area. For example, local winds
particle. such as Sirocco and Mistral tend to
influence changes in temperature.
Normally, water surfaces reflect a lot of
light because they are flatter. Some of the During the day, the Sun heats up both
light, however, penetrates deep into the the ocean and the land surface. Land,
water causing a large volume of water however, absorbs solar radiation faster
to be heated. When water moves with than water does. Land, thus, absorbs
circulating currents, it helps to disperse much of the Sun’s energy as well.
the heat to the land surface. The specific Because water heats up more slowly than
heat of water is greater than the specific land, air above the land will be warmer
heat of land surfaces. Therefore, it takes than the air over the ocean. The warm
more heat to raise up the temperature air over the land will rise throughout the
of water. day, causing low pressure on the land
surface. Over the water, high surface
Onshore winds bring warmth to coastal pressure will be formed because of the
regions during the winter. This warming cold air. As a result, the air will sink over
LY
influence is confined to a narrow coastal the sea or ocean. Winds will, therefore,
N
belt because the warm air rapidly loses blow from the higher pressure zone over
O
its heat on the colder land. During the water surface to lower pressure zone
summer, land surface is warmer than over the land, hence causing a sea breeze.
SE
the water surface and the air over the Strength of the sea breeze will vary
land is, therefore, warmer than that of depending on the temperature difference
U
over the sea. For that reason, coastal between the land and the sea or ocean.
E
regions are cooler than inland regions

N
during the summer. At night, the situation operates in

LI
reverse. The air over the sea or ocean is

N
Prevailing winds now warmer than the air over the land.
O
Prevailing winds are winds that blow The land loses heat quickly after the
consistently in a given direction over a Sun goes down and the air above cools
R
particular region on Earth. This is caused too. This can be compared to a tarmac
FO
by several factors such as uneven heating road. During the day, the tarmac road
from the Sun and the Earth's rotation. heats up and becomes very hot to walk
on. At night, however, the tarmac road
Winds tend to transfer heat and moisture loses its heat and becomes cool. The
over the land. If winds are warm and ocean, however, takes time to lose its
blown from a hot area, they will raise heat after the Sun sets. This causes the

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low surface pressure to shiftDO NOT
over theDUPLICATE
sea or ocean during
the night and the high
surface pressure to move over the land. This causes a small temperature inversion
between the sea or ocean surface and nearby land at night. Consequently, the wind
blows from the land to the sea or ocean hence creating a land breeze. Figure 2.3
shows how the land and sea breezes affect the temperature of the coastal areas:
Moon Sun
Cool land Warm land
Warm sea Cool sea
(a) Land Breeze (b) Sea Breeze

LY
Figure 2.3: Land breeze and sea breeze and their effect on temperature
N
Source: https://www.difference-between-land-breeze-and-sea-breeze.
O
SE
Ocean currents when the winds are onshore. Warm

An ocean current is a continuous currents move towards the pole carrying
U
and directed movement of sea water tropical warmth into the high latitudes,
E
generated by a number of forces acting for example, the Brazil warm ocean
N
upon the water which includes winds, current. In tropical latitudes onshore
LI
temperature of the sea or ocean, the winds, crossing warm ocean currents
N
shape of coastline salinity and density blow this warmth and moisture to the
O
differences of the sea or ocean. land to raise both the temperature and
precipitation. Cold ocean currents have
R
Coastal areas are influenced by warm less effect on temperature because they
FO
or cold ocean currents. Both ocean usually lie under off-shore winds, which
currents and winds affect temperature give rise to mist or fog along the coast,
by transporting their heat or coldness for example, the Benguela cold ocean
to adjacent regions. Warm currents currents. Figure 2.4 shows how ocean
raise temperatures while cold currents currents affect temperature:
lower the temperature of land surfaces

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DO NOT DUPLICATE
Scale: 1: 1 000 000
Figure 2.4: Ocean currents and their effect on temperature

Source: https://qph.fs.quoracdn.net/main-qimg-83f780d8eabbcd8661f837eeb7ca014a
Aspect direct sunshine as this region never gets

Aspect refers to the direction in which
a slope faces the Sun. Figure 2.5 shows LY
overhead Sun. The southward slopes,
on the other hand, are warmer and,
N
how aspect affects temperature. For therefore, carry moisture winds which
O
example in the Northern Hemisphere, bring rainfall to this area whereas the
SE
southward facing slopes are warmer northward facing slopes experience dry
than northward facing slopes because winds with no moisture and, hence, no
U
the northward slopes never receive rainfall.

E
N
LI
N
O
R
FO
Figure 2.5: Aspect and its effect on temperature

Source: https://www.pmfias.com/temperature-distribution

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Vegetation DO NOT DUPLICATE
Temperature
Vegetation affects the temperature of a Temperature is the degree or intensity
particular place significantly. Areas with of heat present in a substance or
dense forest cover, such as the Congo object. Temperature is expressed in
and the Amazon Basin receive less a comparative scale measured by a
insolation towards the Earth's surface. thermometer or simply perceived by
Due to this, they are often cooler than a touch.
areas in open spaces.
Temperature on the Earth’s surface varies
Soils from one place to another. Places near
the Equator experience high temperature
Light soils reflect more heat than darker
throughout the year whereas places near
soils, which are better heat absorbers.
the poles experience cold temperature
Such soil differences may cause slight
throughout the year.
variations in the temperature of the
region. Dry soils such as sands are In the context of Geography, temperature
very sensitive to temperature changes, is a mean temperature. It can be the daily
whereas wet soils such as clay retain or diurnal mean temperature, mean
much moisture and tend to warm up or monthly temperature, and mean annual
cool more slowly. LY
temperature. It is important, therefore,
N
to understand the following concepts of
O
Human influence temperature:
Human activities such as settlements,
SE
agriculture, industries and construction Daily mean temperature: This is the

of dams influence climate change as
U
average of the maximum temperature

people tend to clear forests, drain water and minimum temperature recorded
E
and cultivate wetlands. These activities during a day.

N
lead to climate change. For example, as

LI
population increases, land use increases Mean monthly temperature: This is

N
as well. Consequently, trees are cut down the average of temperature of a month
O
in large numbers for socio-economic obtained by taking the sum of daily

R
activities such as farming, settlement, temperature of a calender month divided

FO
lumbering or timber production, fire- by the number of days in a month.

wood and charcoal production. These
activities leave the land bare and expose Mean annual temperature: This is the
it to the agents of soil erosion, such as average of maximum and minimum
running water and winds. It also affects temperatures of a year. It is the average
hydrological cycle systems, hence between the coldest and the hottest
leading to drought in an area. months in a year.

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Annual range of temperature:DO NOT
This DUPLICATE
is the
difference between the temperature of
the hottest month and that of the coldest
month in a year.
Diurnal range of temperature: This

is the difference between the hottest Figure 2.6: Cyclone
and coldest parts of the day i.e.,
maximum day and minimum night Anticyclone: This is a system of winds
temperatures. that rotate clockwise about the centre
of high atmospheric pressure (H) in the
Atmospheric pressure Northern Hemisphere and anti-clockwise
Atmospheric pressure is the pressure in the Southern Hemisphere. As air sinks,
within the atmosphere. It is the no clouds or rain are formed. This is
force exerted on a surface by the air because when air sinks it becomes
above it as the gravity pulls it to the warm and it cannot hold more water.
Earth. Therefore, it is also important This situation causes settled weather
to understand the following related conditions during the summer. There is
concepts of atmospheric pressure: LY
a clear sky and high temperature. Figure
2.7 illustrates an anticyclone:
N
O
Depression or cyclone: This is a large
scale air mass that rotates around a strong
SE
centre of low atmospheric pressure (L)

in anti-clockwise direction north of the
U
Equator and in a clockwise direction to

E
the south. Cyclonic winds move across

N
Figure 2.7: Anticyclone

nearly all the regions of the Earth except
LI
the equatorial belt and are generally

Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone
N
associated with rain or snow. Cyclones

(ITCZ): This is a low-pressure belt,
O
are characterised by inward spiraling

which is found between two trade wind
winds that rotate about a zone of low
R
systems. The ITCZ is known by sailors

pressure. Figure 2.6 is an example of
FO
as the doldrums or the calm zone or area

a cyclone:
because of its monotonous and windless

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DO
weather. It is an area where the NOT DUPLICATE
northeast and southeast trade winds converge. Trade
winds converge in this region resulting in heavy rains, which are accompanied
by lightning and thunderstorms. The ITCZ moves northwards and southwards
following the apparent movement of the Sun. Figure 2.8 shows the Inter-tropical
convergence zone:
LY
N
Figure 2.8: Inter-tropical convergence zone
O
Source: https://www.google.com/search?q=inter+tropical+convergence.
SE
Rainfall Convectional rainfall: This occurs

U
Rainfall may be defined as the droplets of when the energy of the Sun heats the
E
water falling from the atmosphere after surface of the Earth causing water to
N
condensation. When water vapour rises, evaporate to form water vapour. When
LI
it cools at a high altitude until dew point the land heats up, it warms the air above
N
is reached. A dew point is the temperature it, hence raising the currents of air so
O
rate at which the atmosphere is saturated high in the atmosphere where it cools
down very fast, condenses, becomes
R
with water vapour. Condensation takes

saturated and falls as heavy rain. This
FO
place to form clouds after a dew point

has been reached. Moist air contains type of rainfall is very common in
small particles of matter called nuclei regions with equatorial climate where
that are made of dust, salt, ice and soot. there is constant high temperature and
Large water droplets join the nuclei to humidity. Figure 2.9 shows formation
form raindrops. The following are types of convectional rainfall:
of rainfall:

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Figure 2.9: Convectional rainfall

Source: https://www.google.com/search?q=convectional+rainfall+diagram
Relief or topographic rainfall: Occurs and condenses to form clouds which

when moisture carrying winds are forced bring rain on a windward side. After
to rise over mountains lying along a crossing the mountain, the winds lose
coast at right angles to onshore winds. most of the moisture and cool down and
Presence of mountains acts as a barrier to
the movement of moist air, hence forcing LY
dry. As such, no rain or fog may occur
on the leeward side. Figure 2.10 shows
N
air to rise. The ascending moist air cools the formation of relief rainfall:
O
SE
U
E
N
LI
N
O
R
FO
Figure 2.10: Relief or topographic rainfall

Source: https://cdn.britannica.com/condensation-precipitation-rain-shadow-effect-lift.jpg

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DO NOT
Cyclonic or depression rainfall: DUPLICATE
It is formed when masses of warm air are forced
over and chilled by wedges of cold air. The line where the two air masses meet is
known as a “front” which explains why sometimes this type of rainfall is known
as “frontal rainfall”. The collision of two air masses of different characteristics
can cause some air to rise; as a result, it leads to the occurrence of rainfall. Here
the warm air is forced to ascend or rise over cold air, resulting in moisture and
heavy rains. Figure 2.11 shows the cyclonic rainfall:
LY
N
O
SE
Figure 2.11: Cyclonic/ frontal or depression rainfall

U
Source: https://i0.wp.com/civilnoteppt.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/frontal-rainfall.
E
N
The winds that may cause cyclonic or Harmattan winds: Dust-laden winds
LI
depression rainfall are: blowing southwards to the Coast of West

N
Sirocco winds: Hot winds with clouds Africa from the Sahara Desert.
O
of desert dust blowing from the

Sahara Desert northwards across the
R
Activity 2.1
Mediterranean Sea into Italy. They are
FO
so humid that they bring unpleasant, In groups, discuss the geographical

irritating heat and dryness. factors affecting climate in your area.
Mistral winds: A mass of cold air which Then, present those factors in class using
blows southwards from the Alps and diagrams where necessary.
Central Massif across the Mediterranean
Sea into Northern Africa.

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Natural climate regions of DO
the NOT DUPLICATE
world Equatorial climate region
A natural climate region is a part of the Location and coverage
Earth with relatively similar climate, The equatorial climate region, which is
vegetation, geology, animal species also known as the equatorial climatic belt
and human activities. The regions can extends from 0˚ to 5˚ of latitudes North
be categorised as hot, cold, wet or and South of the Equator. In some parts
dry. Whereas some areas receive rain of the world, however, it extends up to
throughout the year, others receive more than 10˚ North and South of the
rain in some months of the year only. Equator. Areas experiencing equatorial
Natural climate regions are classified climate include:
based on the climatic characteristics such (a) The Congo Basin (Central Africa);
as distinct temperature and rainfall. On (b) The Amazon Basin (South America);
this basis, the Earth’s surface can be
(c)
The Highlands of East Africa
divided into fourteen (14) natural climate
(which has a modified equatorial
regions as follows:
climate due to higher altitude). In
(i) Equatorial East Africa the modified equatorial
(ii) Tropical grassland (Savannah) climate is experienced around the
LY
(iii) Tropical maritime Lake Victoria basin, specifically
the Islands within Lake Victoria,
(iv) Tropical (Hot) desert
N
Northern region in Pemba
O
(v) Tropical monsoon (Zanzibar) at Ngezi forest.
(vi) Mediterranean (d) The Coast (Gulf) of Guinea (West
SE
(vii) Warm temperate eastern margin Africa);

U
(China type) (e) South–East Asia mainly in India,

Sri Lanka (Ceylon), Malaysia,
E
(viii) Warm temperate eastern interior

Singapore and Indonesia, also from
N
(Steppe type)
Myanmar (Burma) to Vietnam;
LI
(ix) Cool temperate west coast margin

(f) The Southern Ivory Coast;
N
(British type)
O
(g) The South, Western and South-

(x) Cool temperate eastern margin
Central Ghana;
R
(Laurentian type)
(h) Western Coastal Nigeria;
FO
(xi) Cool temperate continental

(Siberian type) (i) Eastern Coastal Madagascar
(Malagasy Republic); and
(xii) Cool temperate interior
(j) Younde (Cameroon).
(xiii) Polar (Tundra climate and Ice cap
An equatorial climate region has an
climate)
equatorial type of climate. Figure 2.12
(xiv) Mountainous shows areas within equatorial climate:

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N
Key:
Scale: 1: 1 000 000 Equatorial climate regions
Figure 2.12: Equatorial climate regions
Climatic characteristics climate is characterised by heavy rainfall

There is considerable uniformity in LY
(normally convectional rain) that is
N
temperature throughout the year; the well distributed throughout the year.
O
mean monthly temperatures are always For example, the total annual rainfall
ranges from 1 500 to 2 500 millimetres.
SE
around 24ºC to 27ºC with very little

variation; there is no winter because Furthermore, it receives double rainfall
U
the length of day and night is more or peaks coinciding with the equinoxes.
less equal over the year and the Earth’s Cloud cover is heavy with seldom
E
rotational velocity is maximum at the clear sky day. Figure 2.13 and Table
N
Equator. The diurnal and annual ranges 2.1 illustrate the climate of Younde,
LI
of temperature are small, normally not Cameroon, one of the places located
N
more than 3ºC. Moreover, this type of within the equatorial climate region.
O
R
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Table 2.1: Climatic data for Younde (Cameroon)
Month J F M A M J J A S O N D
Temperature (˚C) 25 25 24.6 24.5 24.2 24 24 24 24 24 24.4 24.5
Rainfall (mm) 49 69 150 230 206 114 64 84 194 226 150 50

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Figure 2.13: Climate of Younde, Cameroon
Vegetation greenheart, rosewood, cabinet wood,

This type of climate supports a luxuriant and dyewoods. The lianas, epiphytic and
LY
type of vegetation and the tropical rain parasitic plants are also found in this type
forest. Moreover, it comprises a multitude of climate. Trees of single species are
N
of evergreen trees that yield tropical scarce in such vegetation (see Figures
O
hardwood such as mahogany, ebony, 2.14 and 2.15):

SE
U
E
N
LI
N
O
R
FO
Figure 2.14: Equatorial rainforest

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LY
N
Figure 2.15: Equatorial rainforest with layers
O
SE
Human activities cocoa in Ghana, and sugar cane in Cuba.

The equatorial regions are generally Other crops include maize, groundnuts,
U
sparsely populated, but several socio- yams and bananas.

E
economic activities are conducted as

N
listed below: Lumbering: Since most valuable trees

LI
such as mahogany, ebony, and rosewood

N
Agriculture: In some areas where are found in equatorial forests, lumbering

O
population is dense like South of Nigeria is one of the major activities in the
and the Islands of Java in Indonesia, the region.
R
natural vegetation has been removed.

FO
The area is mainly used for growing Fishing and water transport: Fishing
crops such as rubber in Malaysia and takes place in large rivers such as the
Indonesia, oil palm in Malaysia, Nigeria Amazon, the Congo and their tributaries.
and the Democratic Republic of Congo, Rivers also serve as a means of inland

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water transport for both DO NOT
people DUPLICATE
and insects are tsetse-flies, which cause
goods, especially timber and logs. sleeping sickness (trypanosomiasis)
in human beings. People can get this
Hunting and food collection: Hunting disease when an infected tsetse-fly
and food collection are practised mainly bites them. If the disease is not treated,
by forest dwellers such as the pygmies of it can cause death. Also, it can cause
the Congo Basin. They obtain traditional nagana (animal trypanasomiasis) among
medicines, firewood, fruits, honey and livestock.
meat through hunting. Animals that are
found in the equatorial region include tree Tourism: Tourism activities take place
dwellers such as gorillas, chimpanzees due to the attractive environment of the
and monkeys; river dwellers such as equatorial climate such as thick forests
crocodiles and hippopotamus and open and wild animals like chimpanzees,
space dwellers such as lions, hyenas, leopards, monkeys, crocodiles, gorillas
zebras, tigers and elephants. There and hippopotamus.
are also birds and insects of various
kinds. Tropical climate regions or tropical
grasslands
Equatorial areas have not been fully Location and coverage
LY
developed because of a number of These regions are found between 5˚ and
N
reasons. The common ones are: 15˚ North and South of the Equator.
O
It is difficult to establish lines of Tropical regions are well developed

SE
communication because of rapid in Africa (West Africa, Sudan, East

vegetation growth; there is usually and Central Africa), Brazilian Plateau,
U
heavy rainfall throughout the year that Venezuela, and North Australia. In
E
leads to loss of soil nutrients through Tanzania, Serengeti grassland is an

N
leaching, thus, making it unproductive example of tropical grassland climate

LI
and less supportive to vegetation; and region. Figure 2.16 shows the location of
N
the presence of pests and insects which the Savannah climate or tropical climate
O
cause diseases that infect human beings, regions.

livestock and crops. Examples of these
R
FO

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N
Scale: 1: 1 000 000

Key:
Savannah climate regions LY
N
Figure 2.16: Savannah climate regions
O
SE
Climatic characteristics of the Sudan type of climate and the

total annual rainfall ranges from 500
U
The Savannah climate is characterised

by distinct wet and dry seasons. It also millimetres to 1 500 millimetres. Figures
E
has a high mean temperature throughout 2.17 and 2.18, Tables 2.2 and 2.3 show
N
the year of between 19ºC and 27ºC. The the climatic data (tropical grassland)
LI
annual range of temperature is between for Bulawayo and Cuiaba, which are in
N
3ºC and 8ºC. Extreme diurnal range of tropical climate regions.

O
temperature is one of the characteristics

R
FO
Table 2.2: Climatic data for Bulawayo (Zimbabwe)

Temperature
21.7 21 20.6 18.9 16.0 13.9 13.9 16 20 22.2 22.2 22.2
(˚C)
Rainfall
149.7 101.6 78.7 17.8 7.6 0 0 0 2.5 22.9 83.8 147
(mm)

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Figure 2.17: Temperature and rainfall distribution for Bulawayo (Zimbabwe)
Table 2.3: Climatic data for Cuiaba (Brazil) LY

N
O
Temperature
27.2 27.2 27.2 26.7 25 23.9 24.4 25.5 27.8 27.8 27.8 27.2
SE
(˚C)
Rainfall (mm) 248 211 211 101.6 53 7.6 5 28 50.8 114 149.9 205.7
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Figure 2.18: Temperature and rainfall distribution for Cuiaba (Brazil)

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groundnuts whereas cash crops include
In terms of vegetation, this climate sugarcane, coffee, bananas, cotton, sisal
is characterised by tall grass often and tobacco. Some crops, for example
reaching two metres high and scattered sisal, cotton, tobacco and sugarcane are
trees, which are mainly found near grown in plantations.
water courses. The vegetation consists
mainly of thorny bushes, low shrubs, and Generally, agriculture is not that much
thorny trees. They are also characterised well developed in the Savannah region,
by grasslands, which have different with the exception of river basins
names depending on their locations, where the network of rivers supply
for example, they are called Campos water for farming through irrigation.
in Brazil and Savannah in Africa and The following reasons are behind low
Australia. Most of the grass tends to agricultural development in most of
turn brownish during the dry season. Savannah areas:
The roots remain dormant. When the
rains come, they produce new shoots Rainfall is unreliable and, in some
and leaves. Additionally, the trees can places, insufficient. Drought incidences
survive in the dry season in various ways. existence of pests (example, tsetse-flies),
For instance, some store water in their
trunks like the baobab trees and some
LY
diseases and harmful birds, which harm
crops, affect crop production. Moreover,
N
trees shade off their leaves to prevent quelea birds affect crop productivity as
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loss of water. Moreover, most of the they fly in huge flocks in search of early
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trees have long roots, which can reach maturing cereals, annual wild grass and
the layers of moist soil several metres grains. Rice farms in Mbarali-Mbeya
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below the Earth’s surface. Other trees are frequently affected by quelea birds.
E
such as Acacia develop an umbrella-

N
shaped crown, which provides shade Furthermore, loss of soil fertility due to
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around the trunk and roots. This helps scanty vegetation influences soil erosion
N
to conserve soil moisture. by allowing the agents of erosion such

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as wind and water to erode the soil.

Economic activities This affects agricultural production.
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People in the tropical grasslands engage Soil erosion due to heavy occassional
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mainly in the following economic rainfall also affects transport and

activities: communication systems due to frequent
destruction of infrastructures such as
Crop production: Crops are of two roads, railways and power lines. Crop
types: Food and cash crops. Some food production is also affected by occasional
crops are maize, millet, beans, rice and heavy rains. As this climate region is

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characterised by sparse DO NOT DUPLICATE
population, it the grasslands
of Kenya and Tanzania.
hinders crop production due to a shortage Figure 2.19 shows livestock-keeping in
of labour. one of the Savannah areas. Sudan is the
leading country in livestock-keeping in
Livestock-keeping: Another economic Africa. It ranks first in Africa for having
activity that is practised in tropical the largest number of cattle, sheep, goats
climate regions is nomadic pastoralism, and camels. Additionally, it is the third
whereby livestock-keepers move from country in Africa for poultry production
one place to another in search of water and the fifth country for donkey
and pastures. Extensive grassland keeping. In 2019, Sudan’s official
(Savannah) provides a good environment sources estimated 41 million cattle, 51
for keeping cattle, goats and sheep. A million sheep, 43 million goats and 4.9
good example can be drawn from the million camels. In addition, there were
Maasai of East Africa, who mainly 7.5 million donkeys and 784 thousand
engage in livestock-keeping. The Maasai horses. In Brazil, the Campos (grassland)
are nomadic. They maintain large herds are used for rearing cattle for commercial
of cattle, goats and sheep which graze on purposes.
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Figure: 2.19: Livestock keeping in savannah areas

Source: http://apps.tsn.go.tz/public/uploads/images/cattlle-helders.jpg.
Hunting and gathering activities: Hunting and gathering activities are also carried
out in this area due to the availability of wild animals, birds, fruits, eggs and honey
from the forest.

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DO
Tourism activities: Tourism is NOT
one of DUPLICATE
the world’s fastest growing industries and a
major source of national income, foreign exchange and employment opportunities
for many countries. Tourism activities are common in tropical or Savannah climate
region because the grassland is home to a variety of exceptional animals such as
elephants, giraffes, zebras, leopards, tigers, hyenas, jaguars, lions, buffaloes, rhinos
and hippos. In Tanzania, there are many national parks, including world ranking
tourist attractions such as the Serengeti, Nyerere, Ruaha, Mikumi and Gombe.
Figure 2.20 exemplifies a tourism activity in the Savannah region:
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Figure: 2.20: Tourism activity in the Savannah region

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Source: https://www.safaris-uganda.com/6-days-tanzania-luxury-safari
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Tropical maritime climate region

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Activity 2.2
Location and coverage
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Go around the area you live in (village A tropical maritime climate region is
FO
or town). Then, describe its climatic a region experiencing tropical climate

conditions and outline feactures that may that is primarily influenced by the ocean,
attract tourists to the place. Present your mainly islands and coastal areas situated
description in class. between 10° and 25° North and South
of the Equator. It covers the lowlands
of Central America, the West Indies,

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DOand
East coastal lowlands of Brazil NOT DUPLICATE
East of the Sun. There are two main seasons
Africa, East Madagascar, the coast of in a tropical maritime climate: The wet
Queensland (Australia) and Manila in and the dry seasons. The total annual
the Philippines. Figure 2.22 shows the rainfall varies from 1 000 millimetres
tropical maritime climate regions. In to over 2 000 millimetres depending on
Tanzania, the tropical maritime climate location. The temperature ranges from
region includes some parts of Zanzibar 21°C to 29°C. The trade winds blow all
Islands. year round and are moist, as they pass
over warm seas. The onshore trade winds
Climatic characteristics blow throughout the year and bring
Though the mean annual temperature rain almost every day except in the hot
is fairly high, the summer and winter seasons. Table 2.4 and Figure 2.21 present
seasons are sharply differentiated due the climatic data (Tropical maritime
to northward and southward movements climate) for Manila in the Philippines.
Table 2.4: Climatic data for Manila (Philippines)

Temperature
(˚C) LY
26.8 26.3 25.9 26.2 25.9 25.8.3 25.8 25.8 25.9 25.5 25.6 25.4
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Rainfall (mm) 22 12 10 49 247 298 642 551 541 297 200 100
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Figure 2.21: Temperature and rainfall distribution for Manila in the Philippines

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produced is coffee especially in Eastern
Trees are normally deciduous. Forests Brazil.
are open and less luxuriant. Also, most
of the forests yield valuable trees such as Tropical monsoon climate region
teak. Other kinds of trees are sal, acacia Location and coverage
and eucalyptus. These areas are located in Southern
Asia where strong seasonal or monsoon
Economic activities wind blows strongly onshore during the
People mainly engage in agriculture, hot season and offshore for the rest of
especially in the production of food the year. The word ‘monsoon’ means
crops such as rice. This is done in almost season in Arabic. This type of climate is
all tropical marine regions. They also found in South East Asia (from Pakistan,
engage in the production of cash crops India and Bangladesh to Southern China
such as sugarcane which is grown and the Philippines) and Northern
annually on large plantations in most Australia. This type of climate is mostly
parts of the West Indies, South Africa found in India (see Figure 2.22 which
(especially in Natal) and Queensland shows the tropical monsoon climate
(North-east Australia). Another cash crop regions):
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Key:
Scale: 1: 1 000 000 Tropical monsoon climate regions Tropical maritime climate regions
Figure 2.22: Tropical monsoon climate and tropical maritime climate regions

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Climatic characteristics DO NOT DUPLICATE
rain falls throughout the year. However,
Seasonal reversal of winds is the chief in areas with a monsoon climate, rain
feature of the monsoon climate region. is mostly experienced in about five
In summer, the winds blow from the months.
sea to the land. This is when land heats
up and an intensely low pressure zone Vegetation
develops over the land surface, hence Vegetation in the monsoon lands varies
attracting strong moist winds from the considerably depending on the amount
sea which bring in a lot of rain. The rain of annual rainfall received. In the wettest
densely falls within a short season of just areas, for example, in Myanmar (Burma)
four months from June to September. and Sri Lanka, vegetation consists of
During winter, the land is cooler, hence dense evergreen forests. Because of the
leading to the development of a high long dry season the forest is less luxuriant
pressure zone. At this time, wind blows than rainforests, and many trees are
from the land towards the sea, leaving deciduous, and lose most of their leaves
the area dry. in the dry season. The trees are more
widely spaced, hence allowing a thick
There are three seasons in the tropical undergrowth to flourish, particularly,
monsoon: The cool, the hot and the wet
season. The cool season starts from
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dense thickets of bamboo. Rapid growth
takes place in the hot and wet seasons
N
November to February. It is a dry season. wherein trees soon become covered
O
When the offshore North East Monsoon with leaves. The trees are tall, often as
SE
winds blow, days get progressively hot. high as 30 metres and not close together
From April to June the maximum mean as in equatorial rainforests. Where the
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daily temperature in Bombay in India, is rainfall is not so high and because of the
E
over 30˚C because of the near overhead very long dry seasons, the vegetation is
N
mid-day Sun. During this time, there mainly made of woodland and scrubs,
LI
are almost no winds. As said earlier, the similar to that of the Savannah.
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rainy season is from June to September.

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During this period, the on-shore South Human activities

West Monsoon winds bring heavy Intensive cultivation of food crops is
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rainfall. The patterns of the season in practised due to fertile soils and adequate
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the tropical monsoon climate are similar rainfall. Sometimes, water from lakes
to those of the savannah climate, except and rivers is used for irrigation schemes.
that the total rainfall is higher, hence There is cultivation of cash and food
bringing with it the wettest rainy season. crops usually on plantations or estates.
The total rainfall is similar to that of Cash crops include sugarcane, cotton
areas with an equatorial climate where and jute. Food crops include wheat,

FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

millet, maize, and sorghum,DO NOTare
which DUPLICATE
population growth and improve living
grown in dry areas. Paddy is the most conditions.
commonly cultivated food crop. In the
highland areas of many tropical monsoon Tropical desert climate region
regions, tea is an important plantation Location and coverage
crop. The farmers are mainly concerned
Tropical deserts, are located in the
about climatic variations which occur
western margins of the continents in the
from year to year, particularly the
Trade Wind Belt roughly between 20°
availability of rain. Another concern
and 30°N and S of the Equator. Figure
is how to increase agricultural
2.23 shows the tropical desert climate
production to keep up with the rapid
regions:
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Key:
Scale: 1: 1 000 000 Tropical desert climate regions

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Figure 2.23: Tropical desert climate regions

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However, the only exception isDO
theNOT DUPLICATE
desert to 10˚C in the cool season. Absence
belt in North Africa, which extends of cloud cover contributes to high
from the west coast right across the diurnal range of temperature. During
continent and to South-West Asia. The day time, temperature ranges from
main reason for this is because the trade 38˚C to 49˚C. At night, loss of heat
winds affecting the Eastern part of North is rapid and temperature can fall to
Africa blow from the landmass of South- 15˚C in the hot season and to 5˚C in
West Asia. By the time they reach this the cool season. It rarely rains in this
area they are dry. Also, the presence of region. Annual rainfall is below 250
high mountains in the Eastern part of millimetres. In some deserts, rain may
the continent prevents moist winds from fall only once in five to six years. This
reaching the west coast with moisture. By type of rainfall is heavy and collects into
the time the winds reach the west coast, streams of running water, which may
they are dry and are blowing off-shore. form channels. When such channels are
The areas having this type of climate dry, they are called wadis. A wadi is an
include the Sahara, the Arabian and Arabic term traditionally referring to a
Iranian, the Australian, the Kalahari, the valley. In most of the regions clear sky
LY
Namib, the Atacama and the Californian favours the passage of insolation during
deserts. In some cases, for example in day time and outgoing radiation from the
N
the Sahara, strong winds such as the Earth during night. Therefore, the diurnal
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harmattan, may blow across the desert range of temperature is high. Figure
carrying loads of sands and dust. Such 2.24 illustrates how cloud influences
SE
storms are called simoom. climate. Also, Figures 2.25, 2.26, 2.27;
U
and Tables 2.5, 2.6, and 2.7 show the

Climatic characteristics climatic data (tropical desert climate)
E
of In Salah (Algeria), Lima (Chile) and

N
Temperature in the tropical desert

Windhoek (Namibia).
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ranges from 35˚C in the hot season

N
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(a) During the DO NOT DUPLICATE
day
(b) At night
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Figure 2.24: Influence of cloud cover on climate

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Activity 2.3
Read various sources of materials in the library or the internet on why the temperature
range in the desert is higher than in the equatorial climate regions. Write down the
reasons and present your findings in class.

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Table 2.5: Climatic data forDO
In NOT
SalahDUPLICATE
(Algeria)
Temperature
13.3 10 20.0 25 28.9 35 35 35 32.8 26.7 19.1 15
(˚C)
Rainfall
2.5 2.5 0 0 0 0 2.5 0 0 5.0 2.5 15.0
(mm)
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Figure 2.25: Temperature and rainfall distribution for In Salah (Algeria)

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Table 2.6: Climatic data for Lima (Chile)

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Temperature
21.7 22.8 22.8 21 18.9 16.7 16 16 16 16.7 18.9 21
(˚C)
Rainfall
0 0 0 0 0 5 7.6 12.7 12.7 2.5 0 0
(mm)

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DO NOT DUPLICATE
Figure 2.26: Temperature and rainfall distribution for Lima (Chile)
Table 2.7: Climate data for Windhoek (Namibia)

Month
Temperature
J F M A M J J A S O N D
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N
23.3 22.8 21.1 18.9 15.6 13.3 12.8 15.6 18.9 20.6 22.2 23.3
(˚C)
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Rainfall (mm) 68.6 68.6 81.3 43.2 10.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.5 10.1 25 49
SE
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Figure 2.27: Temperature and rainfall distribution for Windhoek (Namibia)

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Activity 2.4 DO NOT DUPLICATE
develop certain characteristics that help
them to withstand high temperatures and
Use different sources of information lack of moisture. These characteristics
to find out how people survive in include the presence of long tap roots
desert regions. Present your findings that help to tap underground water; few
in class. or absence of leaves so as to reduce loss
of water by transpiration; tough, waxy
or needle-shaped leaves to minimise
Vegetation
transpiration; many plants produce
Vegetation in the desert region is scanty.
seeds that remain dormant for years, but
It mainly consists of thorny scrub bushes
germinate when rain falls; they also store
and cacti because of receiving little or no
water in leaves, stems or root nodules.
rainfall. Vegetation found in hot deserts
Figure 2.28 shows a cactus plant:
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Figure 2.28: Cactus plant

Source: https://www.google.com/search?q=cactus%20plants&tbm
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FO
Economic activities
The following are major economic activities, which take place in tropical desert
regions.
Crop production: Whenever water is available as in the oases and along river
courses, agriculture is practised near these water sources. Cultivation is only possible
when there is a constant supply of water. For example, the lowlands of the valleys

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of the Nile, the Tigris and DO NOT DUPLICATE
Euphrates are intensively cultivated
for both food and
cash crops. It has only been possible through canal irrigation. Main crops grown
in such areas are date-palms, wheat, vegetables, fruit trees, millet, sugarcane, rice,
cotton, tobacco, vines, and tomatoes.
Animal keeping: Animals kept in the tropical desert region include goats, sheep,
donkeys and camels, which are especially under nomadic herding. Figure 2.29
shows camels as one type of the animals kept in desert areas.
LY
N
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Figure 2.29: Camels in the desert

Source: https://www.google.com/search?q=camels+in+desert+areas.
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Hunting and gathering: Some people Mediterranean climate region

N
or ethnic groups from desert areas get Location and coverage

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their food from hunting and gathering or This is located between 30˚ and 45˚ in
N
collecting nuts, honey and fruits, such the Northern Hemisphere and between
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as dates. 30˚ and 40˚ in the Southern Hemisphere.

The climate is best developed around
R
Handicraft and trading activities: Other the shores of the Mediterranean Sea (the
FO
activities in the region include mat Maghreb, Spain, Italy, Greece, Egypt and
weaving, tent and rope making, as well Israel); in South Africa (Cape Province);
as trading activities. the western sides of North and South
America (Central Chile and Central
California) and South-Western Australia
as shown in Figure 2.30:

FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

DO NOT DUPLICATE
N
Key:
Scale: 1: 1 000 000 Mediterranean climate regions
Figure 2.30: Mediterranean climate regions
Climatic characteristics
All regions with mediterranean climate LY
latitude. During summer, regions of the
mediterranean climate are dominated by
N
have relatively mild winters. Summer subtropical high-pressure cells causing no
O
temperatures, however, are variable or little rainfall. During winter, the polar
SE
depending on the region. For instance, jet stream and the associated periodic
Athens in Greece experiences rather high storms reach the lower latitudes of the
U
temperatures in the summer (48ºC has Mediterranean zones, hence bringing

been measured several times in Eleusina) rain with snow at higher elevations. As
E
whereas San Francisco in the United a result, areas with this climate receive
N
States has cool, mild summers due to almost all of their annual rainfall during
LI
the upwelling of cold subsurface waters the winter season and may go to the
N
along the coast. summer without having any significant

O
precipitation. Rainfall in this climate

Since all regions with mediterranean is relatively low and the annual total
R
climate are near large water bodies, rainfall varies from 500 millimetres to
FO
temperatures are generally moderate with 760 millimetres; and temperature ranges
a comparatively small range between from 21ºC in summer to about 10ºC in
winter lows and summer highs. winter. Figures 2.31 and 2.32; Tables
In the winter, temperatures range from 2.8 and 2.9 show the climatic data for
mild to warm depending on the distance mediterranean climate of Valparaiso
from the open ocean, elevation and (Chile) and Athens (Greece).

FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

Table 2.8: Climatic data forDO NOT DUPLICATE
Valparaiso (Chile)
Temperature
17.8 17.2 16.1 14.4 13.3 11.1 11.1 11.7 12.2 13.9 15.6 16.1
(˚C)
Rainfall
0.0 0.0 22.9 2.5 68.6 151 134.6 86.4 10.2 12.7 7.6 0.0
(mm)
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Figure 2.31: Temperature and rainfall distribution for Valparaiso (Chile)

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N
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Table 2.9: Climatic data for Athens (Greece)

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FO
Temperature
9.5 9.7 11.2 14.8 19 23.5 26.4 26.4 23 18.9 14 11.2
(˚C)
Rainfall
50.1 38.1 33.0 20.3 20.3 17.8 7.6 10.2 15.2 43.2 73.7 61
(mm)

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DO NOT DUPLICATE
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Figure 2.32: Temperature and rainfall distribution for Athens, Greece
O
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Human activities Warm temperate eastern coast margin

climate region (China type)
U
People in the Mediterranean region

cultivate cereal (grain) crops and citrus Location and coverage
E
fruits. Cereal crops include wheat,

N
This type of climate is located on the

barley, rice and maize whereas citrus
LI
eastern side of the continents. It is found

fruits are oranges, lemons, peaches, between latitudes 23˚ and 35˚ North and
N
apricots, plums, pears, grapes, limes, South of the Equator. Countries, which
O
olives and cherries. Crop production experience this type of climate, include
R
has given rise to specialised industries Central China, South-Eastern Japan,

FO
such as wine-making, flower milling, South-Eastern USA, Southern Brazil,

fruit canning, food canning and food and the Eastern part of the Pampas in
processing. Apart from crop production, Argentina, South-Eastern Africa and
animal keeping is also practised in this South-Eastern Australia. Figure 2.33
region. Animals such as goats, sheep, shows the warm temperate eastern coast
jack rabbits and lynx are kept. margin.

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DO NOT DUPLICATE
N
Key:
Scale: 1: 1 000 000 Warm temperate eastern coast margin climate regions
Figure 2.33: Warm temperate eastern coast margin climate regions
Climatic characteristics LY
1 000 millimetres annually. The warm
N
The warm temperate eastern coast temperate eastern margin climate
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margin climate is typified by a warm supports a wide range of crops. It is

SE
moist summer and a cool dry winter. dominated by a fairly distribution

The temperatures in this region are about of uniform rainfall throughout the
U
26ºC in the summer and 13ºC during year. Normally, it is dominated by

E
winter and are strongly modified by convectional and topographic rain in

N
maritime influence. This climate is also summer and cyclonic rain in winter. The
LI
characterised by little relative humidity region also experiences local storms such
as typhoons and hurricanes. Figures
N
especially in the mid-summer when

2.34, 2.35 and 2.36; Tables 2.10, 2.11,
O
temperature increases. For instance

in Natal, annual rainfall is more than and 2.12 show the climatic data (Warm
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moderate, ranging from 635 millimetres temperate eastern coast margin) for
FO
to 1 524 millimetres. Moreover, the Tokyo, Charleston and Durban (Natal).

region receives a total rainfall of about

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Table 2.10: Climatic data DOTokyo
for NOT DUPLICATE
(Japan)
Temperature
13 13.5 14.2 14.9 16.4 20.5 23.9 25.5 21.6 15.9 15 13.1
(˚C)
Rainfall
50.8 66 109.2 134.6 146.9 160 142.2 116.8 190.5 182.9 109.2 58.4
(mm)
LY
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Figure 2.34: Temperature and rainfall distribution for Tokyo, Japan

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N
Table 2.11: Climatic data for Charleston (USA)

O
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FO
Temperature
13 13.4 14.4 18.3 22.8 26.1 27.8 27.2 25 20 14.4 13.2
(˚C)
Rainfall
73.7 81.3 86.4 71.1 83.8 119.4 182.9 167.6 129.5 81.3 58.4 71.1
(mm)

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DO NOT DUPLICATE
Figure 2.35: Temperature and rainfall distribution for Charleston, USA
Table 2.12: Climatic data for Durban (Natal), South Africa

Month J F M A M J J A S O
LY
N D
N
Temperature
O
25 25 24.4 22.2 20 18.3 18.3 18.9 20 21.1 22.8 23.9

(˚C)
SE
Rainfall (mm) 116.8 114.3 116.8 76.2 50.8 17.8 20.3 50.8 94 124.5 111.8 114.3
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E
N
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N
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Figure 2.36: Temperature and rainfall distribution for Durban, South Africa

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on human labour and it is grown for
subsistence. Rice (paddy) is a staple
Study the climatic data in Table 2.11 and food in China. In South-East of the USA
answer the following questions: maize, rice, sugarcane, tobacco, cotton,
(i) Which month experiences the groundnuts and citrus fruits are important
highest rainfall? crops. Most of the maize produced in
(ii) What is the average temperature in the USA is mainly used as food for cattle
this area? and pigs. In Natal (South Africa), maize
is grown as a food crop whereas tobacco,
(iii) Which month experiences less
cotton and sugarcane as cash crops. In
rainfall?
the Eastern side of Southern Africa,
sugarcane is the main crop produced
but, in some areas, it is watered by an
Vegetation
irrigation system. Presence of moderate
Warm humid climate without dry or cold forests in some parts enables lumbering
seasons supports fairly ever green forests. to take place too.
However, the forests are not as dense as
tropical forests; neither do they shade
leaves like those in the cool temperate LY
Animal keeping: Cattle and sheep are
reared in vast numbers. Areas where
N
zones. There is a variety of plant and tree
animals are kept on commercial scale
O
species which are evergreen with broad
often in ranches are Argentina, South
leaves, deciduous trees in lowlands
SE
America and Australia. In South-East

and coniferous in the highlands. The
Australia, the main economic activity
common trees found in this area include
U
is dairy farming. The region produces a

oak, maples, camphor, magnolias, beech,
large quantity of milk, butter and cheese
E
camellias, palm trees and eucalyptus.

N
for local consumption and export.

Space between the trees allows the
LI
growth of shade, tolerant plants such

N
as ferns, bamboos and flowering shrubs. Warm temperate interior climate

O
region (Steppe type)

R
Human activities Location and coverage

FO
Crop production: The moderate This region is located between 20˚ and
temperature and rainfall in this region 35˚ North and South of the Equator.
make it suitable for growing crops Specifically, it is found in North America
throughout the year. In China, for in the grasslands of the Prairies in
example, paddy is grown partly under Canada, western Oklahoma and Texas
irrigation. Paddy farming relies heavily in the USA and Northern Mexico.

FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

In South America it is foundDO
inNOT DUPLICATEof Argentina,
the grasslands called the Pampas
and Asia in the Steppes of the former USSR. It is also found in the Veldt of
South Africa, the downs of New South Wales, the Murray-Darling and Victoria
in Australia and also, the plains of Hungary and the plains of Manchuria in China
as Figure 2.37 illustrates:
LY
N
O
Key:
Scale: 1: 1 000 000 Warm temperate interior climate regions
SE
Figure 2.37: Warm temperate interior climate regions

U
E
Climatic characteristics decreases with the increase of distance

N
The warm temperate interior climate from the sea. A good deal of the rain is
LI
region experiences significant extremes brought by the South-East Trade Winds

N
of temperature because it is not moderated to the southern continental regions

O
by water bodies. Its summers are very hot during summer months. Hence, the
with 29˚C temperature whereas winters interior part is relatively drier than the
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are very cold, below 0˚C.The annual areas near the coast. Figures 2.38, 2.39,
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range of temperature is, therefore, high. 2.40 and 2.41; Tables 2.13, 2.14, 2.15
Rainfall is of a convectional type falling and 2.16 show the climatic data (Warm
in spring and early summer. Annual temperate interior region or Steppe type)
rainfall varies from 250 millimetres for Winnipeg (Canada). Omaha (USA),
to 700 millimetres depending on the Bourke (Australia) and Barnaul (Russia).
location or distance from the sea. It

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leads to soil
erosion particularly in the
Due to moderate rainfall, the dominant marginal land. This calls for improved
vegetation in the warm temperate interior cropping techniques, which can be
region are grasslands. Grass heights vary employed to reduce soil erosion.
considerably depending on the amount
of rainfall received per annum. Grass is Animal keeping: Animal husbandry
often taller in wet areas and shorter in is another important human activity
relatively dry areas. Trees grow along taking place in the region. The most
water courses only. The grassland regions common animals kept in the region are
have specific names in particular regions, cattle and sheep. Beef cattle are the most
for example, the Downs (Australia), the prominent. Beef is exported as frozen
Veldt (South Africa) and the Pampas or canned to other countries. Sheep are
(Argentina). mainly kept for their wool in Australia
and South Africa. Merino is the most
Human activities common sheep breed in the region. In
Crop production: The temperate wetter areas and where rainfall is well
grasslands are the most important distributed throughout the year, sheep
areas in the world for the production of are kept for mutton.
wheat. Farms are extensive and highly LY
Activity 2.6
N
mechanised. Wheat is used for baking
O
bread and making pasta (spaghetti Study the climatic data from Tables
and macaroni). Maize, vegetables and
SE
2.13 to 2.16, then calculate the annual

fruits are important products in the temperature ranges of any two areas of
region, especially in the Veldt of South
U
your choice. Explain how the temperature

Africa. The major problem of this area range differs from that of the warm
E
is extensive cultivation of land, which

N
temperate eastern coast margin regions.

LI
N
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Table 2.13: Climatic data for Winnipeg (Canada)

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FO
Temperature
-19.4 -18.3 -9.4 3.9 10.6 16.7 18.9 18.2 12.2 5 -4.4 -13.9
(˚C)
Rainfall
22.9 20.3 33 40.6 55.9 93 91 55.9 48.3 35.6 25.4 22.9
(mm)

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DO NOT DUPLICATE
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N
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Figure 2.38: Temperature and rainfall distribution for Winnipeg (Canada)

SE
U
E
Table 2.14: Climatic data for Omaha (USA)

N
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N
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Temperature
-6.7 -4.4 2.2 10 16.7 22.2 24.5 23.3 18.9 12.2 3.3 -2.8
(˚C)
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Rainfall
15.2 20.3 85.6 76.2 111.8 132 11.8 86.4 76.2 63.5 25.4 22.9
(mm)

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N
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Figure 2.39: Temperature and rainfall distribution for Omaha (USA)

SE
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Table 2.15: Climatic data for Bourke (Australia)

E
N
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Temperature
29 29 25 20 14.4 12.2 10.6 13.3 17.2 21.1 24.4 27.8
N
(˚C)
O
Rainfall
51 49 40.6 35.6 27.9 25.4 22.9 22.9 25.4 27.9 33.0 27.9
(mm)
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FO

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DO NOT DUPLICATE
LY
N
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Figure 2.40: Temperature and rainfall distribution for Bourke (Australia)

SE
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Table 2.16: Climatic data for Barnaul (Russia)

E
N
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Temperature
-18.9 -17.2 -10.6 0.5 10.5 16.7 19.9 16.1 10 1.7 -8.9 -15.6
N
(˚C)
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Rainfall
7.6 5.0 7.6 10.2 25.4 35.6 45.6 40.6 22.9 22.9 17.8 15.2
(mm)
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FO

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DO NOT DUPLICATE
LY
N
Figure 2.41: Temperature and rainfall distribution for Barnaul (Russia)
O
SE
Cool temperate western coast margin North-West USA and British Columbia
climate region (British type) in western Canada, Southern Chile in
U
Location and coverage South America, North-West Europe

E
from Northern Spain, through France,

The region is located on the Western
N
to the Benelux countries, the British

sides of the continents between 45˚ and
LI
Isles, Germany, Denmark and Norway,

60˚ North and South of the Equator. It
N
Tasmania, Australia and the South Island

lies within the westerly Wind Belt, which
O
of New Zealand. Figure 2.42 shows the

prevails onshore throughout the year.
cool temperate western coast margin
R
Areas covered by this type of climate

climate regions.
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include North America, particularly

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DO NOT DUPLICATE
Key:
Scale: 1: 1 000 000 Cool temperate western coast margin climate regions
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Figure 2.42: Cool temperate western coast margin climate regions
N
Climatic characteristics increases from the coast to the interior
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The region has a warm summer and mild regions, the temperature decreases.
SE
winters. Winter temperature ranges from

2˚C to 7˚C whereas summer temperature Rainfall in this region is well distributed
U
ranges from 13˚C to 15˚C. In Valentia, throughout the year with a maximum
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South-West of Ireland the winter mean rainfall during winter. Total annual
N
temperature in January is about 7˚C rainfall is about 760 millimetres although

LI
whereas the annual temperature range in mountainous regions it may go up to

is 8˚C. In Berlin-Germany, the mean 2 500 millimetres. The region receives
N
temperature in January is about -1˚C both cyclonic and topographic rainfall.

O
whereas in summer the mean temperature Summers are not very warm; winters are
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is 18˚C. The annual range of temperature abnormally mild.

FO
is 19˚C. Normally, climate in the coastal

region is influenced by the ocean. It is The British type of climate has an
characterised by westerly winds, which adequate rainfall throughout the year.
blow over warm ocean currents. As they Since the rain-bearing winds come from
blow, they tend to raise the temperature the west, the western margins have the
of the coastal areas. As the distance heaviest rainfall. The amount tends to

FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

decrease eastwards with an DO NOT DUPLICATE
increasing show the cool
temperate western coast
distance from the sea. Tables 2.17, margin climate for Sitka (Alaska),
2.18, and 2.19 illustrate the climatic Valentia (Ireland) and Dunedin (New
data for cool temperate of western coast Zealand).
margin. Also, Figures 2.43, 2.44 and 2.45
Table 2.17: Climatic data for Sitka (Alaska)
Temperature
-0.2 1.2 2.5 5.2 8.1 10.7 12.7 13 10.9 12.7 3.4 1.9
(˚C)
Rainfall
193 165.1 142.2 139.7 104.1 86.4 106.7 180.1 256.5 309.9 241.3 228.6
(mm)
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O
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E
N
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N
O
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Figure 2.43: Temperature and rainfall distribution for Sitka (Alaska)

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Table 2.18: Climatic data DOValentia
for NOT DUPLICATE
(Ireland)
Temperature
7.2 6.7 7.2 8.9 11.1 13.9 15 15 13.9 10.6 8.9 7.2
(˚C)
Rainfall
142.2 124.5 104.1 99 78.7 88.9 94 129.5 116.8 139.7 139.7 165.1
(mm)
LY
N
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SE
U
E
Figure 2.44: Temperature and rainfall distribution for Valentia (Ireland)

N
LI
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Table 2.19: Climatic data for Dunedin (New Zealand)

O
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Temperature
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14.4 13.9 12.8 10.6 8.3 6.7 5.6 6.7 8.3 10.6 11.7 13.3
(˚C)
Rainfall
81.3 58.4 66 68.6 86.4 76.1 73.7 88.9 61 61 73.7 83.8
(mm)

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DO NOT DUPLICATE
Figure 2.45: Temperature and rainfall distribution for Dunedin (New Zealand)
Vegetation
The most common vegetation in this LY
Activity 2.7
N
type of climate is broad-leafed deciduous Study the climatic data of Sitka and
O
trees. Most of it have been cleared for Valentia. Then, calculate the temperature
farms. In Spring, trees develop new
SE
range for each town. Comment on the

leaves and shade them during Autumn. results and then make a class presentation.
U
The common tree species available

include the oak, elm, ash, birch, beech,
E
poplar, and hornbeam. The wetter areas, Human activities

N
on the other hand, are dominated by Crop production: Intensive agriculture

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willows, alder and aspen species; other is practised in these areas due to limited
N
species such as chestnut, sycamore, land and advanced agro-technology. The

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maple, and lime are found elsewhere. main crops grown are mainly wheat,
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Deciduous hardwoods are mainly used barley, oats, vegetables and fruits,
FO
for fuel and industrial purposes whereas especially apples.

eucalyptus are extensively harvested for
Lumbering: Lumbering is an important
lumbering.
economic activity in the region,
particularly in British Columbia.

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Animal keeping: It is DO NOT
practised DUPLICATE
in less are industrialised. As such, many people
industrialised areas. In Tasmania and engage in industrial activities. Fruits
New Zealand, sheep rearing for wool and processing industries, especially apples
mutton is an important activity. Dairy are commonly found throughout the
farming is also an important activity, region.
especially in Western Europe. Dairy
cattle are fed on pastoral lands with Cool temperate eastern margin
specially grown grass, which increases climate region (Laurentian type)
the quality and quantity of milk. Cattle
The cool temperate eastern margin
are also fed with cereals such as maize,
climate region is an intermediate type
barley, sorghum and millet. Important of climate between the British and
dairy products include butter, cheese, the Siberian types of climate. It has
cream and skimmed milk. features of both the maritime (marine)
and continental climates as Figure 2.46
Manufacturing: Most of the areas illustrates:
especially in Europe and North America
LY N
N
O
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E
N
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N
O
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Key:
Scale: 1: 1 000 000 Cool temperate eastern margin climate regions
Figure 2.46: Cool temperate eastern margin climate regions

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Location and coverage DO NOT DUPLICATE
provinces of eastern Canada, Manchuria
This region is located on the eastern side in northern China, Korea and northern
of the continents of North America and Japan. Figures 2.47 and 2.48; Tables
Asia, between 35˚N and 50˚N, and South 2.20 and 2.21 show climatic data for
of 40˚S. Some of the areas experiencing cool temperate eastern margin climate
this type of climate include Maritime for New York (USA) and Vladivostok
(Russia).
Table 2.20: Climatic data for New York (USA)
Temperature
-0.5 -0.5 3.9 9.4 15.6 20.6 23.3 22.8 19.4 13.3 7.2 1.7
(˚C)
Rainfall
91.4 88.9 96.5 83.8 83.3 88.9 106.7 111.8 88.9 86.4 78.7 88.8
(mm)
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N
O
SE
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E
N
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N
O
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Figure 2.47: Temperature and rainfall distribution for New York (USA)

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Table 2.21: Climatic data DOVladivostok
for NOT DUPLICATE
(Russia)
Temperature
-13 10 -3.1 4.4 9.5 13.3 18.1 20 16.5 9.2 -0.5 -9.6
(˚C)
Rainfall
7.6 15.2 30.5 50.8 71.1 76.2 109.2 118.8 45.7 27.9 12.7 56.9
(mm)
LY
N
O
SE
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Figure 2.48: Temperature and rainfall distribution for Vladivostok (Russia)

E
N
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Climatic characteristics the temperature. In North America, these

N
Winter temperatures range from -13˚C winds bring heavy rainfall because they
O
to -7˚C and Summer temperatures from gather moisture as they pass through the
R
15˚C to 24˚C. The annual temperature is Great Lakes. The Labrador cold currents
FO
therefore high. The average temperature (North America) and Kuril or Oyashio
range in this climate is about 24˚C cold currents (Asia) further reduce the
whereas that of the Western margin is temperature along the coast. The West
about 11˚C. Cold winds blowing from Coast in the same latitude is influenced
the interior towards the sea in North by warm ocean currents. Precipitation in
America and Asia during Winter lower form of snow and rain in North America

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and North Japan occurs DO NOT DUPLICATE
throughout Lumbering: Lumbering is also practised
the year and is fairly distributed. In especially in deciduous and coniferous
North Eastern Asia, there is Summer forests of Northern and South Eastern
rainfall except in northern Japan and Canada. Lumbering industry employs
northern Korea where heavy snow- many people in this region as they engage
fall occurs in winter. Annual rainfall in cutting down trees, planting, and
varies from 530 millimetres to 1 000 transporting them to the mills. Lumbering
millimetres. Rainfall is both conventional contributes to the development of paper
and cyclonic. industries in the region. Canada is the
third largest exporter of pulp and paper
Vegetation products in the world.
Vegetation in this region consists
mainly of coniferous forests, but in the
Activity 2.8
South-East of Northern Hemisphere,
deciduous trees flourish. Examples Study carefully the climate of cool
of this vegetation are the maple of temperate western coast margin climate
eastern Canada and the oak and beech region and cool temperature eastern
of Asia. margin climate region then, write down
Human activities
LY
the main differences and similarities in
N
climate and economic activities. Present
O
Crop production: The main economic your findings in class.
activities are farming and manufacturing
SE
industries. Mixed farming is practised in

the North-East USA whereas growing of Cool temperate continental climate
U
fruit trees, especially apples is important region (Siberian type)

E
in Nova Scotia in Canada. In Asia, crops Location and coverage

N
grown are wheat, maize, millet and soya This climate is located in the Northern
LI
beans. Hemisphere along latitude 60˚ North

N
stretching across the continental interior

O
Animal keeping: Sheep rearing is an of Northern Siberia, North America

important activity in Patagonia, which
R
and Alaska through much of Canada.

is located in the south-eastern part of
FO
In Eurasia, it stretches from Europe,

South America. Rainfall is very low and especially in Sweden, Finland and
grasslands are poor. Both mutton and Eastern Europe eastwards through much
wool are produced. of Russia as presented in Figure 2.49:

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DO NOT DUPLICATE
N
Key:
Scale: 1: 1 000 000 Cool temperate continental climate regions
Figure 2.49: Cool temperate continental climate regions
Climatic characteristics LY
In both Canada and Siberia, days are
N
Generally, the region experiences mild longer than nights in Summer but in
O
summers with about 20˚C but winters are Winter the nights are longer than
very cold at about -15˚C. In Winter, the days. Winds blow in from the sea and,
SE
cold, dry winds from the Arctic region therefore, bring rainfall to the coastal
blow from the North-West, bringing with regions during Summer. During Winter,
U
them very low temperatures. In Canada, winds blow out to the sea and the winter
E
Winter temperatures are not as low as in precipitation is in form of snow. Figures

N
Siberia because the continental effects 2.50 and 2.51; Tables 2.22 and 2.23
LI
are modified by a relative distance from show climatic data for cool temperate
N
the ocean. This distance contributes to continental climate for Dawson (Canada)
O
warmer summers and cold winters. and Arkhangelsk (Russia).

R
FO
Table 2.22: Climatic data for Dawson (Canada)
Temperature
-30.5 -23.9 -15.5 -1.7 7.8 13.9 15 12.2 5.5 -3.8 -17.2 -25
(˚C)
Rainfall
20.3 20.3 12.7 17.8 22.9 33 40.6 40.6 43.2 33 33 27.9
(mm)

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DO NOT DUPLICATE
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Figure 2.50: Temperature and rainfall distribution for Dawson (Canada)
N
O
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Table 2.23: Climatic data for Arkhangelsk (Russia)

U
Temperature
E
-13.9 -12.8 -7.8 -1.1 5.0 12.2 15.5 13.9 8.3 1.1 -5.5 -11.7
(˚C)
N
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Rainfall
20.3 17.8 20.3 17.8 25.4 38.1 55.9 53.3 50.8 38.1 27.9 20.3
(mm)
N
O
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Figure 2.51: Temperature and rainfall distribution for Arkhangelsk (Russia)
N
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Vegetation Human activities

SE
The coniferous forest of Taiga extends The region is sparsely inhabited because
U
over large areas of Alaska, Northern of severe long and cold winters. Crop
Canada, Scandinavia and Russia. production is not common because of
E
There are very few species of trees. short summers.

N
For instance, in Sweden the dominant

LI
species are spruce, pine and birch. Lumbering: The main activity in this
N
The conifers are evergreen. They have region is lumbering. Exploitation of

O
small leaves with thick cuticles aimed to the forests is easy because the trees are
R
reduce the rate of transpiration. The trees of similar type and the frozen ground
FO
have long tap roots to give them stability provides an easy means of hauling
against strong winds. They also have the logs. The logs are dragged to the
shallow roots to absorb surface moisture river and when the ice melts the logs
in Spring. There is little undergrowth are dragged by the river to the mills.
because of leaf fall, many months of Soft wood is used to produce paper and
darkness and frozen ground in Winter. newsprint.

FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

Crop production: Agriculture DO NOT DUPLICATE
is practised South of the Equator that means within
in the cleared areas but people do not Arctic and Antarctic Circles. Particularly,
rely on agriculture for their livelihood. they occur in North America extending
Examples of crops produced are cocoa from Alaska through Northern Canada to
and coffee production. southern Greenland, Northern Norway,
Finland, Eastwards through Northern
Hunting: Trappers hunt animals such as Russia and Antarctica as shown in Figure
the squirrel, fox, egmine, skunk, beaver, 2.52.
and matern for their valuable furs.
Polar climate region A Tundra climate is characterised by
Polar climate regions are characterized having at least one month whose average
by a lack of warm summers, an average temperature is just above 0˚C. Summer
temperature of less than 10 °C every temperatures fall below 10˚C, whereas
month, cool summers and very cold the Winter temperatures are very low,
winters, which result in treeless, glaciers, usually under -18˚C. Summer days are
or a permanent or semi-permanent layers long and winter days are very short.
of ice. Winter are very windy and precipitation
Regions with polar climate cover

LY
takes place during snowfall. The snowfall
N
is normally accompanied by strong
more than 20% of the Earth's surface.
O
winds. Annual precipitation is very
Most of these regions are far from the low, generally below 250 millimetres.
SE
Equator, and in this case, Winter days These areas are, therefore, known as
are extremely short and summer days cold deserts.
U
are very long.

E
Vegetation
N
Types of Polar climate region

A Tundra region has very little vegetation
LI
There are two types of polar climate

because the growing season is very
N
regions: Tundra and ice cap climate

short, less than two months annually.
O
regions.
The Eurasian Tundra is inhabited mainly
R
by the Lapps, Sanoyeds and Yakuts.

Tundra climate regions
FO
Because of scanty vegetation, there

Location and coverage are few varieties of animals and birds.
Tundra comes from Finnish word tunturi, These include the arctic fox, arctic hare,
meaning treeless plain. These regions are lemming (a small mouse), reindeers,
found beyond latitude 60˚ North and seals, whales and walrus. The vegetation

FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

includes mosses and lichens.DO NOTare
There DUPLICATE
the Tundra a fascinating destination for
also few flowering plants and shrubs, outdoor recreational activities.
which produce flowers and fruits quickly
during Summer. Ice cap climate regions
Human activities
Ice cap region is mainly found in
On the Tundra, human activities
Antarctica and the land around the Arctic
include residential, recreational and
Ocean, especially Greenland as shown
industrial activities. Many of the
in Figure 2.52.
permanent residents of Tundra regions
are indigenous people, such as Alaska's
Aleut and Inuit ethnic groups, and rely
on subsistence hunting and gathering Temperature in the Ice cap region is
to survive. Recreational opportunities permanently below 0˚C, hence there
such as hunting and wildlife viewing is a permanent snow cover. Blizzards
are available for visitors to the Tundra. are very frequent. All places in ice cap
The recently innovated activities of climate have at least one day of twenty-
oil, gas and mining industries have four hours (24 hours) of daylight in mid-
been a subject of controversy as they
cause damage to the delicate Tundra
LY
Summer and twenty-four hours of total
darkness in mid-Winter.
N
ecosystem.
O
Vegetation and animals

SE
Tundra is a very popular destination There is very little surface life in ice
for visitors from all over the world cap climates. Vegetation cannot grow
U
because of its low population density, on ice except in the warmer fringes that
amazing wildlife and glorious prospect.
E
occasionally peak above freezing. Even

People travel to the Tundra to enjoy
N
then it is confined to mosses and lichen

activities such as fishing, hiking,
LI
which is a mixture of a fungus and algae.

hunting, camping, wildlife viewing, and
N
However, the fringes of ice caps do have

photography.
O
a significant animal life. Most of these

Animals such as the polar bears, grizzly animals feeds in the surrounding oceans.
R
bears, wolves, arctic foxes, seals, small Popular examples include polar bears
FO
rodents and caribou or reindeers, as well in the northern pole and penguins in
as migratory birds of all sorts, make Antarctica.

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Human activities DO NOT DUPLICATE
There are no permanent settlements
The Ice cap climate is characterised by because the inhabitants have to move
low temperature, short summers and from one place to another in search of
frozen soils in which crop cultivation is pasture for the reindeers. People live in
hardly possible. Some other activities, tents made of animal skins. For example,
such as animal keeping, fishing and the Eskimos of North America engage
hunting take place in the region. mainly in hunting and fishing. Their
main food is fish and fat (blubber). The
Handicraft has become an important
Eskimos use clothes made of fur and
industry in the region. Bones and sinews
polar bear skins. In Summer, they live
serve as needles and threads respectively,
in tents made of wood and deer skins. In
for making cloth. Because of the extreme
Winter, they live in houses made of ice
cold, everyone wears a fur hood over the
blocks. These houses are called igloos.
head and face, fur gloves and fur boots.
They use canoes called kayaks, large
In addition, fur sweaters and heavy boats and sledges drawn by a team of
overcoats are also worn. strong dogs for transport.
LY
N
O
SE
U
E
N
LI
N
O
Key:
Scale: 1: 1 000 000 Tundra climate regions Ice cap climate regions
R
Figure 2.52: Polar climate regions (tundra climate and ice cap climate regions)
FO
Activity 2.9
From your general knowledge, discuss in groups the adaptation mechanisms of

people and animals in polar regions. Also, discuss the possible effects of global
warming on the polar regions, then present your answers in class as guided by
your subject-teacher.

FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

Mountainous climate DO NOT DUPLICATE
region
The main mountainous areas in the world are found in North and South America,
Southern Europe, Central Asia, Eastern Australia and North-East Africa. It is best
developed in regions of young fold mountains such as the Rocky Mountains, the
Andes, and the Himalayas as shown in Figure 2.53. In Tanzania, Uluguru and
Udzungwa mountains experience mountainous climate.
LY
N
O
Key:
Scale: 1: 1 000 000
SE
Mountainous climate regions
Figure 2.53: Mountainous climate regions

U
E
Climatic characteristics in which colder air is at the bottom of

N
Generally, temperature decreases with an valleys and warmer air is above is called
LI
increase in altitude whereas precipitation temperature inversion. Local winds

N
increases with altitude but the air in develop in most mountainous regions.
O
the high mountain regions is free from In the Rockies, these local winds are
R
dust and, therefore, cannot absorb much called Chinock whereas in Switzerland
FO
temperature. In fact, air is always cool they are known as Forn.

whose daily range temperature is small.
As you move from the bottom to the top Vegetation
of the mountain, there is a temperature The vegetation varies with altitude. At
belt like those extending from the the base, there are Steppe grasslands,
Equator to the poles. This phenomenon which are open grasslands with very

FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

little bush. On the lower DO NOT
slopes DUPLICATE
of the mountain where
the rain totals are high,
there is a thick forest. However, the trees in these areas are not as large as those
in equatorial forests. The common trees are bamboos. Above the forests, open
mountain (oralpine) grasslands, moss and lichens grow on bare rocks and stony
surface. At the highest-level glacier ice is formed. Figure 2.54 shows the influence
of a mountain on vegetation:
Mountain
LY
N
O
SE
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Figure 2.54: Influence of a mountain on vegetation

E
Human activities
N
are South Island of NewZealand and

LI
Tropical highlands form the best the British Isles. Mountainous regions
often attract tourists who go to tourist
N
areas for agriculture. Crops produced

sites to admire the mountain scenery and
O
in this region include tea, coffee and

pyrethrum, which require high and climb the mountains. This attracts skiers
R
well distributed rainfall. Tea is grown for sports and naturalists for research
FO
in the East African Highlands, Sri reasons. In East African Highlands,

Lanka, Southern and Northern India. the best farming land lies on the slopes
Arabica coffee is grown in Ethiopia and of volcanic mountains such as Mount
Central America. In temperate latitudes Kilimanjaro and on plateaus which lie
highland areas are used mainly for between 1 000 metres and 2 600 metres
grazing cattle and sheep. Such areas above sea level.

FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

These highlands produce DO NOT
cash DUPLICATE
crops grow to great
heights and provide
such as coffee, tea, pyrethrum, and a hardwood, for example, mahogany,
iroko, iron wood and mangrove are
variety of important food crops such as
bananas, beans, cocoyam, fruits, and found along the coast of tropical oceans.
vegetables. In temperate regions, where it is cool for
most part of the year, coniferous forests
Relationship between human activities are found hence making lumbering a
and climate major activity.
Climate plays a crucial role in people's
activities. Most of these activities Crop production: This activity is
depend on temperature and rainfall. practised in most parts of the world.
These two elements may create The difference depends on the type of
favourable conditions to one activity agriculture or farming and the kind of
and unfavourable to another. The major crops grown. In equatorial regions a
economic activities influenced by variety of crops such as cassava, yams
climate include agriculture, lumbering and rice are grown for food consumption
and livestock-keeping. The following in small scale.
sections describe some selected human
activities. LY
Other crops are grown on a large-
N
scale and are mainly for export. These
O
Livestock-keeping: Different livestock include rubber, oil palm, cocoa, coffee,

SE
survive in different climatic conditions. sugarcane and tobacco. In the Savannah,

In the open Savannah in Africa, Brazil agriculture is practised but it is very
U
and Venezuela, sheep and goat keeping much affected by unreliable rainfall,
E
is carried out. In temperate regions, pests, diseases, poor soil quality poor
N
livestock for beef and dairy cattle, sheep, transport and communication.
LI
pigs and poultry are very important. In

N
the Tundra region, nomadic people herd Crops grown include wheat, maize,
O
reindeers. millet, sorghum and rice. In the temperate

regions, crops grow in a short period
R
Lumbering: This activity is found in both because summers are short. Examples of
FO
the equatorial and temperate climates. such crops include wheat, barley, oats,
In equatorial regions of constant high root crops and fruits.
temperature and heavy rainfall, trees

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In very cold climates, soil is sub-frozen Waste management and recycling: The
for most parts of the year. This prevents simplest solution to reducing waste is
agriculture from taking place. Nomadic to align our production methods to our
activities are common. consumption patterns. The recycling
process must also be considered in
Ways of solving climatic problems our consumption habits while limiting
There are several ways of solving industrial emissions and wastes.
climatic problems in our societies. Some
of those ways are as follows: Limiting overfishing and unsustainable
development along the coast: Oceans
Use renewable energies: This entails and seas are the largest storage of
changing our main energy sources from greenhouse gases and are an exceptional
wood fuels consumption to clean and support system for life on this planet.
renewable energy. For example, the use Limiting overfishing, promoting
of solar, wind, geothermal and biomass sustainable development activities in
energies could be a solution to the coastal areas and the consumption of
existing climatic problems in societies. environmentally-friendly products
Use of renewable energies decreases is essential to protect waterbodies,
pollution and saves money as well. LY
especially seas and oceans.
N
O
Use sustainable and environmentally- Eat for a climate-stable planet: The
friendly means of transportation: Our decisions we make about food can have a
SE
means of transport must be aligned profound effect on the environment. Here

with environmental requirements and
U
are some simple ways for making your

reduce their carbon footprint. It is diet more climate-friendly. Opt for more
E
essential to re-consider our means of plant-based meals and less meat and
N
transport from the design stage towards dairy products. Example, beef, lamb and
LI
environmentally-friendly transportation. cheese have some of the largest carbon

N
For example, electric trains and buses are footprints of all the food products. Thus,
O
environmentally-friendly which travel buy organic and local food whenever

R
long distances in a relatively short time. possible, do not waste food, and grow
FO
Also, people are advised to use public your own food. You can also help save
transport instead of private cars or taxis. the planet Earth by eating insects.

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Provide environmental DO NOT DUPLICATE
conversation to climatic problems. This is one of
education to people: Solving climate the efficient ways of bringing about
change requires us all to work together. change from the bottom-up. Also, vote
We cannot do that without finding a (if your age allows you to vote) for
common ground with those who may not knowledgeable and dedicated leaders
share our perspectives. Since people often that will deal with climatic problems and
trust peers, family members and loved pass legislations that address these issues
ones more than they do experts, scientists towards a green future environment.
and environmental organisations, you
can talk to people about climate change End production and sales of vehicles that
in ways they can understand you. You run on fossil fuels: Within a few decades,
are more likely to open people’s minds we are likely to witness a worldwide
on the causes of environmental pollution transition away from vehicles that run
and tentative measures to environmental on petroleum and diesel toward ones
conservation. that use electricity. However, there is a
lot of uncertainty about how quickly it
Protecting forests and planting new would happen. Therefore, governments
LY
trees: Planting trees on private and have to hurry it along by phasing out the
public land will help to absorb carbons production and buying of petroleum and
N
out of the air. Trees planted in and around diesel vehicles and help the consumers
O
rural and urban areas can also provide to buy electric vehicles instead. In 2017,
shades during sunny and Summer both China and India, along with few
SE
days. European countries, announced the plans

U
to end sales of petroleum and diesel

Take initiatives and get involved vehicles. China is hustling towards
E
politically: Meet with your elected that goal by providing incentives to

N
government officials and voice your manufacturers of electric cars and buses,
LI
concerns and demand solutions to as well as subsidies to consumers who

N
an existing issue that is contributing buy electric vehicles.

O
R
FO

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Revision exercise DO NOT DUPLICATE
Section A
Choose the correct answer among the alternatives provided:
(i) You are asked to help a Form Two student who failed to identify the types
of forest found in low temperatures. What type of forest would you suggest
among the following?
(a) Tropical rain forest
(b) Equatorial forest
(c) Mediterranean forest
(d) Coniferous forest
(e) Deciduous forest
(ii) Mrs. Joseph had a chance to visit South-East Asia for a study tour and she
experienced seasonal reverse of wind in the area. Identify the type of climate
in the area.
(a) Tropical maritime
(b) Tropical continental
LY
N
O
(c) Equatorial
(d) Tropical monsoon
SE
(e) Desert
U
(iii) The Amazon and the Congo basins are regions characterised by the same
E
geographical background to human activities, climate, vegetation, and relief.

N
What could be the general term for these regions?

LI
(a) Natural vegetation

N
(b) Natural climate region

O
(c) Natural well

R
(d) Natural resources

FO
(e) Natural landscape
(iv) One of the following is a set of some factors affecting climate

(a) Ocean currents, altitude, sleet and barometer
(b) Distance from the sea, rainfall, clouds cover and latitude

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(c) Prevailing DOlatitude,
winds, NOT DUPLICATE
rainfall, hygrometer
and aspect
(d) Altitude, temperature and the Earth's rotation
(e) Humidity, dew point, atmospheric pressure, and rain gauge
(v) The tourists reported enjoying the temperature of Ihefu wetlands in Mbeya
at 1 500 metres above sea level, which is 32ºC. They also planned to travel
from Ihefu to Unguja in Zanzibar, which is at the sea level. What might be
the temperature experienced by the tourists in Zanzibar?
(a) 23 ºC (b) 0.6 ºC (c) 9 ºC
(d) 41 ºC (e) 19 ºC
Section B
(i) Mention countries where the following crops are grown-sisal, citrus fruits,
and cocoa.
LY
(ii) What name would you give to the climate region you live in? Give reasons
for your answer.
N
O
(iii) Why is the climate important to human beings (think of crops, livestock,
communication and the distribution of population).
SE
(iv) Study the following climatic data recorded at Malenga weather station and
U
then answer the questions that follow:

E
N
Temperature
LI
26 26 25 25.2 24 24 24 24 24 24 24.6 24.8

(˚C)
N
Rainfall (mm) 41.1 66.8 140 220 205 113 63 81 191 221 130 50
O
(a) Calculate the mean annual temperature for the station.

R
FO
(b) Present the temperature and rainfall distribution in a simple graph.
(c) Comment on the weather condition of the area.
(d) Identify the type of climate of this station.

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Section C DO NOT DUPLICATE
Match the descriptions of climatic region in Column A with correct corresponding

type of climate in Column B:
Column A Column B
(i) The vegetation consists of (a) Equatorial climate region

deciduous forest in lowland and
coniferous forest in highlands. (b) Mediterranean climate region
(ii) This is the cold climate of the
(c) Polar climate region
world.
(iii)
Natural vegetation is very (d) Warm temperate eastern margin
scanty and consists of mostly climate region
thorny scrubs bushes and cacti.
(e) Tropical desert climate region
(iv) It is found between 5˚ and 20˚
North and South of Equator.
(f) Tropical maritime climate region
(v) Rains often come in the
LY
afternoon and are accompanied (g) Tropical grassland climate region
by lightning and thunder
N
storms.
O
SE
Section D
U

E
N
1. With examples, use six points to explain why irrigation is necessary for crop
LI
cultivation in some parts of the world.

N
2. Climate has led to a significant influence on the current expansion of human

O
activities. Using six points, explain the importance of studying climatic

conditions of the world.
R
FO
3. Vegetations do not grow well in desert areas because of harsh conditions.

With five points, explain how such vegetations adapt to survive in desert.
4. "Having a good climatic conditions and high fertile soil doesn't necessary
mean a better livelihoods for people". Using six points, support this statement.

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Chapter Three
Human population
Introduction
In this chapter, you will learn the concepts of human population, human population
distribution, human population change, human population data, population
problems and population policy. The competencies developed from this chapter
will help you to understand human population as an important phenomenon in
planning and developing for socio-economic activities in the society.
The concept of human population LY

the number of school age groups, the
N
Human population refers to the number government can plan for the number of
O
of people living in a certain area at a given classrooms to build, teachers to employ

and other education requirements. In
SE
time. It is a development process because

it is not only the number of people that medical services, if the ratio between
U
matters, but also how a population the patients and the doctors or hospital
utilises the resources available to achieve beds is known, it is easy to balance
E
both economic and social development. the requirement to improve medical or

N
Services such as education, health, water health services. The study of population
LI
supply and electricity are required for a is important because it helps to know the
N
particular human population to achieve characteristics of human population, for

O
economic and social development. example, size, composition and structure

R
of the population. It also enables the

FO
The importance of studying human government to know the number of

population skilled and unskilled manpower. In
Studying human population is important addition, the study of the population
for socio-economic and development. enables the government to establish
The knowledge of a population is measures to reduce mortality rates,
essential in planning for socio-economic which may lead to loss of manpower if
development. For example, by knowing not well-managed.

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Characteristics of human population kilometre, and over 3 000 people per
Human population has a variety of square kilometre in cities such as
characteristics that define its nature. The Dar es Salaam. The lowest population
following are some of the characteristics density was in Lindi with 13 people
of human population: per square kilometre and 12 people per
square kilometre in Katavi Region.
Population size: A population size
refers to the sum of people in a defined Population structure: This refers to the
administrative area at a given point of composition of population as determined
time. It may cover the world, a country, by the number or proportion of males
region, district, ward or a village. For and females in each age group.
instance, the world population by 2020
was 7.8 billion; according to 2012 Human population distribution
census the population size of Tanzania Usually, population distribution is
was about 45 million. By January 1st, uneven due to physical, socio-economic,
2020, the population size of Tanzania demographic and political factors.
was estimated to stand at 57.6 million
Some areas are highly inhabited whereas
people.
others are less inhabited and some
Population distribution: Population LY
are not inhabited at all. The concept
N
distribution refers to how people are of uneven population distribution
O
spread out across the Earth’s surface. applies in this situation. Generally, the
world population distribution can be
SE
Population density: Population density categorised into three main groups as

refers to the number of individuals described below:
U
per unit area usually quoted per

E
square kilometre or square mile. If a Densely populated areas: These are areas
N
population size increases and all the which are inhabited by a large number of
LI
individuals remain in the same area, people. These areas mostly have plenty
N
then the population density increases of food with favourable climate and
O
as well. If the size of the population in fertile soils which percieved to have
a particular area decreases, the density plenty of livelihood opportunities that
R
also decreases. Population density can attract people to live in. A good example
FO
be affected by the number and degree of densely populated areas are urban
of utility of resources available in the areas of Mbeya, Arusha, Mwanza and
area. According to the 2012 population Dar es Salaam on Tanzania Mainland;
and housing census. In arid regions, as Urban-West Region in Unguja, Urban
in central Tanzania, population density area of Wete and Chakechake in Pemba-
was as low as 50 people per square Zanzibar.

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Moderately populated DO NOT
areas: DUPLICATE
These Climate
areas are inhabited by a moderate Climate is the major factor, which
number of people. These areas receive influences population distribution in
moderate rainfall and have limited the world. Areas with reliable rainfall
resources, which can support the life attract large number of people to
of inhabitants. Examples include some inhabity thus high population. Desert
districts of Iringa, Tanga, Kilimanjaro, and semi-desert areas, on the other
Tabora and Morogoro Regions are hand, have low or no population at all
characterised by moderate population because of very low amount of rainfall.
distribution. In East Africa, the amount of rainfall
Sparsely populated areas: These are has a great influence on population
areas which have fewer people. Usually, distribution. The population is denser
they are found in rural areas. These when rainfall is moderate and well
areas have few resources, infertile soil distributed as it favours agriculture
and hostile climate for human beings. as the major livelihood activity. For
Examples of such areas are rural areas of example, the well-watered Southern
Pwani, Manyara, Dodoma and Singida, and Northern highlands of Tanzania, the
which are sparsely populated. coastal areas of Tanzania and Kenya,
LY
the Central Highlands of Kenya, the
Lake Victoria basin, South Western
N
Factors affecting human population
Uganda and the areas around Mount
O
Distribution
Elgon are areas of high population
No single factor is solely responsible
SE
densities. Aridity has made many areas

for concentrated or scanty population
of East Africa uninhabitable. About
U
distribution and growth. Most of the

50 percent of land in East Africa has
factors described in this chapter are
E
high temperature and low rainfall for

interrelated and often act collectively.
N
crops and animal husbandry as well as

Factors that can influence population
LI
distribution fall under three major human settlement. In Tanzania, regions

N
categories: Physical, human and like Singida and Dodoma, especially

O
biological factors. There factors either the rural areas have sparse population
encourage or discourage people from distribution because of semi-arid
R
living in an area. climate.

FO
Physical factors Relief

Physical factors include climate, The highland or mountainous areas of
relief, soil, vegetation, natural hazards East Africa such as the upper slopes of
(disasters), water resources, minerals Mount Kilimanjaro, Mount Kenya and
and energy resources. Mount Ruwenzori are extremely cold

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because of altitude. Low DO NOT DUPLICATE
temperature Soils
and the steep slopes make the area Soils have a great influence on population
unconducive for human settlement. Steep distribution as they determine where
slopes also make the construction of people settle. Soils, which are thin,
infrastructure such as roads and housing infertile and highly leached, discourage
difficult and expensive. Moreover, there development of settlement because they
is limited soil development and fertility cannot support agriculture. This may
since soil is washed down by rainfall. lead to a moderate or sparse population
These areas have sparse population distribution in a particular area. A
distribution. deep-weathered soil found mainly in
volcanic areas tends to attract a huge
Where slopes are gentle or flat, there population. This results into a dense
is high population because the soil is population distribution in a particular
well-developed and fertile to facilitate area. Such areas include the highlands
crop production. Gentle slopes allow of Kilimanjaro, Meru, Pare, Usambara,
agro-mechanisation to take place. Also, Rungwe, and Kasulu in Tanzania.
gentle slopes make it easy to develop
settlements. For example, Dar es Salaam
Mineral resources
attracts many people to live there
because of its gentle slope. However, LY
People are mostly attracted to create
N
some highland areas receive adequate settlements in mining areas. They migrate
O
rainfall because of their altitude and to such areas with the availability of
minerals so that they can earn income
SE
the direction of moisture transferred by

strong winds. In addition, highland areas for their livelihood. Examples of such
areas include Mwadui diamond mines
U
are free from floods. As such, they attract

more people than other areas. If flat river in Shinyanga, Geita gold mines in
E
Geita and Mirerani tanzanite mines in

N
valleys, flat plains, deltas and volcanic

Manyara. These areas have dense or
LI
areas have fertile soils, thus atracting a

large number of people to inhabit there. moderate population distribution.
N
O
Water resources
Vegetation
R
Water supply is essential for human

Rich vegetation such as grasslands
FO
survival and development. People are

influences the formation of deep soil
always attracted to establish settlements
and reduces soil erosion. Such factors
along areas with water resources such
enhance the cultivation of both food
as natural springs, rivers, lakes, seas or
and cash crops. Areas with such
oceans. The reason behind is to have easy
vegetation have a moderate population
access to water for domestic and other
distribution.
socio-economic activities. For example,

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irrigation and fishing DO depend
activities NOT DUPLICATE
As a result, they have sparse population
on water resources. Coastal areas of distribution.
Tanga, Dar es Salaam, Pwani, Lindi and
Mtwara are popular for fishing activities. Human factors
Mwanza, Mara, Simiyu, and Kagera This category includes historical,
(Lake Victoria), Mbeya, Njombe, and political, economic and social factors.
Ruvuma (Lake Nyasa), Songwe (Lake The following factors show the
Rukwa), Rukwa (Lake Tanganyika influence of human beings on population
and Lake Rukwa) and Kigoma (Lake distribution.
Tanganyika) are examples of potential
areas for irrigation and fishing. Water Historical factors
resources result in a dense population Historical events such as civil wars and
distribution. invasions which, to a large extent, cause
insecurity, lead to depopulation because
Natural hazards people move away and become refugees
People usually avoid settling in areas, elsewhere. Civil wars threaten human
which are frequently affected by natural life and also cause starvation. In areas
hazards. These natural hazards include hosting refugees, the number of people
earthquakes, floods, droughts and
volcanic eruptions. For instance, some
LY
increases, hence increasing population.
N
Dense population increases pressure on
parts of Kilosa in Morogoro are mostly
O
resources. During the colonial period,
affected by floods, hence discouraging people were recruited as labourers and
SE
people from settling there. moved from their original homes to

other places. This affected population
U
Biological factors distribution. The impact of labour

E
Pests and diseases have a considerable reserves during the colonial period on
N
influence on population distribution. In population density and distribution

LI
Tanzania, areas affected by Tsetse-flies, has been notable in Tanga, Tabora,

N
black-flies, and mosquitoes discourage Bagamoyo, Kilwa, Songea and Kibondo

O
human settlements. Western and in Tanzania.

Southern areas of Mpanda and Liwale
R
Districts are among the areas affected Political factors

FO
by pests. Normally, pests cause sleeping Areas with political stability and peace
sickness, trachoma and malaria. Areas attract high populations. People tend to
that experience these problems tend to avoid areas with political crises, which
have low population density. Other areas become sparsely populated. Political
such as Dodoma and Singida suffer from instability in some areas of Sudan, South
eye-related diseases due to these pests. Sudan, Somalia, Democratic Republic

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of Congo, Rwanda and DO NOThas
Burundi DUPLICATE
Availability
of transport by airways,
discouraged many people from living roads, pipelines, railways and waterways
there. Areas, which are politically facilitates the movement of goods
unstable, generally have low population and services to reach areas of need
density. easily. Areas with good transport and
communication systems tend to attract
Furthermore, shifting a capital city of a large number of people. For example,
a nation to a new area can also affect areas with railway stations attract a large
population density. For example, the number of people to live nearby.
decision made by the Government of
Tanzania to relocate the capital city of Social factors
the United Republic of Tanzania from Areas with improved social services such
Dar es Salaam to Dodoma has affected as health, education, clean water and
the population distribution in Dodoma. electricity supply tend to attract people
Inevitably, the population in Dodoma to establish settlements compared to
is increasing. areas with inadequate supply of social
services. For example, Dar es Salaam,
Economic factors Mwanza, Tanga, Arusha, Dodoma and
LY
Economic activities such as industrial, Mbeya cities, tend to attract a large
mining, trade and service centres number of people due to the availability
N
influence population distribution. These of good social services and amenities.
O
areas generate various employment

SE
opportunities and sources of income. Human population change

These areas normally have a dense Population change refers to the increase
U
population distribution. In Tanzania, or decrease of the number of people

E
urban areas especially city or town centres in a certain area in a specific period.
N
have a dense population compared to It is a change in the population size,

LI
rural areas. Urban areas of Unguja in composition and distribution of a given

N
Zanzibar, Dar es Salaam, Arusha, Mbeya area over time. A positive change, which
O
and Mwanza on Mainland Tanzania are refers to an increase in population

densely populated. size while a negative change entails a
R
decrease in population size. A positive

FO
Commercial agriculture also affects

change in population is also known as
population distribution. Tea estates in
population growth. Main factors that
Njombe and Rungwe - Mbeya, as well as
influence population change are fertility,
coffee estates in Kilimanjaro and Arusha
mortality, and migration. The world
have influenced the population density
population increased from 4.1 billion in
and distribution in these regions.
1977 to 7.8 billion in 2020. The increase

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was not uniform. Rapid DO NOT DUPLICATE
population 1500 000 then, crude birth rate would be:
increase mostly happened in developing 1 500 000
CBR = X 1000
countries due to high fertility whereas 40 000 000
most developed countries experienced = 37.5 ≈ 38
a small increase due to low fertility.
Therefore, the CBR is 38. The result
Some even experienced negative changeshows that 38 live births could occur out
in their population sizes, for instance,
of 1000 people in a given year. A Crude
Bulgaria and Lithuania between 1990 Birth Rate of more than 30 is considered
and 2020. high and a less than 18 per 1 000 people
is considered low. Hence, a Tanzanian
Factors influencing human population CBR of 2012 was considered to be high.
change This has implications for government
Determinants of human population spending on education and health. The
change are fertility, mortality and goverment needs to increase the budget
migration. for education and health services.
Fertility General Fertility Rate (GFR) refers

to the proportion of children born alive
LY
Fertility is the reproductive capacity
per thousand women in the reproductive
of a woman to conceive a child. Sub-
period in a year. It is obtained by using
N
fertility is the low level of fertility. The
the following formula:
O
inability of a woman to conceive is called

infertility. The reproductive period of a Number of live births in
SE
a stated period (one year)

woman is referred to as the child-bearing GFR= X 1000
number of women aged
U
age, which ranges from 15 to 50 years.

15-49 in the same period
More often than not, it ends at the age
E
of 49 years. There are several measures Assume the number of reproductive

N
used in fertility analysis. These measures aged women (15-49) in Tanzania was
LI
are as follows: 2 700 000 in 2012 whereas the number

N
of live births in the same year was

Crude Birth Rate (CBR) is the number
O
180 000. Calculate the GFR in Tanzania

of live births per thousand of the total
for 2012.
R
population in a year. It is obtained by 180 000

FO
using the following formula: GFR = X 1000

2 700 000
Total live births in a year = 66.6 ≈ 67
CBR = X 1000
Mid-year population
Therefore, the GFR is 67. This result
For example, if the mid-year population shows that 67 children could be born
of Tanzania in 2012 was 40 000 000 for every 1 000 women. This is also
people while the total live births were a high GFR. It increases the cost of

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the provision of health, DO NOT
education DUPLICATE
and and the availability
of health services.
nutrition services for born children and Mortality rates are calculated as follows:
the productive aged women.
Crude Death Rate (CDR) is the number
Child-Woman Ratio (CWR) is the of deaths per thousand of the total
number of children 0 – 4 years of age population in a specified geographic area
per 1 000 women of child bearing age in a year. It is obtained by the formula:
(15-49 years). It is obtained by using the Number of deaths
following formula: in one years
CDR = X 1000
Total mid-year
Number of children
(0-4 years of age) population
CWR= X 1000
Total number of women For example, if we use the same figure
15-49 years of age of 40 000 000 for total population and
Assume the number of children under age 1 000 000 deaths in a year, then crude
5 (0-4) in 2012 was 3 153 122 whereas death rate is calculated as following:
the number of women of reproductive CDR = 1 000 000 X 1000
age (15-49) was 3 771 496. 40 000 000
= 25
Calculate the CWR for that period.
3 153 122 LY
Therefore, the CDR is 25. This result
N
CWR = X 1000 shows that 25 deaths were likely to occur
3 771 496
O
out of 1000 people in a given year. This
= 836 is a high crude death rate. It indicates
SE
Therefore, the CWR is 836. The result that the governement has to spend more
shows that 836 under five children could resources on health and nutrition services
U
be born per 1 000 to women of child- to reduce the death rates.

E
bearing age. This high CWR arises

N
because the CWR for least developed Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) is the
LI
countries is 710 relative to developed number of deaths of infants under one

N
countries whose CWR is below 300. year of age (0-11 months of age) per
O
Hence, the higher the number of women 1000 live births in a given year. Infants
of child bearing age, the more the under (children under one year of age) are at high
R
five children are likely to be in a country. risk of death than any other age group.
FO
It is obtained by using the following

Mortality (Death) formula:
Number of death of
Mortality refers to the occurrence
children < 1 year of
of deaths in a population. Mortality age in a year
rates can reveal much about the living IMR = Total live births
X 1000
standard, the health status of a population during that year

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In 1993, country X had DO000
548 NOT DUPLICATE
live Migration
births and in October, 1993 it registered Migration is the movement of individuals
74 528 deaths to children under 1 year. or group of people from one place to
The IMR is calculated as follows: another, which involves permanent or
74 528 temporary change of their usual residence.
IMR = X 1000
548 000 A migrant is a person who moves and
= 136 crosses a certain administrative boundary
Therefore, the IMR is 136. The result to another.
indicates that 136 infants under 1 year
of age were likely to die out of 1000 live Migration may involve immigration
births. This is high IMR as compared to (in-migration). Immigration is an
developed countries whose IMR is below international movement of people to a
10. It shows that the government has to destination country where they are not
invest more in maternal health services. natives. These people are immigrants.
Emigration (out-migration) is a process
Child Mortality Rate (CMR) is the of people leaving a country to settle
number of deaths of children (that is permanently in another country. These
1-4 years of age per 1000 children 1-4 people are called emigrants.
years of age). It is a sensitive indicator LY
A person who has moved completely
N
of the health status of a community. It
to another region inside the country is
O
is obtained by the following formula:
a migrant, one from outside the country
Number of deaths of is a diasporan.
SE
children 1-4 year of

age in a year Migration affects the size of population,
U
CMR = X 1000
Number of live births age and sex structure and level of
E
in that year urbanisation. One of the measures of

N
The number of under five deaths in migration is called Net Migration Rate
LI
country D in 2010 was 74 528 while live (NMR). It is obtained by using the
N
births were 420 000. The CMR would be: following formula:
O
74 528 Number of
CMR = X 1000 Immigrants – Number
420 000
R
of Emigrants
= 177.4 ≈ 177
FO
NMR = X 1000
Total number of
Therefore, the CMR is 177. The result population
shows that 177 children were likely to
die before reaching the age of five. This When NMR is negative it means more
implies that the government has to invest people are leaving the country than
more in health, nutrition and maternal moving into it. If NMR is positive it
services for children. means more people are moving into the

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country than leaving it. In DO NOT
2010, DUPLICATE
data are likely to move to other areas with
show that 100 000 people emigrated available opportunities. Also, human
from country X while 200 000 people migration is inversely proportional to
immigrated to the same country. distance. Distance increases the extent
This country X had a population of of migration decreases. Indeed, people
800 000. Calculate the NMR of that are more likely to move from Morogoro
country. to Dar es Salaam than from Kigoma to
200 000 – 100 000 Dar es Salaam because Morogoro is
NMR = X 1000 nearer Dar es Salaam than Kigoma.
800 000
= 125
Causes of migration
Therefore, the NMR is 125. The result
The movement of human population is
reveals a positive net migration. The
influenced by the push-and-pull factors.
positive results show that more people
Push factors are those that force people
immigrated into country X than those
to move to a new destination whereas
who left it. In other words, the country
pull factors are those which motivate
receives more people, more labour force
humans to move and settle in a particular
and new skills than it loses. However,
area. Both the pull-and-push factors can
the increase in population raises costs
for the provision of social services and LY
be environmental, economic, social,
political or biological. The description of
N
employment by the government.
these factors is provided in the following
O
sections:
Characteristics of migration
SE
Migration is selective in nature because Pull factors for migration

U
not all people in a population of a given

area move. Under certain circumstances, Environmental factors
E
some groups may have more desire to Climate: Good climate of moderate
N
move than others. For example, the temperature, and optimum rainfall
LI
youths migrate more frequently than the attracts people to migrate to that area. For
N
adults. Also, males are more migratory example, areas with favourable climate
O
than females. Human migration is a in Southern Highlands of Tanzania such

R
two-way process as each movement as Mbeya, Iringa, and Rukwa attract

FO
in one direction has its compensation people to move there to engage in

movement in the opposite direction. farming activities. Thus, climate supports
Furthermore, during migration the agriculture and agriculture supports life.
number of opportunities is inversely
proportional to the number of Soils: Areas with fertile soils are suitable
intervening factors. In other words, if for agriculture, thus attracts people to
there are few opportunities more people move to those areas. For example, the

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slopes of Mount DOand
Kilimanjaro NOTthe
DUPLICATE
keepers because
tsetse-flies transmit a
Usangu valley in Mbeya have fertile disease known as tripanosomiasis to
soils that motivate people to move human beings and nagana to livestock.
or go to those areas for agricultural
purposes. Economic factors
The availability of income or job
Relief: A land with gentle slopes and opportunities attracts people. This is
deep soils, which are well-drained evidenced by rural-urban migration.
attracts people because these areas Urban areas offer more opportunities
are free from soil erosion and support in industries, trade and government
agricultural activities. Gentle and low- offices. Such opportunities are less
land topography support the practice available in rural areas. For example,
of various human activities such as people prefer to move from rural to urban
agriculture and industrialisation. areas such as Dar es Salaam for various
Example, many people settle in the opportunities. Others move from urban
gentle slopes of urban areas of Morogoro, to other urban areas in search of more
Mbeya, Iringa and Mwanza. economic opportunities. Movements
of street vendors such as Machingas.
LY
Natural resources: Resources such
These are petty street traders who move
as minerals attract many migrants.
from one place to another place selling
N
The availability of minerals offers
different products) can be explained by
O
employment to people as a source of

economic factors.
income. Also, the availability of minerals
SE
provides other opportunities such as

Social factors
trading activities. For example, areas
U
such as Mirerani in Manyara, Geita This refers to the availability of goods

E
in Geita Region, Chunya in Mbeya and improved social services. Social

N
have attracted a large segment of the services such as electricity, clean and
LI
population to move to these places and safe tap-water supply, medical services,
N
settle there. entertainment, education, transport and

O
communication networks have been

Biological factors motivating people to move from one area
R
to another. Also, the presence of social

FO
Areas, which are free from pests such

amenities attracts people to different
as tsetse-flies, snails and mosquitoes
places.
attract people to move to those places.
Farmers tend to migrate to areas with
Political factors
little or no plant and animal diseases and
pests. For example, the areas affected Countries or regions, which are
by tsetse-flies are deserted by livestock- politically stable, attract people.

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DO NOT
Refugees, tourists and immigrants DUPLICATE
have got exhausted, force people to move
been going to regions or countries, which away. Some people in some places of
are secure and politically stable. For Dodoma and Singida where soils are
example, many Burundians have entered largely infertile have been moving away
Tanzania as refugees. The political from those areas to places with fertile
stability of Tanzania has attracted them soils such as Iringa and Morogoro.
to stay peacefully. Also, resettlement
schemes established by the government Unfavourable relief: Areas with steep
attract people as they are furnished with slopes and thin soil or lowland areas,
social amenities. Resettlement schemes which are frequently flooded tend to push
are established to solve the problems people away to areas, which are suitable
of population pressure on resources or for both agriculture and settlement.
under-utilisation of resources.
Decline in mineral deposits: Areas
whose minerals have been exhausted
Push factors for migration
force people to move away from those
Environmental factors areas. This is because when the minerals
Poor climatic conditions: Shortage get exhausted, economic opportunities
of rainfall, extremely high or low also get lost. Areas with exhausted
LY
temperatures (severe hot or cold mineral reserves push people away.
N
temperature) force people to move
O
away. This is because poor climate Natural hazards: Areas vulnerable

is not favourable for agriculture and to hazards like earthquakes, volcanic
SE
pastoralism. Unfavourable climate may eruptions, floods and storms (Tornadoes,

force people to move elsewhere. This is hurricanes and cyclones) are not suitable
U
a cause of climate-induced migration, for human habitation. Such hazards force

E
also called environmental migration. people to move away from their places.
N
An example of this type of migration in These natural calamities are dangerous

LI
Tanzania is common among the Sukuma as they can cause loss of property and
N
and Maasai who migrate to different people’s lives. Example, some parts
O
parts of the country such as Kilosa of Kilosa, Mvomero, Gairo, Bunda,

(Morogoro), Usangu valley (Mbeya) Mugumu, Turiani, Jangwani, Msimbazi
R
and Rufiji (Lindi) in search of green and Kawe are frequently flooded during
FO
pastures. heavy rains.
Infertile soils: Infertile soils do not Presence of pests and diseases: People
support agricultural activities. Soil that move away from areas affected by pests
is not suitable for agriculture especially such as tsetse-flies and diseases to areas
those that were once fertile and then with no or few diseases and improved

FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

DOfarmers
health conditions. For instance, NOT DUPLICATE
Classification of migration
may move away from areas frequently There are two types of migration, namely
invaded by pests such as armyworms, international and internal migration.
red locusts, and termites to other areas These types of migration can be in form
which are suitable for agriculture. of permanent, temporary, voluntary or
involuntary (forced) migration.
Economic factors
Limited income opportunities can Internal Migration
force people to move from one place Internal migration is temporary or
to another. Many people are forced to permanent movement of people within
move from rural to urban areas due the country without crossing international
to limited opportunities for income boundaries. Rural-urban migration is a
generation in the rural areas. Lack or good example of an internal migration.
shortage of trading opportunities and Internal migration may be categorised
employment opportunities are among as rural-urban migration, urban-rural
the economic push factors of rural-urban migration, rural-rural migration and
or urban-urban migration. Example, urban-urban migration. Among these
street vendors, move from different rural types, rural-urban migration seems to
areas in Tanzania in search of economic LY
have a considerable impact on urban
N
opportunities. areas as compared to others. This will
O
be extensively discussed as compared

Social factors to others. After all, the impacts of rural-
SE
Lack of social services: Lack or shortage urban migration are felt in both urban
of social services such as electricity, and rural areas.
U
water supply, medical services or

E
transport can force people to move from Types of internal migration

N
one place to another, especially from Rural-Urban Migration

LI
rural areas to urban centres or from one This is the movement of people mainly
N
urban centre to another. young and energetic people from rural

O
areas to urban areas in search of non-

R
Social conflicts: Social conflicts such

agricultural opportunities. The pulling
FO
as family conflicts, witchcraft and civil

factors can be economic and social
wars (insecurity) force people to leave a
amenities such as medical services,
place. For example, many Burundians,
education, electricity, water supply,
Rwandese and Congolese migrated to
efficient transport and entertainment.
Tanzania in the 1990s because of civil
Availability of employment opportunities
wars and genocide in their countries.
is the key factor

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Impact of rural-urban DO NOT DUPLICATE
migration caused by prostitution or poor marriage
Negative impacts of rural-urban bonds is also another effect. These
migration negative impacts occur mostly when
migration is not managed or guided by
In the place of origin (rural areas), rural
laws and policies.
to urban migration can affect rural areas
in several ways including; decline in
population size and the economy in the Positive impacts of rural-urban
migration
rural areas occurs as the work force
migrates to urban areas. The decline in In the place of destination (urban areas),
agricultural production due to a shortage rural-urban migration leads to increased
of labour may lead to food scarcity, supply of labour for production in
breaking of family and cultural bonds, as economic activities. Competition for
members of families move to urban areas. job opportunities in urban areas make
increased labour force available cheaply.
In the destination areas (urban areas), Also, rural-to-urban migration leads to
rural-to-urban migration can lead to expansion of markets for goods produced
urbanasation which, in turn, exerts from different economic activities.
pressure on services such as housing, Furthermore, it can lead to an infusion
LY
healthy, education, transportation and of technology that people from rural
water supply. Urbanisation may lead areas come with. This technology can
N
to the growth of shanty towns and help to develop appropriate industrial
O
slums. Urbanisation also causes high technology.

SE
unemployment rates as percieved

opportunities cannot accommodate high In the place of origin (rural areas),
U
numbers of people. Furthermore, it leads migration to urban areas creates room for
to environmental pollution because of environmental conservation by reducing
E
excessive generation of waste, poor the problem of high population growth

N
waste management, and poor sewage or population pressure in rural areas. If

LI
disposal. Other effects include cultural well-planned, rural areas may benefit
N
loss due to the interaction of people from from the introduction of new skills and
O
different areas with different cultural investments such as schools, health

R
backgrounds, moral decay including facilities, and or factories.

FO
prostitution, corruption, burglary, drug

abuse, theft, rape, and homosexual Measures for addressing problems of
practices. Industrial development may rural-urban migration
also suffer because of shortage of raw Several measures can be applied to
materials for production sustainability. address problems associated with rural-
Emergence of street-children in towns urban migration. These measures include

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the reduction of income DO NOT DUPLICATE
differences in urban areas. Some retired people also
between rural and urban areas; creation of migrate to rural areas since they find
satellite towns in rural areas, which aim it difficult to cope with challenges of
to reduce population in towns or cities; urban life. Other reasons are related to
stimulating economic development; voluntary repatriation whereby unskilled
and improving and providing enough urban migrants who cannot secure jobs
social services in rural areas that will in towns decide to return to rural areas
discourage people to leave. to engage in agricultural activities.
Since agriculture the main source of Lack of space in urban areas to locate
rural income, improvement in markets industries and large-scale economic
and prices of agricultural produce sectors can also lead to re-location in
can motivate most of youth to stay in rural areas, thus urban-rural migration.
rural areas. Also, transportation and In addition, criminal acts of vandalism,
communication systems should be hooliganism and burglary, frequent
improved to facilitate the movement of conflicts among tenants and social
goods, people and services to rural areas tensions can force people to move from
and vice-versa. urban to rural areas.
Furthermore, decentralisation of LY
Negative impacts of urban-rural
N
industries and financial institutions migration
O
to provide enough and quality socio-

In the receiving or destination areas,
economic services in rural areas is
SE
urban to rural migration has several

important as this can be a source of
negative impacts or problems. One of
employment for young people who other
U
the problems of urban to rural migration

wise move to urban areas to look for job
E
is conflicts with residents of rural areas

and gainful opportunities.
N
especially on land uses and ownership.

LI
Other problems are related to an increase

Urban-rural migration
N
in land and house prices. House rent is

Urban-rural migration is the movement
O
likely to go higher and, hence, lead to the

of people from urban to rural areas; this problem of housing in rural areas. This
R
is common among retired and unskilled development in the rural areas can also
FO
urban people. It is rare in developing cause land degradation and deforestation,

countries especially in Africa, but moral deterioration due to interference
common in developed countries where of culture and decline in agricultural
people prefer to settle in the countryside. activities since most of the arable land
turns into residential areas and industrial
People migrate (move) from urban to
centres. Other problems may include
rural areas to avoid air and noise pollution

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the increase in air pollution,DO NOTand
noise DUPLICATE
urban to rural migration reduces the
water pollution in rural areas. Also, such burden facing the government in terms
a drift may cause an increase in crimes of providing social services even to the
and other immoral behaviours in rural people who do not work or produce. The
areas which are common in urban areas movement may also reduce the problem
such as robbery, drug abuse, prostution of beggars in urban centres.
and corruption.
Rural-rural migration
In the place of origin (urban areas) where
Rural-rural migration is the movement
these migrants come from, urban-to-
of people from one rural area to
rural migration reduces the labour force,
another. People move to areas which
drains skills because sometimes people
are more economically, socially and
moving from urban areas are educated
technologically advanced. Also, when
and experienced retired people.
the area is more peaceful and has fertile
land many people tend to migrate to
Positive impacts of urban-rural such an area. A person may be pushed
migration to migrate to another village due to
Urban to rural migration has several exhaustion of the soil, running away
LY
benefits or positive impacts on places from enemies and other constraints.
of destination (rural areas). Despite A village with viable socio-economic
N
the problems associated with urban- infrastructures attracts migrants.
O
to-rural migration, the process is also

SE
advantageous as it can stimulate the Negative impacts of rural-rural

utilisation of resources in rural areas. migration
U
Diffusion of technology from urban

These types of movement affect places
E
to rural areas is another advantage.

of origin (where migrants come from)
N
Moreover, rural areas are supplied with

significantly by reducing the labour force
LI
labour force to work on under-utilised

because young people migrate more than
lands, for example, in Kilombero,
N
the elderly. Also, when these people

Ifakara, Dakawa, Kyela, Kahama, and
O
migrate to other places, the income in

Rufiji Basin.
the areas they leave drops.
R
FO
In the place of origin (urban areas), In the place of destination (receiving

urban-to-rural migration has various places), it results in a shortage of social
benefits (positive impacts). It reduces services, and may contribute to chaos
population pressure in towns and leads over a limited means of wellbeing or
to improvement in the environment livelihoods.
especially hygienic conditions. Also,

FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

Positive impacts of DO NOT DUPLICATE
rural-rural reduced labour force and reduced market.
migration Also, in the receiving places, shortage
In the receiving areas (places of of social services, unemployment,
destination), this type of migration offers pollution, theft, and immoral life like
several benefits. It adds labour and a prostitution are some of the resultant
market for goods and services produced. impacts.
It also enhances social interactions and
intermarriages between different ethnic Positive impacts of urban-urban
groups and communities. In the place migration
of origin (areas they leave), this type
Positively, places of destination feel
of migration is also beneficial because
the same impacts as other types of
migrants send money back home. They migration. These include an increase
also go back home with new skills in labour force, market, innovation and
and knowledge. Such migration also entrepreneurship as well as expansion
reduces pressure on limited sources ofof urban areas. In the places of origin
livelihoods such as land. (urban areas), migrants contribute to the
economy of their area of origin in terms
Urban-urban migration of creating investments and providing
Urban-urban migration is the movement services. LY
N
of people from one urban area to
O
another. For example, one can move International migration

from Zanzibar, Mwanza, Mbeya, Iringa, International migration involves the
SE
Dodoma, Tanga, Arusha, Tabora and crossing of national or international

U
Morogoro to Dar es Salaam and vice- boundaries and change of residence

versa. for any period longer than six (6)
E
months. International migration can

N
People can migrate from one urban be categorised into immigration and
LI
area to another due to environmental emigration. Emigration refers to the act of

N
hazards, conflicts and or to access better

a person leaving one’s own country to go
O
opportunities interms of health, political

and live in another country. Such a person
and education services.
R
is called an emigrant. Immigration is the

FO
act of a person coming into a foreign

Negative impacts of urban-urban country to stay. Such a person is called
migration an immigrant. International migration is
In the places of origin, this type of caused by economic, social or political
migration faces similar impacts as other factors, for example, searching for better
types of migration. Such impacts include employment opportunities.

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Consequences of DO NOT DUPLICATE
international Negative consequences of international
migration migration in the destination
International migration may have In the destination areas, there occur
positive or negative consequences as problems of highly populated and
described below: overcrowded areas, hence leading to
pressure on limited resources and social
Negative consequences of international services such as medical services,
migration at the place of origin education, and markets. Consequently,
When migration occurs, the place of low life expectancy can follow. The
origin can be affected by depopulation, movement can also cause an increase
in crime, drug abuse, prostitution,
labour shortage, drain of skills (brain
burglary, and killings. Destination areas
drain) and technology leading to
may also be affected by the spread of
poor exploitation and utilization of
diseases such as HIV/AIDS, Ebola and
resources. There can also be a decline
Covid-19; environmental degradation
in the production process due to
due to over-exploitation of resources
underutilisation of resources, resulting
and poor environmental management;
in increasing poverty, and hence low life and inadequate economic and social
expectancy.
LY
services such as medical services,
markets, and poor housing. Other
Positive consequences of international
N
effects include transport problems due to
migration in the origin countries
O
congestion, and traffic jams, occurrence

Population migration solves the problem of uncontrolled informal sectors such as
SE
of high population. The government can food vending, wood carvings, kiosks and
decide to move people from densely drug and human trafficking; and increase
U
areas to sparsely populated areas by in the number of beggars.

E
establishing resettlement schemes

N
or villages in other areas with low Positive consequences of international

LI
population. Planned migration can migration in the destination

N
facilitate the provision of services and Population migration promotes the

O
labour mobilisation. The mobilised supply of labour for exploiting or

labour can make full utilisation harnessing idle resources such as
R
of the resources available such as minerals, land, and water bodies. Also,
FO
land for the development of various people who migrate possess different
economic opportunities, including the skills in various technologies and
establishment of industries. It also environmental management. These can
attracts remittances (money), new skills, be spread to the migration destinations
technology and exchange programmes and facilitate the utilisation of local

FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

resources. Furthermore, DO NOTcan
migration DUPLICATE
Increased
pressure on resources:
lead to the expansion of markets for local Rapid population growth in developing
goods and services in the destination countries increases pressure on resources.
areas. Indeed, population increase exerts
pressure on the resources available.
Effects of human population change When the pressure is higher, resources
on an individual and a nation may fail to accommodate the rising
In many developing countries, rapid demand of the society.
population growth has become a serious
problem, which slows down plans aimed Poverty: When the number of
to improve the standards of living of unemployed or under-employed
the existing population. These problems people is large, people tend to have low
include: income, hence leading to poverty. The
consequence of poverty is low level of
Shortage of food supply: Increase in education, malnutrition, poor sanitation
population size may increase the demand and poor health. These later weaken the
for food due to growing population. It labour force and employment ability.
means, more food has to be produced to
feed the additional population. This may Depression of elders: In many developed
also push the prices of food up. LY
countries there is low population growth
N
because of low fertility rate. This creates
O
Increase in government expenditure: a serious problem for individuals and

When the population increases, the the nation. Individuals, who do not have
SE
government spends more on providing children, lack family support in old age,
improved social services such as hence leading to depression which is
U
education, health, electricity, water closely associated with suicide. At the

E
supply and security. national level, low population growth

N
leads to a shortage of labour because

LI
Increased unemployment rates: many people retire without replacement,

N
Population change may create an which consequently compromises

O
unemployment problem. Increased national economic growth. The few

population may cause higher demand for working class people have to pay higher
R
employment opportunities. Therefore, taxes to meet the demands of the society,

FO
more socio-economic opportunities hence leading to low purchasing power

have to be created to absorb the rising in the society.
population. In many cases, opportunities
created do not keep pace with the Population structure
increased demand of employment. As Population structure is the composition
a result, unemployment rate increases. of a population as determined by the

FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

DOin
proportion of males and females NOT DUPLICATE
each age group. Population structure varies from
one country to another. Population structure is usually illustrated by a population
pyramid. Population pyramids are graphical representations of the age and sex
characteristics of a specific population. For example, a population pyramid of a
developing country will usually show a wide base, which represents a younger
population. A pyramid of a developed country will show a wide top but narrow
base, which shows low fertility and more elderly citizens or higher life expectancy.
Figure 3.1 shows a hypothetical example of a population pyramid of a developing
country:
LY
N
O
SE
U
E
N
Figure 3.1: Population pyramid of a developing country by age group

LI
N
From the graph above the following Types of population pyramids

O
should be noted: Population pyramids are also referred

(i) The graph has a broad base reflecting to as age-sex pyramids. They are called
R
a very large proportion of children pyramids because they are usually shaped
FO
as a result of high fertility rate or like triangles, though other population

birth rate. pyramids take other shapes. Population
(ii)
The pyramid narrows rapidly pyramids usually have males on the left-
towards higher ages because of hand side and females on the right hand
high mortality rate and low life side. There is also a vertical line in the
expectancy. middle of the graph that separates males

FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

DO NOT
from the females. There are three DUPLICATE
types expectancies as the hypothetical example
of population pyramids, namely, the in Figure 3.2 illustrates. Usually, each
expansive, constrictive, and stationary age group is smaller in size than the
population pyramids. one below it. The upper age groups are
narrow because of high death rates due
Expansive population pyramid to poor health services. These types
An expansive population pyramid of population pyramids are typical of
shows larger numbers or percentages developing countries such as Tanzania,
of people in younger age groups. It is Kenya, Uganda, Malawi, Burundi,
characterised by a broad base and a Niger, Angola, Mali, Mozambique and
narrow top. Populations with this shape Zambia. This shape shows a population
usually have a high percentage of the that is growing rapidly and has a higher
population in the younger age groups due mortality rate at older age or low life
to high birth rates coupled with lower life expectancy.
LY
N
O
SE
U
E
N
LI
N
O
R
FO
Figure 3.2: Expansive population pyramid

FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

DO NOT DUPLICATE
Constrictive or regressive population lower percentage of younger people.
pyramid A constrictive population pyramid
This population pyramid portrays the shows declining birth rates, since each
population of a country which has a low succeeding age group is getting smaller
fertility and a high level of social and and smaller. Hence, population is not
economic development. This pyramid growing rapidly. It is usually experienced
describes a population, which consists in developed countries such as the
of many elderly people and shrinks United Kingdom, the United States,
or narrows at the base. The pyramid Japan, Norway, and Denmark. Figure
looks like a beehive with a narrow 3.3 shows a hypothetical example of
base and wide top due to low birth rate regressive population pyramid:
but high life expectancy. There is a
LY
N
O
SE
U
E
N
LI
N
O
R
FO
Figure 3.3: Regressive population pyramid

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Stationary population DO NOT DUPLICATE
pyramid proportion of the population in each
This population pyramid reflects a age group. There is neither decrease nor
population of a developed country increase in population but there could
whose age groups have an almost be immigration into the country; the
equal percentage from its lower parts population is stable. This is mostly found
of the young to the upper parts of older in developed countries where birth and
citizens, hence leading to the bulging of death rates are almost equal. For example,
the population pyramid in the middle. Austria and Scandinavian countries have
This is due to the improved social this type of population pyramid. Figure
services, especially health services and 3.4 provides a hypothetical example of
immigration. This type of population a stationary population pyramid:
pyramid shows somehow equal
LY
N
O
SE
U
E
N
LI
N
O
R
FO
Figure 3.4: Stationary population pyramid

FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

in district A. A sex ratio of above 100
indicates an excess of males whereas
In groups, use the statistics of any one of below 100 indicates an excess
two East African countries to describe of females. However, in developing
their population size, composition countries such as Tanzania, normally
and structure. Present your findings in the number of females exceeds that of
class. males. Factors, which influence sex
ratios at birth, are related to the mortality
rate of the population because mortality
Population structure is important since
rate is higher among male children than
it provides information on age and
females, both before birth and shortly
sex distribution of a population of a
after birth. Because males have a higher
place. It can also highlight the extent
death rate than females, after the first few
of development of the population. The
years of life females tend to out-number
population structure can inform the
males in each successive age group. Wide
planning for employment patterns as
variations in sex ratios between regions,
well as public expenditure. Moreover,
and between rural and urban centres are
it can be used to calculate sex and
due to migrations and child preference.
dependency ratios as described below:
LY
Generally, men migrate more in search
of jobs and income opportunities than
N
Sex Ratio (SR): This refers to the number
women. Thus, areas of outmigration
O
of males per 100 females in a given
tend to have less men than women, and
population. SR can be calculated for
SE
migration receiving areas tend to have

the whole population or for a particular
more men than women.
age group. It is obtained by dividing
U
the number of males by the number

E
Dependency Ratio (DR): This refers to the

of females. The following formula is
N
ratio of people in the non-working ages to

applied to calculate sex ratio:
LI
those in the working ages. Dependency

Number of males ratio is, therefore, the ratio of dependants
N
SR = X 100
Number of females (people younger than 15 or older than 64)
O
For example, the registers for district A to the working-age population (15-64).
R
in 2000 recorded 1 600 males and 2 100 The non-working group is unable to meet
FO
females. The sex ratio will be: their own basic needs (food, shelter and
1 600 cloth). The working group, thus, has to
SR = X 100
2 100 support the non-working group, which
= 76.2 ≈ 76 is either the population of young or old
Therefore, SR is 76. The result shows people. Dependency ratio is obtained
that there were less males than females by applying the following formula:

FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

Population 0 to 14 DO NOT DUPLICATE
years Its base is broad; it comprises a
+ 65 years and above large group of economically inactive
DR = X 100
Population 15-64 years population (non-working class) aged
of age 0 to 14 years. This leaves a relatively
For example, a community has 41 650 low proportion of the population in the
children aged under 15 and 6 800 people potentially economic active age groups
aged 65 and above. The total population of between 15 and 64 years. The impact
is 85 000. The DR will be calculated as of this demographic characteristic is that,
follows: the government will be required to spend
more financial and other resources to
(a) Add the number of children aged
provide essential needs to the large
under 15 with those aged above 65
proportion of dependants. Dependants
(non-working people).
usually drain the surplus value generated
41 650 + 6 800
by the small working population. As
= 48 450
such, the little that remains is not enough
(b) Minus the number of non-working for investing in productive sectors. A high
ages from the total population to get dependency ratio is worsened by the new
the number of working population. entrants into the labour force aged 15 to
85 000 – 48 450
= 36 550 LY
19 years not being effectively absorbed
into the productive sector. This is because
N
(c) Apply the formula of calculating of few job opportunities attributable to
O
DR which is as follows: the underdevelopment or low level of

SE
industrialisation and agriculture as well

Population 0 to 14 years
+ 65 years and above as the failure to exploit fully the natural
U
DR = X 100 resources of a place. This condition also

Population 15-64 years
E
of age contributes to problems of migration,

N
48 450 unemployment and under-employment

DR = X 100
LI
36 550 in cities and other problems associated

with urbanisation.
N
= 132.5 ≈ 133
O
Therefore, DR is 133. The result shows Activity 3.2

R
that the non-working population is

FO
higher than the working population. ThisVisit a nearby government office, find
DR is higher than the one obtaining in out how the provision of social services
developed countries whose DR is below such as education and health services
30. match with the increase of population in
Looking at Figure 3.1, one may note the area. Write a short report and present
that the dependency ratio is very high. it in class.

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Human population data DO NOT DUPLICATE
Periodicity:
Census must be taken at
Population data refers to economic, regular intervals of, for example, every
social and demographic information of ten or five years. Census held after every
the population. five years is known as a quinquennial
census and census that is held after every
Sources of population data 10 years is known as a decennial census.
There are two main sources of population In Tanzania, census takes place after
data: every 10 years, thus referred to decennial
census.
(i) Primary sources (example, census
and sample surveys); Specificity: Censuses must be specified
(ii) Secondary sources (example, Vitals for a certain country or territory or
registers). category of people in the country and for
a certain purpose like General Elections
Primary sources of population data or socio-economic planning.
These are sometimes known as basic
Simultaneity: Censuses should take
sources of population data.
place at the same time or specified time
throughout the country or territory.
Census
LY
This helps to produce comparative and
N
Census refers to the process of collecting, logical census. In Tanzania, the 1967,
O
compiling, analysing and publishing 1978, 1988, 2002 and 2012 censuses
demographic, economic and social data were taken on the 26th and 27th night of
SE
of all the people in a country or a territory August in each year.

within a specified time.
U
Individual enumeration of all the people:

This category includes periodic national A census must involve the counting of the
E
census like those held in Tanzania after number of people in a specific country
N
ten years. For example, in Tanzania or territory and every individual should
LI
population census was taken in 1978, be listed separately together with their
N
1988, 2002 and 2012. The next one is personal characteristics, such as sex,
O
expected in 2022. age, education, marital status number

R
of children and occupation.

FO
Characteristics of census
Universality with specified territory: Types of census
Census covers the whole country or
De jure
territory and all the people residing in the
This type of census allows for the
country including those who are outside
counting of people according to their
the country.
place of residence. Permanent members

FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

of the household are DO NOT or
enumerated DUPLICATE
objectives include collection of socio-
registered or counted. This type of economic information and production
census treats people as static while in of information, which serves bodies,
actual sense, they are dynamic. In a de organisations and other elements in the
jure system, all legal emigrants such field of education, economy, business
as ambassadors and their co-workers, and research.
experts and people working or studying
out of their countries are included in the Stages in conducting census
information collected.
The first stage: The initial stage involves
stating the purpose of the census and its
De facto
methods. Moreover, the goal of a census
This type of census allows people should be defined. Also, it involves the
to be counted wherever they are on development of methods and means for
the day of enumeration. It involves achieving the goals of the census.
counting all the people who had stayed
in the household during the night of The second stage: This stage focuses
enumeration regardless of whether on data collection by making direct
they were permanent members of that contact with residents and administrative
LY
household or not. One challenge of sources such as government officers.
the de facto system, is that foreigners Data collection methods such as
N
can be included as citizens and, thus, interviews and observations as well as
O
information is supposed to be carefully the administration of questionnaires

SE
documented to avoid errors. In addition, are used simultaneously. That is why

under de facto system those who are out census is termed as a research process.
U
of the country cannot be included in the Data collection is both an intensive and
E
census records of that year. extensive stage aimed to obtain good

N
results. To obtain high quality data,

LI
Objectives of population and housing there must be publicity and campaign to

N
census sensitise and mobilise the co-operation of

O
The main objectives of the population the public. Also, census officers should
and housing census includes enumeration apply a high level of research skills in
R
of the population and households in the the field operation.

FO
country; acquisition of demographic

information necessary for calculating The third stage: It involves processing,
population estimates, data collection estimating, analysing, production,
and production of information for publication and distribution of
government ministries and local census data. It also involves receipt
authorities for budgeting purposes. Other of information, identification and

FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

correction of errors, editing DO NOT
of the DUPLICATE
data number of
taxable adults to estimate
collected, imputation of missing data the amount of revenue expected from
and calculations of estimates. the sector. In addition, census helps or
enables the country to forecast her future
Importance of population census to and social services such as medical and
a country educational needs. Census enables the
Human population census is important government to determine the standard
as census results describe the main of living of the people in the country.
characteristics of a population as
well as the level of socio-economic Challenges of population census
development of a country. It provides Population census encounters a lot of
a complete account of all the members challenges. Generally, censuses are
of the country by sex and age. The age- costly since they need a lot of resources
sex structure is important for socio- and time, for example, preparation of
economic planning and development. stationery, recruiting and paying the
Also, it enables getting detailed statistics enumerators and other officers, and
on the size, nature and distribution of buying other facilities such as motor
the labour force. Furthermore, census vehicles. They also involve training
LY
determines the literacy and illiteracy manpower, providing food, covering
ratio of the population in relevant transport expenses, payment of salaries
N
groups, for example, youths and adults; and wages to various categories of
O
it provides the distribution of the literate people. These categories include those
SE
population in different groups. Thus, working with the media such as radio,
it helps to determine the nature of television and newspapers. The media
U
manpower available. are important in creating awareness

E
among the people on the importance of

N
Census provides information on the the census. Another challenge is that,

LI
household such as occupancy, types of some important information may miss,

N
ownership and availability of household especially for those who were absent
O
facilities. Moreover, census provides during the enumeration process.

both specific and general information
R
essential in government planning and People remaining at home may not know
FO
decision-making. It also helps the the actual particulars of those who were
government to know the number of absent. In addition, nomadic or semi-
people living in the country and the nomadic complicate the enumeration
structure of the population to plan for process. Example, the Maasai and
both economic and social development. Sukuma who are nomadic pastoralists
Furthermore, it helps to determine the do not stay in one place may not be fully

FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

accounted for. There is alsoDO
a NOT DUPLICATE
risk of Importance
of sample survey of
mis-reporting some information about population
age, number of children, employment, Sample surveys facilitate the collection
level of education and others. of data since all major challenges are
noted in advance. Therefore, the actual
Remoteness of some places (settlements) measures are taken before the census.
is an obstacle to enumerators, as Also, a sample survey is cheap and quick
some areas cannot be reached easily. but very essential in planning because
Obstacles such as mountains, large
few selected areas are chosen as samples
rivers, thick forests and wild animals
and the generalisation is made. More
such as crocodiles, lions, and buffalos
details can also be gathered than in the
make some areas not easily accessible.
actual census because the major focus
Due to these limitations, sometimes
(or concentration) of all census experts
enumerators give estimations which
is on the sample areas. In addition,
may end up, giving wrong information
the interviewers (researchers) can be
especially for areas with civil wars which
make counting difficult. intensively trained for sample survey.
As such, the information collected will
Sample survey
Primary data of population can be
LY
be detailed as per pre-set objectives.
Sample surveys can also be used in the
N
projection of population growth trends
obtained through sample surveys and
O
before the actual census.

inquiries.
SE
A sample survey is a process of registering Disadvantages of sample survey

U
or enumerating people in a selected With a sample survey, the information

area of residence such as a district. In
E
collected can be biased if the sample is

N
Tanzania, a district can be regarded not representative.

LI
as a sample. That sample represent

places of similar characteristics. The Secondary sources of population data
N
selection of the sample can be random

O
The secondary sources of population

if the population is heterogeneous or data include tally tapes, published
R
non-random if it is homogeneous. In reports and statistical data that can be

FO
Tanzania, a heterogeneous population obtained from libraries and demographic

is common in urban areas such as resource centres. Other sources include
Dar es Salaam. Homogeneous population documentation of various institutional
is common in rural areas, such as Mtwara records such as village records, which
rural.

FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

record data on residents ofDO NOT DUPLICATE
particular Vitals statistics provide insight into
villages. These sources need to be family issues such as rates of divorces
carefully examined before use because and marital issues.
they may be outdated or inaccurate,
but useful in a establishing trends or Interpretation of population data
projections. The data collected using all these
methods are called raw data. These
Vitals registration data cannot be used for any significant
Vitals registration systems deals purposes as they have not been
with records of Vitals events such as processed, analysed, interpreted and
births, deaths, marriages, divorces and documented.
migrations. Vitals registration is also
The population data can be presented
called civil registration. Vitals events
in form of tables or graphs showing age
are collected, compiled and the resulting
groups and the number of males and
statistics are called Vitals statistics. In
females. Data presented can also show
Tanzania, we have the Registration
whether the population is in rural or
Insolvency and Trusteeship Agency
urban areas.
(RITA) and the Immigration Department.
LY
These are institutions with mandates of Information which can be derived from
registering Vitals information.
N
population data include household
O
composition by sex, heads of household,
Vitals registration systems also deal
family size, education level of household
SE
with the production of birth and death

members and housing characteristics.
certificates, passports, identification
This information is significant as it
U
cards (ID), work permits, residence

helps the government to plan for the
qualifications and citizenship.
E
construction of infrastructures and

N
facilities such as sources of drinking

Uses of Vitals statistics
LI
water, electricity and sanitation facilities.

Vitals statistics show how dynamic
N
the country's population is. Mortality,

O
fertility and immigration can be observed Activity 3.3

R
even before a country-wide census.

FO
Vitals statistics can be used by the In groups, visit a Ward Executive Office
government for planning of various and conduct an interview on “what are
services such as medical and education the developmental plans which require
facilities. population data in that particular Ward?”
Present your findings in class.

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Uses of population data DO NOT DUPLICATE
of resources. So, the population size,
Population data can be used for different distribution and structure depend on the
purposes. The main users include availability of the resources to sustain
government ministries, local authorities, it. Techniques of production used are
private and public research bodies. Every important aspects when considering
country needs basic information of its the relationship between the population
residents for the purpose of planning, and resources available. On this basis,
development and improvement of the the area can be described as having
residents’ quality of life. Good planning optimum population, high population,
needs reliable, up-to-date, accurate and or low population, depending on the
detailed information on the state of the extent to which the resources are
population in the country. used.
Decision-makers use population data Optimum population

as a basis for formulating policies in A country has more people not because
various fields such as education, health, of the big number of inhabitants but the
housing, development, transport and extent to which the resources available
communication and other services. match with the population in that country.
Population data is also needed in
channelling budgets to the local LY
A country has an optimum population if
the number of people matches with the
N
authority; acquiring information on resources available and their utilisation.
O
employment and wages by occupation Likewise, if people are too few to develop
SE
which may direct young people in their all the resources of the area, the country
decision to choose a field of study. is under-populated.
U
The data are also used for conducting

research for the purpose of acquiring The concept also refers to the population
E
N
commercial information to serve as a in which the number of people balances

LI
basis for market research, assessment with the resources available. In this state,
of demand for products, services and the population optimally works with
N
supply of personnel. all the resources. Therefore, there will

O
be higher per capita income, higher

R
Population and resources standard of living, and quality life.

FO
Population and resources are inter- Optimum population can be maintained

related since they both affect each other. if the exploitation or development of
Human life depends on the availability other forms of employment keeps pace
of resources and human being has some with an increase in population.
impact on the existence and sustainability

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Impact of population on DO NOT DUPLICATE
resources Unemployment
usually frustrates and
The impact of population on resources stresses many youths. In fact, some
occurs when there are too many youths end up committing various crimes
people in relation to the resources and to earn a living. For example, young
technology locally available to maintain people may engage in prostitution, theft
an “adequate” standard of living. Some and illicit drug trafficking.
parts of Brazil, India, Bangladesh, and
Ethiopia have a large number of people. Population pressure: Too many people
As a result, they suffer from insufficient in a place create pressure on resources.
food supply to sustain their population. For example, high population may cause
land competition, over utilization and
High birth rates and immigration can over exploitation of non-renewable
cause resources-related problems such resources. Resource conflicts create an
as scarcity of fertile land. These are insecure atmosphere for a society to live.
influenced by an immediate factor of low
education and having a big number of A large number of people usually
children as a source of social prestige or increase pressure on the limited resources
assurance for family labour in the future. available such as land, hence leading
Migration can also affect the population to land degradation and exhaustion of
in an area. LY
minerals; and forest resources which
N
can lead to forest degradation, which
O
can slow down the resource-based
Population issues or problems
development.
SE
Population issues are studied in relation

to the country’s natural resources, the Shortage of urban social services:
U
level of technology and production. The Urbanisation creates an ever-increasing

E
major population issues include: demand for urban services such as the
N
supply of clean and safe tap water,

Unemployment and high dependency:
LI
transportation, electricity, recreation

This is a serious problem in most of
N
centres, and waste disposal facilities.

the developing countries where the
O
Provision of these services may not keep

active working population exceeds
pace with population growth in urban
R
employment opportunities available. As

areas.
FO
a result, many youths are unemployed.
Also, unemployment might be caused Shortage of food resources: Population

by lack of a skilled labour force to meet growth creates more demand for food.
the demands of industries. Unemployed Food production, distribution and
people cannot meet their basic needs consumption are, thus, critical for any
such as food, shelter and clothing. population. It is challenging to feed the

FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

growing number of people. DO NOT DUPLICATE
Therefore, Natural hazards:
Population can be
incidences of hunger, malnutrition and directly affected by some natural hazards.
dependence on food imports are common This hazards adversely affect property
in areas with rapid population growth. and may cause deaths. Such natural
hazards include volcanic eruptions,
Environmental pollution: As people earthquakes, floods, tsunamis, and
struggle to use the little resources storms, especially, in poor countries with
available to meet their basic needs, denser population, such as Bangladesh,
they also generate waste. The waste, the natural hazards become so severe.
which people produce, needs proper
management. If not properly disposed of Emigration and immigration: People
or recycled, waste can lead to pollution migrate from areas with high population
and attract organisms such as bacteria, to areas with low population density
which are harmful to human health. where there is no pressure on resources.
For example, some people move from the
Poor housing: Due to a large number Southern foots of Mount Kilimanjaro to
of people, provision of housing may other parts of Tanzania such as Morogoro
pose a challenge. In consequence, and Tanga. Emigration reduces the labour
LY
housing conditions become poor force in the place of origin whereas
and overcrowded. This situation can immigration increases the demand for
N
accelerate building in unplanned areas, social services in the areas of destination.
O
which finally develop into squatters

and slams. This problem is common in Decline in life expectancy: The life-
SE
Dar es Salaam, especially at Manzese, span declines because of problems

U
Mburahati, Buguruni and Vingunguti. such as poor health services and poor
This problem also exists at Tomondo and nutrition. Ignorance of people, poor
E
Jang'ombe in Zanzibar, and Mabatini in sanitary conditions and lack of financial

N
Mwanza. resources also contribute to the decline

LI
of the life-span.
N
Ageing population: In developed

O
countries, birth and death rates are Increase in crimes: As a result of

R
slightly low. This implies that the number unemployment, incidences of crime
of young people compared to old people increase. For example, in areas with high
FO
is relatively small. Another implication is population density, robbery, theft, drug

that there is high life expectancy. As old abuse and killings are common. Beggars
people increase in the population, more can also increase due to unemployment.
health care and other facilities are needed This is a common problem in major
to take care of them, hence increased towns or cities such as Dar es Salaam,
costs to the government. Mbeya and Mwanza.

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Congestion: This occurs DO NOT DUPLICATE
especially in Another measure
is to control rapid
less developed countries due to rapid urbanisation by managing rural-
population growth. High population urban migration. This can be done by
density can create a problem of improving rural conditions through
congestion in the streets, hospitals, enhanced social services, creating
markets, schools and transport because more income generating activities and
of poor infrastructures and excessive useprotecting the environment. This will
of private cars that lead to traffic jamsmotivate rural population to stay in the
during picking hours. rural areas. Moreover efforts should
be made to improve the agricultural
sector. This can be done by improving
Activity 3.4
agricultural extension services including
the supply of inputs, improvement of
In groups, discuss how population
transportation infrastructures and
pressure affects environmental resources
ensuring the availability of markets to
in your area. Suggest measures to solve
agricultural products.
this problem. Present your findings in
class. More development opportunities should
LY
also be created in urban areas as well as
in rural areas through the establishment
N
Measures to address population issues of industries and by encouraging
O
or problems
investors in different economic sectors.
Various problems have been identified
SE
Entrepreneurship skills should be

relating to population in both developing emphasised and provided to motivate
and developed countries. Most of the
U
self-employment. Provision of education

problems impact on resources and on family planning, nutrition and
E
the environment. Therefore, to solve hygiene to the population should also

N
these problems, there is a need to boost be emphasised. Importation of skilled

LI
efficiency in resource use. For example, labour from other countries is another
N
developing countries need to use energy- option in countries facing a crisis of the
O
saving stoves which use less amounts of ageing population.

R
charcoal or wood and reduce number

FO
of trees cut for fire-wood and charcoal Population Policy

production. In addition, emphasis should
A population policy is a set of
be placed on the use of alternative
measures taken by the state to influence
sources of energy such as solar, gas
demographic change. A population
and electricity to minimise pressure on
policy is also a statement aimed to deal
environmental resources.
with population-related issues such as

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DO NOTand
population size, composition, growth DUPLICATE
Explicitly, laws are well-stipulated and
distribution. Also, the United Nation’s strictly reinforced. This type of policy is
Economic Commission for Africa practised in China, Sweden and England.
(UNECA) defines a population policy
as measures and programmes designed Implicit Population Policies
to contribute to the achievement of These are laws, regulations or statements
economic, social, demographic, and which may have indirect effect on
political goals. population growth. Whether the policy
is explicit or implicit, it has the ultimate
Population policies are deliberately aim of influencing a country’s population
developed or modified through size, composition, distribution and
institutional arrangements and or growth.
specific programmes through which
a government directly or indirectly Tanzania's Population Policy
infuences the demographic change.
In Tanzania, the National Population
Since population is dynamic, population
Policy was adopted in 1992 and was
policy should be continually updated.
followed by programme implementation
A population policy provides guidelines in 1995. The National Population
LY
aimed to strengthen the process of Policy was reviewed in 2006. The main
N
integrating population variables in the objective of the policy was to reinforce
O
preparation and implementation of national development by developing

socio-economic development plans. The the resources available to improve the
SE
policy considers the relationship between quality of life of its people. Special
population and development as well as emphasis is placed on regulating the
U
its impact on environmental conditions. population growth rate, enhancing

E
A population policy can be explicit or population quality and improving

N
implicit as described below: the health and welfare of women and

LI
children. The primary concerns of the

N
Explicit Population Policy National Population Policy are how to

O
safeguard the interest of the people and

An explicit population policy refers to
the satisfaction of the basic needs and
R
a document or clear statement issued by

bring socio-economic progress.
FO
the government and its commissions,

which spells out its rationale, objectives,
Goals of Tanzania's national
goals, target policy programmes and
population policy
implementation plan. The main
intention of issuing the policy is to The overriding concern of the policy is
control population growth and raise the to enable Tanzania to contribute to the
people's standard of living in the country. following.

FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

(i)
Sustainable DO NOT
development DUPLICATE
and Strategies
eradication of poverty; To achieve the policy objective,
(ii)
Improved availability and the government intends to integrate
accessibility of high-quality social population variables in development
services; planning. Population variables include
age, sex, education, migration, fertility
(iii)
Attainment of gender equity,
level, life expectancy and mortality.
equality, women empowerment,
Some of the government strategies
social justice and development for
include creating mass awareness on
all individuals; and
the relationship between population,
(iv) Harmonious interrelationships resources, environment, poverty
among the population, resource eradication and sustainable development.
utilisation and the environment. In addition to agricultural production, the
government promotes non-agricultural
National Population Policy and family production in rural areas, for example,
planning lumbering and fishing; encourages
With specific reference to family the private sectors and the local
planning, the goals of the policy are to community to be actively involved in
strengthen family planning services,
promote health and welfare of the family,
LY
initiating. Furthermore, the government
implements and finances population
N
the community and the nation, and programmes in addition to building the
O
eventually reduce the high population capacity of planners at district, regional

SE
growth rate. Other specific objectives and national levels in mainstreaming

related to population regulation include population issues in development plans
U
making family planning services with a gender perspective.

E
available to all, encouraging child spacing

Since population growth has a bigger
N
of at least two years, and supporting

influence on the development of the
LI
family life education programmes

country, the government employs
N
for youths and family planning for

strategies which consider population and
O
men and women. In Tanzania, both

employment. These strategies include
governmental and non-governmental
R
creating an environment that will attract

organisations under the co-ordination
FO
investors, promote self-employment

of the Family Planning Unit (FPU) in
opportunities in the informal sector,
the Ministry of Health, Community
provide labour market information to
Development, Gender, Elderly and
employers and job seekers, foster labour
Children (MoHCDGEC) provide family
for intensive industrial development and
planning services.

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promote viable family DO NOT
formation DUPLICATE
while Population policy in China
ensuring gender equality. China is the most populous country
in the world. Out of five people living
Activity 3.6 on planet Earth, one is a Chinese. This
large population suffered from diseases,
In groups, read the Tanzania's National
drought, low income, poverty, poor
Population Policy and then discuss
living conditions and high levels of
its achievements, constraints and
emigration. To solve these problems,
limitations. Present your discussion in
the government of China had to come
class.
up with a policy which was meant to
deal with population growth. Thus,
Case studies in 1979, the anti-natalist one child
per family policy was introduced by
Population policy in Nigeria
government aiming at reducing natural
Nigeria is the most populated country in increase of population to zero by the year
Africa. It is the sixth populous country in 2020 and hence avoid the population
the world in 2021. Her first population growth beyond 1 200 million people.
policy was launched in 1998 and revised The government aimed at providing
in 2004. The population of Nigeria was
last recorded at 178.8 million people in LY
the citizens with free education, better
housing, pension and family benefits.
N
2015. The policy intended to improve
O
the quality of life and standard of To enforce the policy, the families which
SE
living for Nigerians, reduce infant and had a second child could not have these
maternal mortality rates and the spread benefits. They also faced fines of up to
U
of HIV/AIDS. The policy also intended 15% of the family income and women
to reduce fertility rate from 6 or above
E
who had second pregnancy were forced

to 4 children per family. Marriage age
N
to abort. Furthermore, marriage was set

was also set at 18 years for women and
LI
to 22 years for males and 20 years for

24 years for men. Furthermore, family
N
females. People intending to marry were

planning services were extended to
O
required to apply for permission from the

areas that were not previously covered. state and as well as when they intended
R
In addition, the policy advocates for to have a child.

FO
the restriction of pregnancies to those

age 18 to 35 years. Programmes were
Population policy in Germany
incorporated in development policies,
Germ any is one of the highly
for example, sexual and reproductive
industrialised countries in the world. In
health, HIV/AIDs, poverty reduction
such countries, death rate is low due to
plans and expenditure framework.

FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

improved social services. AtDO
theNOT DUPLICATE
same large families more attractive and
time, birth rate is kept low through affordable. Also, large families get tax
family planning which includes the use breaks or relief.
of contraceptives, sterilisation, abortion
and other incentives introduced by the Population Policy in the United
government for controlling families to Kingdom (UK)
be as small as possible. Britain is the home of the industrial
revolution; it witnessed a high natural
In addition, increased industrialisation increase in population between 1760 and
and mechanisation led to the need 1880. This economic prosperity led to
for fewer labourers. Also, a high cost a decline of death rate due to improved
of living created less desire for large social services. In 1980, Britain adopted
families. Furthermore, the need for more an explicit population policy. The policy
education meant people were spending is still in use. Birth control programmes
more time on education. Empowerment were introduced to slow down the
of women enabled women to follow population increase. The birth rates
their own careers rather than just were kept low through family planning
be child-bearers and home-makers. through the use of contraceptives,
These actions have led to an ageing
population. It is estimated that by 2060 LY
sterilisation, abortion, and government
incentives for smaller families. Lower
N
the German population will shrink by birth rates were influence of by increased
O
20 percent to 65 million people. The industrialisation and mechanisation

SE
birth rate of 1.36 children by woman which led to the need for fewer labourers.
means that Germany will witness the
U
size of working population plunging Also, education and empowerment of

to 27 percent, roughly 36 million
E
women, motivated woman to engage in

N
people. Thus, the government is now their own careers rather than solely be
LI
encouraging people to reproduce. child-bearers and confined to the kitchen.

Couples, who are ready to bear children
N
The impact of birth control in UK is an

receive bonuses from the government.
O
increase in the ageing population. The

Other incentives given to these couples ageing population may later create labour
R
include housing benefits, state maternity supply shortages since the old people
FO
allowances and a wide variety of would not be able to work effectively

regulations and subsidies, hence making or produce well.

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Activity 3.7
In groups, compare the family planning strategies in the Tanzania National

Population Policy with the strategies in the policies of other countries such as
Nigeria and China. Present your findings in class.
Revision exercise
Section A
Match the descriptions of population concepts provided in List A with their
corresponding concepts in List B:
Column A Column B
(i) The composition of a number of males (a) Population
and females. distribution
(ii) The spreading of people in a geographical
LY
(b) Population size
unit.
(c) Population change
N
(iii) Determined by mortality, fertility and
O
migration of people. (d) Population structure

SE
(iv) Information pertaining to people living (e) Population pressure

in a geographical unit.
U
(f) Population policy

(v) Statement dealing with a population issue
E
in a specific country. (g) Population data

N
LI
N
Section B
O

R
Define the following terms:

FO
(a) Population
(b) Migrant
(c) Immigrant
(d) Emigrant

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(e) Pull factors DO NOT DUPLICATE
(f) Push factors

(g) De facto
(h) Sample survey
(i) Diaspora
Section C
1. "The population distribution in Tanzania is uneven." Elaborate this statement

by using five points.
2. "Migration in a country can be either an asset or liability." Verify this

statement by using five points.
3. "Some societies believe that having a large number of children in a family

is a source of labour force." Argue against this statement by using six
points.
LY
N
4. By using six points, describe how rapid population growth affects the
O
environment of a place.
SE
5. By using six points, explain why rural-urban migration is strictly discouraged
by the Government of Tanzania.
U
6. "Ageing population in developed countries is considered as a curse

E
phenomenon." Explain five reasons behind this statement.

N
LI
7. Highlight any five population issues affecting the development of any

N
developing country of your choice.

O
8. "Migration is caused by both pull-and-push factors." Justify the statement

R
by using six points.

FO
9. Describe five effects of population change on an individual and the nation.
10. With five reasons, explain why Dar es Salaam is highly populated in
Tanzania?

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Chapter Four
Settlements
Introduction
In the previous chapter, you learnt about human population. Particularly, you
learnt about how to examine the factors behind human population growth and
its consequences. You also learnt about factors that influence human population
distribution. In this chapter, you will learn the concepts of settlements and the
growth of settlements. The competencies developed from this chapter will help you
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to understand how settlements affect production activities in a society.
N
O
The concept of settlements Characteristics of a settlement

SE
A settlement is a place with housing Settlements are characterised by various

units where people live and carry out features. These features may be described
U
their activities. This involves any form in terms of a site, location, size, pattern
E
of habitat from a small building to large and function and whether the settlement
N
towns where people live. It may consist is permanent or not.

LI
of a homestead or a few houses, or it may

N
cover several square kilometres. It may Site and location of a settlement: Each
O
also contain shops, schools, factories, settlement has a site and a location.
government buildings and entertainment Site refers to the place or land on
R
centres. A settlement can either be which a settlement is built. It is about

FO
temporary or apermanent establishment the landforms and arrangements of an

eventually. Temporary settlements may established settlement. Some sites may
become permanent. An example of a be on highlands whereas others may be
temporary settlement is a refugee camp. in lowland areas. Location or situation
Some refugee camps have over time means the position of the settlement in
become permanent settlements. relation to other things in the region.

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Site and location are DO criteria
important NOT DUPLICATE
supply of
water. They are closer to
in differentiating one settlement from sources and supply of water. Indeed,
another. sources of water such as rivers and
springs are determinants of development
Size of settlement: Settlements are of of settlement sites. Areas with water
different sizes. They range from a single or located near water sources are also
house in a remote area to many houses in a called wet areas. In wet areas, however,
city. This feature of a settlement describes settlements are established on slightly
a settlement in terms of population size gentle slopes to avoid flooding.
and housing units. On the basis of the
size of population, settlements may be Security and defensive: Security and
of different sizes ranging from villages, defence are other factors determining
towns, municipality, and cities to mega and characterising the site and location
cities. of a settlement. Sites established
based on these factors are known as
Temporary or permanent settlements: defensive sites. Examples include
The time taken by inhabitants to live in a Migombani, Kibweni, Chukwani and
particular area also helps to characterise Vitongoji military camps in Zanzibar.
LY
human settlements. Based on time, Other examples include Makongo and
settlements are either temporary or Kurasini in Dar es Salaam, Ihumwa in
N
permanent. A temporary settlement is the Dodoma and Itende in Mbeya. Some
O
one where people live for some time and of these sites have been established on
SE
migrate to other places. An example of a high grounds for inhabitants to see their
temporary settlement would be a refugee enemies from a distance. Others are
U
camp or a mining centre. Permanent established adjacent to river meanders

settlement is when people establish to provide protection for people living
E
stationary habitats for a long period. on the other side. These settlements
N
are dominant in areas characterised by

LI
Factors determining a site and location inter-ethnic strife and inter-regional

N
of settlement conflicts. In developing countries, these

O
There are different factors determining settlements were also dominant during
R
a site and location for settlement the colonial periods when most ethnic
FO
establishment as follows: groups established their settlements in

mountainous areas for security reasons.
Availability of water sources: Availability
of water is one of the factors, which Aspect: This refers to the direction of
influence a settlement development on the land or site in relation to the Sun.
a particular site. There are sites that tend Energy from the Sun is important for
to be established in areas with sufficient growth of plants, drying of clothes,

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lighting, warmth and other DO NOT DUPLICATE
productive countries concentrated in areas endowed
activities. Most of settlements are located with resources. Human beings require
in sites that receive enough sunlight. resources to meet their needs. For
For example, many settlements in the example, the growth of settlements in
Northern Hemisphere are located on Geita and Chunya is associated with
the South facing sides of valleys where availability of gold deposits. Areas that
sunlight is reached. are closer to Sao Hill forest are also good
sites for settlement and timber factories.
Shelter: This refers to the availability of
physical features that cover and protect aClimate: Climate of a place may attract
settlement from wind or rain. Areas that or discourage settlement development.
are near forests provide good sites for Areas that receive adequate rainfall
establishing of settlements. They offer for agricultural production may attract
protected against wind. They also, providefamily settlements. Areas, which are
building materials such as timbers. too cold, or with inadequate rainfall
discourage people from establishing
Trading centres: Often, settlement settlements. Cold places in the North
develops in areas with trade and poles discourage people to live.
commerce potentially. Such areas
are near the confluence sites, heads Types of settlement LY
N
of estuaries, navigation points and
There are two major types of settlements:
O
areas where natural routes meet. Also,

Rural and urban settlements. The
SE
areas where roads and railways meet

characteristics, which designate a
are potential areas for establishing
settlement as either rural or urban
U
settlements. The points facilitate the

include population size, density and
movement of people, goods and services
E
major activities carried out in the area.

to attract trade. Darajani and Chakechake
N
in Zanzibar; Kariakoo and Mwenge in

LI
Rural settlement
Dar es Salaam, Mwanza, Arusha, Tanga,
N
Mwanjelwa and Sokomatola in Mbeya, The basic unit of rural settlement is a

O
Nanenane and Nzuguni in Dodoma are homestead. Rural settlement comprises

R
good examples of such trading centres. villages and hamlets, which may be linear,
FO
nucleated or dispersed. In Tanzania, about

Resources: Availability of various 80 percent of the population live in rural
natural resources such as minerals, areas. The main economic activity in the
forests and fertile soils favour the rural settlement is agriculture, which
development of a settlement. Most of involves crop production and livestock
early human settlements not only in keeping. Other activities include fishing,
Tanzania but also in other developing lumbering, bee-keeping and hunting.

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In terms of location, rural DO NOT DUPLICATE
settlements Settlement patterns
are located outside the towns or cities. A settlement pattern is the distribution
Rural settlements are also characterised of human activities and houses across
by under-developed social services. In the landscape. It also refers to the
most rural areas, houses and buildings shape of settlement. The houses may
are scattered due to farming activities. be planned or redesigned; buildings may
be remodelled; functions may change,
Urban Settlement but a settlement continues in space and
This type of settlement refers to a town time. There may be some settlements,
or an urban area. Urban settlement which are stable and permanent or
is characterised by a continuous unstable and are occupied for short
construction of buildings, people of periods.
mixed ancestry and kinship. An urban
settlement is called town, or city. These Types of settlement pattern
settlements have dynamic boundaries Settlement is categorised according
as their sizes change over time due to the how houses are located or
to population increase. Population arranged in a particular area. There are
increase is a result of factors such as three types of settlement patterns as
migration, high birth rates and changes follows: LY
N
in the boundary of a settlement that
O
increase the size of an urban area. The Nucleated settlement pattern
urban population in Tanzania increased This type of settlement pattern is
SE
roughly 22 million people in 2020, also known as a clustered or compact

Which represented 37 percent of the pattern. It consists of dwellings and
U
country's total population. other buildings, which are near to each

E
other. Compact refers to concentration

N
The main economic activities in urban of many buildings in a single place with
LI
areas are non-agricultural activities. several land uses. They are connected
N
They include trade and industrial by roads or footpaths or both. This

O
activities. Examples of urban settlements type of settlement is common in urban

in Tanzania includes cities such as
R
areas. Nucleated settlement develops

Dar es Salaam, Arusha, Mwanza, Mbeya,
FO
as a result of the availability of social

Dodoma and Tanga; town centres such as services such as schools, hospitals,
Makambako, Rujewa, Mafinga, Vwawa, dispensaries, industrial plants, hotels,
Kibaha, Kahama, Tunduma, Gairo and trading and mining centres in an area.
Babati. Generally, urban settlement has Other reasons which may lead to the
a high population density whereas rural development of nucleated settlement are
settlement has low population density.

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DOsecurity,
limitations of land for building, NOT DUPLICATE
water and availability of natural resources
such as minerals. Figure 4.1 shows an example of a nucleated settlement:
Figure 4.1: Nucleated settlement pattern
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Source: https://www.mwanza.de/images/stories/fotos/growing-city.png
N
Linear settlement pattern such as roads and railways attracts people
O
A linear settlement pattern is a type to these settlement. Their existence

simplifies the movements of goods,
SE
of settlement pattern with buildings

developed along specific linear features services and people. The presence of
U
such as roads, rivers, coastlines, an a coastline enables people to conduct

escarpment or a zone where water is tourism activities or fishing, thus, being
E
near the surface. These features create another factor contributing to emergence
N
a linear-structured pattern of settlement. of a linear settlement. For example,

LI
Therefore, a linear settlement may be in people have established their settlements

N
a form of a straight or curved line, and its on the Indian Ocean coast such as east
O
population density is usually moderate. coast of Zanzibar. Also, people have

R
Linear settlement is influenced by the done so in the Lake Victoria and Lake
FO
following factors: Presence of rivers Nyasa to engage in fishing activities.

that may be a source of water for the Linear settlements are also influenced by
people and other uses that attract people a suitable terrain such as the foot of an
to settle. Existence of these sources of escarpment where people can cultivate.
water enables them to perform their Figure 4.2 shows an example of a linear
activities such as farming. Also, the settlement pattern established along a
presence of transportation infrastructure road infrastructure.

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DO NOT DUPLICATE
Figure 4.2: Linear settlement pattern
LY
Source: https://wp-content/uploads/2020/08/tanzania-green-spaces1.jpg
N
O
Dispersed settlement pattern have various choices of where to settle.
Dispersed (scattered) settlement Another factor is infertility of soil and
SE
pattern usually consists of houses bad weather conditions. These two

with a scattered form (i.e., homesteads factors force people to migrate from
U
are isolated). Dispersed settlements one point to another in search of fertile

E
are often associated with extensive soil, and reliable temperature for areas
N
farming. The houses may be separated with farming. These factors contribute
LI
by physical features such as valleys, to scattered settlement. This pattern of

N
rivers, ridges and escarpments. Houses human settlement is also influenced by

O
are separated from one another by farms. topography, landforms and means of
There are various factors, which may transport that may enhance or constrain
R
lead to the development of this pattern interaction. Where various landforms

FO
of settlement. Availability of land for such as mountains and hills exist,

settlement and farming as compared to scattered settlement are likely to occur
the demand, leads to the development because interactions between different
of this pattern. Also, low population sites are limited. Also, where means of
size can result in such a settlement transport are poorly developed, scattered
pattern. Low population makes people settlement can dominate. Additionally,

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low availability of water DO NOT DUPLICATE
resources and security assurance
contribute to the
occurrence of this pattern. This pattern of settlement is common in rural areas.
Figure 4.3 presents an example of a scattered settlement:
LY
Figure 4.3: Dispersed settlement pattern
N
Source: https://upload.commons/thumb/6/61/Mbalizi_Mbeya_Tanzania
O
SE
using terms such as agricultural centre,

Activity 4.1
communication centre, market centre,
U
In groups, observe the settlement administrative centre, mining centre,

educational centre, transport centre,
E
pattern of the area in which you live,

N
and then draw a diagram showing the religious centre as well as recreational
LI
settlement pattern that matches with centre. All these clusters indicate a
your observation. Present the findings in dominant function or activity of a
N
class. settlement. It is through these functions

O
and services that a settlement offers to

R
communities and the country that make

Functions of settlement
FO
a settlement important.
These are activities and services
that occur in a particular settlement. Some settlements developed over a long
Settlement can be identified by the time. As a result, their current functions
dominant functions or activities or have diverged from the original intention.
services performed in that settlement. When the settlement first began to
Therefore, a settlement is described by develop, the city of Dar es Salaam

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was a small fishing village.DO NOT DUPLICATE
Although Defensive centres
today fishing is still one of the important These centres are established to provide
activities carried out in Dar es Salaam, services for defence and security of a
it is not the dominant feature that region or a country. In these centres,
defines the city of Dar es Salaam. security facilities and labour force are
There are other dominant activities placed. Many settlements or centres
performed by most of the residents have armies, navies, and air forces.
which identify this city. One thing to Originally, these settlements or
bear in mind is that all settlements or centres were chosen for their natural
centres have dominant functions of shelters and because of having easily
one sort or another. However, most defendable harbours and strategic
of the settlements or centres have positions, for example, Migombani,
additional functions, which give them Jozani, Masingini, Kiwengwe, Amani
distinctive characteristics. Settlements Juu, Kibweni, Chukwani, Vitongoji,
or centres are classified according to Kinyasini, and Ngezi forest in Zanzibar;
their dominant functions and activities Kisarawe, Bagamoyo and Chalinze in
such as trade, administration, defence, Pwani Region, Kigamboni in Dar es
or culture. These settlements or centres Salaam, Ngerengere in Morogoro
LY
Region, Manyovu in Kigoma Region,
are hereby explained according to their
Mikindani in Mtwara Region, Itende
functions.
N
in Mbeya city, Ihumwa and Msalato in
O
Dodoma city and Nachingwea in Lindi

Administrative centres Region, just to mention a few. These
SE
These centres mostly the administrative settlements are established because of

functions of perterm government are their strategic locations such as being
U
performed. These functions include located at a border, in reserve forests,

E
planning, enacting laws and by- near mountains, and water bodies.
N
laws, directing lower authorities of Establishment of these centres has

LI
the government and implementing contributed to the nature and growth of

N
some policies and plans from higher these settlements and the nearby towns.
O
authorities. They may also serve as

headquarters of all regions and as Cultural and religious centres
R
district councils. For administrative These centres have unique cultural

FO
centres to perform these functions, they and religious history or record. Many
must contain public buildings, offices, settlements or centres have cultural
banks, and post offices. An example functions such as provision of education,
of national administrative centre in arts, galleries and museums, for example
Tanzania is in Dodoma (The capital city Dar es Salaam, Bagamoyo, Kilwa, and
of Tanzania). Zanzibar. Also, there are places for

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entertainment such as DO cinema
theatres, NOT DUPLICATE
Mining centres
halls, and film-making industries such asThese centres are dominated by mining
Bongo Movies in Tanzania, Hollywood activities. Most of the residents in these
in California, and Nollywood in Nigeria. settlements or centres engage in mining
Religious centres where people go for activities. Mining settlements or centres
religious reasons such as Mecca in Saudi grow due to the mining activities. These
Arabia, Jerusalem in Israel, and Vatican settlements or centres include: Kahama,
city (Rome) in Italy, exemplify the Mwadui, Mirerani and Geita. These
presence of religious functions associated
settlements are important for people
with settlements. Others are characterised
surrounding these mining sites; they
by the history of the dominant traditional
offer employment opportunities and
and national leaders. For example, Songeaserve as sources of income. Some people
in Tanzania has been named because of in coastal areas collect salt on the Indian
the name of the traditional leader, ChiefOcean coast, for example, at Ununio
Songea Mbano. Their uniqueness and area in Dar es Salaam, Unguja and
influence contributed to the government’sPemba in Zanzibar. In such settlements,
decision to establish and preserve these minerals have been useful in creating a
centres. unique identity of such settlements. For
Fishing centres LY
example, Geita and Chunya are known
as gold centres, Mwadui is known as
N
These centres are mainly dominated a diamond centre whereas Mirerani is
O
by fishing activities although there known as a tanzanite centre.

SE
are other activities performed there.

Most of the people engage in fishing Industrial centres
U
for their wellbeing. Examples of These settlements or centres are marked

E
fishing centres in Tanzania are found by mixed manufacturing industries. These

N
in the coastal areas of Zanzibar, Dar centres or regions are established by the
LI
es Salaam, Bagamoyo, Tanga, Mtwara government for industrial production.

N
and Lindi. Others are in areas around These settlements or centres are mostly
O
Lake Victoria in Mwanza, Mara and found in urban areas, for example, Dar
Kagera and those on Lake Nyasa, es Salaam, Mbeya, Dodoma and Pwani.
R
especially some villages in Kyela and Such regions have developed as a result
FO
Ludewa District. There are also fishing of the establishment of industries. In

villages on shores of Lake Tanganyika. Dar es Salaam areas such as Kawe,
Fishing is important because it provides Kipawa and Vingunguti were designed
employment, food and income to for industrial production whereas in
inhabitants. Mbeya city, Iyunga was designed for
industrial purposes. In Pwani Region,

FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

Visiga and Kibaha are DO NOTfor
designed DUPLICATE
market in Morogoro; Mwanjelwa central
industrial production. In Zanzibar, there market and Kabwe shopping centre in
are Mahonda and Maruhubi (Unguja), Mbeya; Rocky city mall in Mwanza and
while Dodoma city has Kizota and Job Ndugai central Market in Dodoma.
Nkuhungu as areas designated for These trading centres or settlements are
industrial production. mostly found in urban areas.
Trading centres Resorts and tourist centres

These settlements are areas where trading These centres cater for recreational
activity is dominant. In these settlements, needs of people in surrounding areas, for
most of the people engage in trade as example, Dar es Salaam, Bagamoyo and
their main economic activity. In these Arusha on Tanzania Mainland; Unguja
areas, shops, stores and warehouses are and Pemba in Zanzibar. These settlements
established. Such towns are found either or centres have ancient buildings,
along the coast, near a river or along a entertainment venues, sports facilities
lake. At the regional level, the dominance and natural features that attract tourist
of trading activities characterises these activities. Such centres are important
settlements. Examples of trading centres for providing employment, generating
include the Kariakoo business centre,
Kisutu central market, Magomeni
LY
foreign currencies and for recreation
purposes. Figure 4.4 shows an example
N
central market, Mlimani city mall in of a cultural heritage centre, which is one
O
Dar es Salaam; Chief Kingalu central of the famous tourist centres in Arusha.
SE
U
E
N
LI
N
O
R
FO
Figure 4.4: Cultural heritage centre in Arusha

Source: https://africantourer.com/attraction/cultural-heritage-centre-arusha

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Residential centres DO NOT DUPLICATE
near larger towns to reduce congestion
Settlements or centres, which fall under in larger towns or cities. Other reasons
this category are located in suburbs and for establishing satellite centres are to
small towns or villages on the outskirts of redirect future growth of the city, to
cities. Residential settlements or centres control migration of people from rural
are characterised by a large proportion to major towns and to reduce the problem
of their land devoted to housing. Also, of unemployment and shortage of social
these centres are facilitated by roads and services in urban areas by motivating
railways. These areas are characterised people to live in these newly-established
by mixed activities of agricultural and centres. Establishment of these centres or
non-agricultural activities. In rural areas, towns needs to go hand-in-hand with the
residential areas are near farms whereas provision of social services, employment
in urban areas, these are normally creation, and security assurance.
planned in peri-urban areas or integrated Examples of satellite centres established
with other activities. In fact, in urban or planned by the government are found
areas, residential areas are established in Tunguu and Fumba in Unguja-
alongside commercial activities. Zanzibar; Kibada (Kigamboni) in
Dar es Salaam, Hombolo in Dodoma,
Financial centres
LY
and Iwambi in Mbeya. Unfortunately,
most of these centres in Tanzania have
N
These are centres where most of the
not yet developed as planned.
O
financial institutions and services are
located. In these centres, financial
SE
services such as loans, banking, savings, Importance of settlements

Automated Teller Machines (ATMs) and The nature of site, location and
U
insurances are accessed. Some cities such functions of a settlement determine

E
as Dar es Salaam, Arusha, Mwanza, and its importance. A well-established and

N
Mbeya have developed into important planned settlement, be it rural or urban

LI
financial centres. Banks and insurance based, offers various socio-economic

N
companies are mostly found in these and environmental benefits to people

O
cities. As compared to rural settlements, living in a particular settlement. The

financial services are mostly located importance of a planned settlement is
R
in towns. City centres where most of explained as following:

FO
financial services are located can be

regarded as financial centres. Better provision of social services
Better planned settlement provides an
Satellite centres opportunity for governmental and non-
These are small or medium-sized and governmental organisations to provide
self-contained towns established in areas social services to the people such as

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DO NOT
schools, water supply, hospitals, DUPLICATE
sports and games. These services tend to develop
properly in planned settlements for the benefit of the people. Also, planned
settlements support the establishment of transport facilities such as roads, railways,
and airports to enhance the flow of goods, services and people. In areas with planned
settlements, the problem of congestion of people and traffic jams is avoided. Figure
4.5 shows a bridge as one of social services in Dar es Salaam created to smooth
transportation and ease congestion.
LY
N
O
SE
Figure 4.5: The Nyerere bridge in Kigamboni, Dar es salaam

U
Source: https://www.ippmedia.com/en/news/nyerere-bridge
E
Enhancement of security Economic development

N
When people are in organised and Planned settlements are associated

LI
planned settlements, defence and with improving economic development

N
security tend to be improved. Planned because of the benefits they offer for
O
settlements offer security guarantees and undertaking economic activities. When

R
protection of people with their property. people settle in a planned settlement, it

FO
Indeed, in planned settlements, streets is easier for the diffusion of economic

are well-arranged, street lights are development to take place. For
installed and buildings are constructed example, development occurs in areas
in a way that they do not leave spaces for with financial centres, industries, and
thieves and robbers to hide. Unplanned marketing centres. Planned settlements
settlements, on the other hand, lack all have production and transport costs
these characteristics. reduced and save time for supplying

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of goods, services and DO Hence,
people. NOT DUPLICATE Activity 4.2
planned settlements increase revenues
and income for the country. Examples In groups, read Geography materials
of modern marketing centres, which either online or hard copies found in
contribute to economic development, are library. Then identify three towns in
the Kariakoo business centre, Mlimani East Africa, and discuss their functions.
city mall, Kisutu and Magomeni central Present your findings in class.
markets (Dar es Salaam), Chief Kingalu
central market (Morogoro), Mwanjelwa
Growth of settlements
central market and Kabwe shopping
centre (Mbeya), Rocky city mall Factors influencing the growth of
settlements
(Mwanza) and Michenzani (Zanzibar).
There are various physical, biological,
Provision of open and green spaces cultural and socio-economic factors that
Planned settlements support the influence the growth of settlements.
establishment of open and public These factors motivate or discourage
spaces. These settlements are established people to establish human settlements
together with planting of trees and or migrate to other areas.
establishment of recreation areas. Trees
are beneficial as they release oxygen. Physical factors LY
N
Physical factors refer to naturally
O
Reducing the problem of pollution occurring factors, resources or conditions

SE
A settlement that is well-planned, has that influence the formation and growth
areas for waste management. In planned of human settlements. The common
U
settlements, waste stabilisation ponds, physical factors, which contribute to

E
drainage systems and dumpsites are well- the growth of settlements are presented
N
established, hence reducing pollution in as follows:

LI
the settlement.
N
Climate
O
Reducing the occurrence of hazards Climatic elements, especially rainfall

A settlement that is well-planned and temperature, motivate or favour
R
reduces the occurrence of hazards such some human activities. People prefer
FO
as fire outbreaks that cause deaths and to settle in areas with good climatic
destruction of property. This is because conditions, depending on whether a
in planned settlements, systems for country is developed or developing.
mitigating the occurrence of fires are Many settlements are found in areas with
in place. reliable rainfall. Such areas are suitable

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for crop farming and DOrearing.
livestock NOT DUPLICATE
Water sources
High temperatures together with very Rivers, springs and lakes with fresh
low rainfall do not support crop farming and clean water attract settlements
and livestock-keeping. Such areas do since water is important for human
not attract many settlements. Areas with beings, plants and livestock. Water is
sufficient rainfall and good temperature used for drinking, cleaning, fishing,
favour the establishment of settlements, washing and other economic activities
especially in developing countries such such as irrigations, hydro-electric power
as Tanzania. generation and navigation. As a result,
many settlements are located near
Soils springs, rivers and lakes with fresh water.
Fertile soil with good quality may For example, the growth of Kigoma and
influence settlement growth. Rich Mwanza is linked to the availability of
volcanic soils found in the East African water from Lake Tanganyika and Lake
highlands support agriculture which, in Victoria, respectively. Also, coastal areas
turn, attracts dense settlements. Sand such as East African coast of the Indian
and clay soils, which are deficient in Ocean attract settlements for fishing
minerals, cannot support agriculture and and trade. These settlements include
settlements. Productive soils (volcanic
soil) found along the slopes of Mount
LY
Tanga, Dar es Salaam, Mtwara, Lindi,
Bagamoyo and Zanzibar. Swamps and
N
Kilimanjaro support agricultural marshes, on the other hand, do not attract
O
activities and settlement. settlements because they are infested

SE
with insects, pests and bacteria such

Topography as mosquitoes and snails that spread
U
High mountain peaks and ranges, malaria and bilharzia, respectively.

E
broad and rolling plains with rivers,

N
both big and small, low-lying swamps Mineral and energy resources
LI
and highest mountains influence Most of settlements in Tanzania have

N
settlements. Fairly flat land simplifies developed in areas where natural

O
cultivation. Meanwhile, the presence resources are found. The resources, which
of rivers and streams for irrigation attract settlements include minerals and
R
and fishing activities attract people to energy. People create settlements near
FO
settle. Highlands and steep slopes, on mining centres to get employment and
the other hand, do not attract people earn income. Such settlements include
to establish settlements because they Mwadui (Diamond), Geita (Gold),
increase the costs of building materials Chunya (Gold) and Kahama (Gold).
and construction. Many people have migrated to these

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settlements because of DO NOT DUPLICATE
availability compared to some central regions such
of minerals. Also, areas with energy as Singida with areas that are attacked
resources such as the natural gas on by tsetse-flies. People avoid to settle in
Songo-Songo Island in Kilwa District areas that are prone to tsetse-flies.
in Lindi Region and at Mnazi Bay on the
shores of the Ruvuma Basin in Mtwara Human factors
Region have attracted many people for These are factors that show the role
settlement. of humans in influencing the growth
of settlements. The role of humans in
Vegetation settlements development depends on the
Vegetation is the total plant cover over activities they perform and their culture.
an area. Dense or thick vegetation The human factors that influence the
discourage settlement. Thick vegetation growth of settlements include social,
covers like that of the rain forests with economic, historical, cultural, and
big roots discourages the establishment political factors as follows:
of settlements. Dense forests increase
the costs for land clearing before Social factors: Social services such as
constructing buildings. Also, Miombo health, education and water supply have
woodlands infested with tsetse-flies
are not suitable for human settlements.
LY
pulled people from their original places
to live in areas where such social services
N
Moderate vegetation, on the other hand, are easily available and accessible.
O
attract people to settle. The availability of more primary

SE
and secondary schools, universities,

Biological factors hospitals as well as safe and clean water
U
There is a close link between biological contribute to the growth of settlements.

E
factors and settlements as they could Dense settlements occur because more
N
influence or hinder settlement of people people move to these centres in search

LI
in different areas. These biological of livehood opportunities.

N
factors include pests and diseases. Areas,

O
which are free from pests that cause Economic factors: Economic
diseases, attract settlements whereas opportunities are among factors
R
those with pests such as mosquitoes influencing the growth of settlements.

FO
and tsetse-flies are generally avoided Economic opportunities such as

for settlement. For example, Mbeya, employment and trade motivate some
Njombe and Iringa (highlands) have a people to migrate to those settlements.
cool climate which attract settlement Normally, settlements are established in

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places that offer economic opportunities. ethnic wars forced people to move from
Migration of people from rural to urban their original settlements. These wars
areas is mainly due to prospects for forced some people to live in areas
employment and training opportunities. near rivers and mountains for security
Urban areas in market centres usually reasons.
have dense settlement. Mining and
industrial activities attract people Political factors: The nature of political
to these areas, hence leading to the ideology influences the types and
growth and expansion of settlements. patterns of settlement. This is done
For example, Arusha, Dar es Salaam, through policies, plans and programmes
Tanga, Shinyanga, Mwanza and Mbeya established by the government.
have been growing very fast due to Settlements may be established on
the availability of various economic political grounds. The best example is
opportunities such as agriculture, the establishment of Ujamaa Villages in
mining, tourism, trade, and industrial Tanzania in the early 1970s which had a
activities. crucial impact on settlement. To-date, the
Human Settlement Development Policy
Historical factors: Historical factors and of 2000 in Tanzania establishes that,
events influence the way settlements
are formed. These events could be LY
human settlements should be classified
as, villages, towns, municipalities, cities
N
wars, disasters and hostility. Hostility and mega-cities. Political unrest can also
O
from neighbouring ethnic groups or cause displacement of people in one area

SE
communities forced some people to and establish new settlements. Places

establish their settlements on strategic such as Sudan, South Sudan, Eastern
U
sites such as hill tops, plateaus or Islands. part of the Democratic Republic of
E
In the past, people were attracted to Congo, Somalia, Rwanda, Burundi and
N
remote mountainous areas, lands or spurs Northern Uganda have experienced

LI
because such areas provided natural long periods of civil wars. These areas
defendable settlements. For example, have long tracts of land that are not
N
the Hehe in Iringa established their settled because inhabitants have fled to
O
settlements in mountainous areas due other countries or have been internally

R
to their hostility to the Germans. Also, displaced.

FO
during slave trade in Africa, some areas

were depopulated when people fled to Cultural factors: Culture refers to the
other places to avoid being captured total way of life of people including
by the slave traders. Moreover, inter- their beliefs, arts, morals, values and

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activities. Such cultures DO NOTthe
influence DUPLICATE
if well-planned and managed. Urban
way people establish their settlements. growth and urbanisation are linked to
Communities involved in farming socio-economic development due to their
activities settle in areas, which are positive impacts on the settlements and
agriculturally productive. Communities country’s overall development.
of fishermen and honey collectors settle
in areas that support and sustain their Reducing costs for service provision
livelihoods. Religious centres attract In areas where people have concentrated
worshippers from different parts of in one location, the costs of providing
the world. Some people, however, social services are reduced. Shorter
often move away from areas which distances also simplify the provision
are believed to have superstitions or of social services provided by the
witchcraft beliefs. government. Also, concentrating social
services together leads to the sharing
Negative and positive impacts of of resources among different service
urban growth providers, for example, the Tanzania
In the previous sections, types of National Electric Supply Company
settlement (rural and urban) and (TANESCO) and urban water authorities
their factors for growth have been share some infrastructures in the
described. However, the growth is provision of social services.
LY
N
occurring rapidly in urban settlements
O
or areas. Understanding the negative Promoting market for urban goods

SE
and positive impacts of urban growth and services

is important. An increasing number of people in
U
urban areas promotes access to the

Urban growth is the physical, economic market for goods that are produced in
E
N
and demographic growth of towns. It towns. Growing population size also

LI
refers to the growing concentration of offers market for various entrepreneurial

socio-economic activities and physical activities. This is different from rural
N
expansion in towns. Urban growth is areas where settlement is scattered.

O
related to urbanisation, which is the

R
process of increasing population in Promoting innovations

FO
towns.
Growth of towns enhances competition
and innovations among people.
Positive impacts of urban growth Urban areas are generally innovation
Urban growth and urbanisation centres because they facilitate
contribute to development of a the creation of new skills, and
settlement and the country at large knowledge, which are beneficial for

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DO and
the development of settlements NOTthe
DUPLICATE
services, making them inadequate. This
country at large. goes with poor provision of sanitation
services, hence leading to the spread of
Negative impacts of urban growth diseases. These poor conditions worsen
public health problems especially speed
High number of people of communicable diseases such as
Overcrowding in towns and cities cholera, water borne and tuberculosis,
is caused by rural-urban migration, and other airborne diseases.
increase in birth rate and decline in
mortality rates. People migrate from Growth of towns is also associated
rural areas to urban areas, especially with the spread of sexually-transmitted
when crop production and livestock- diseases in urban centres. Immoral
keeping are under performing. Also, behaviours such as prostitution contribute
poor social services and living conditions to the spread of diseases such as HIV/
discourage people from staying in rural AIDs.
areas. Such a situation contributes
to rapid urbanisation and increases Environmental Pollution
pressure on resources or services in Urban growth is associated with increase
urban areas.
LY
in industries and economic activities.
Industrial production and economic
N
Increase in urban crimes activities contribute to land, water, noise
O
Urban growth promotes urban violence, and air pollution. Figure 4.6 shows an
SE
political instability, crimes and aggressive example of a factory emitting smoke

behaviours. This intensifies poverty into the air. Environmental pollution
U
for the jobless. Consequently, they are has adverse impact on human health.
forced to engage in immoral activities. For example, noise pollution caused by
E
N
This occurs when the jobless engage in factories, motor vehicles, locomotives
LI
illegal activities to earn a living. and aircraft as well as noise from night
clubs and loud music systems may
N
Health problems lead to partial or permanent hearing

O
Urban growth contributes to public health impairments. Polluted air, water and
R
problems. The movement of people to land contribute to water and air borne
FO
urban areas increases demand for health diseases.

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Figure 4.6: A factory emitting smoke

Source: https://www.google.com/search?q=factory-emitting-smoke
Traffic congestions roads and traffic control systems have

LY
Urban growth contributes to increased resulted in frequent and persistent traffic
N
number of motor-vehicles and users congestion in urban areas which result in
O
in towns, which have adverse impacts traffic jams. Figure 4.7 shows an example
SE
on the environment. Poorly-planned of a traffic jam in Dar es Salaam.

U
E
N
LI
N
O
R
FO
Figure 4.7: Traffic jams in Dar es Salaam

Source: https://www.google.com/search?q=traffic+jams+in +dar+es+salaam

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Shortage of Social servicesDO NOT DUPLICATE
Dodoma, Mwanza, Mbeya, Tanga, and
Rapid population growth may lead to Dar es Salaam.
inadequate provision of social services
such as water supply, electricity supply, Growth of slums and squatters
education and health facilities. As the Unmanaged urban growth contributes
population increases in the urban centres to the growth of slums and squatter
social services are also affected as they settlements. An increasing number of
cannot support the increasing number people in urban areas increases demand
of people. This creates congestion for accomodation. This forces more low
in schools, health centres and water income people to establish settlement
facilities. For example, people in in unplanned areas or areas planned for
Dar es Salaam and Dodoma face other land uses. Some build substandard
inadequate provision of social services houses in flood-prone areas. This
as a result of population increase. contributes to the growth of squatter
The problem usually occurs when the settlements. In squatter settlements waste
provision of social services does not disposal, all forms of environmental
keep pace with population growth. pollution, and crimes increase. Squatter
settlements include those located in
Street families
Street families are a common
LY
Tandale in Dar es Salaam, Mabatini
in Mwanza, Chang’ombe and Swaswa
N
phenomenon in urban centres. They areas in Dodoma; Mwanakwerekwe,
O
are composed of unemployed men and Tomondo and Jang'ombe in Zanzibar.

SE
women with children who live on the The same problem is evident at Kibera
streets as beggars because of either being in Nairobi, Kenya. Figure 4.8 provides
U
neglected or for their other reasons. an example of a slum and squatter

E
This is common in many of the regions settlement in an urban area.

N
of Tanzania, particularly the cities of

LI
N
O
R
FO
Figure 4.8: Slum and squatter settlement in an urban area

Source: https://www.ippmedia.com/en/challenges-human-settlements-highlighted.

FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

standard houses and shortage of houses.
Construction of flats (storey) buildings
In groups, discuss how you can advise or houses by urban dwellers can reduce
the Government of Tanzania to solve unnecessary overcrowding.
the problems of negative impacts of
unplanned settlements in urban areas. Provision of social services: Deliberate
Present your findings in class. measures should be taken to improve
services in rural areas that push people
to move to urban areas. Such services
Strategies to solve the negative impacts include educational, health, transport
of urban growth infrastructure, market centres, water
There are numerous negative impacts supply, electricity, and communication
related to urban growth, which need to facilities. The improvement of these
be monitored or addressed to improve services in rural settlements could
urban life. The specific ways for solving motivate people to remain in their
negative impacts related to urban growth areas and thus, minimise the problems
include the following: associated with population pressure in
urban centres. To minimise urban-urban
Creation and implementation of
settlement policies and plans: The LY
migration, balanced provision of services
should be emphasised to reduce gaps in
N
government should introduce and accessing services among urban centres.
O
implement policies that will encourage

SE
people, particularly in Tanzania, to Improvement in access to financial

build houses in planned areas. Also, services: Formalisation of informal
U
the decentralisation policies should be sectors and provision of loans to both

E
in place to discourage the unnecessary villagers and dwellers in informal urban

N
movement of people from rural to urban settlements to curb the problems of

LI
centres. For example, headquarters of all unemployment are some of the strategies
ministries have moved to Dodoma. Thus, for dealing with urban problems. For
N
many people have migrated to Dodoma villagers, such benefits could make
O
as workers in the ministries or to be close them settle and remain in their places
R
to services. With decentralisation, this of origin and reduce the rate of young
FO
problem of population pressure in one people moving to towns or cities. For

area could be minimised if people would urban residents, especially in squatter
access services in their perspective social settlements, they can establish some
areas. Vertical construction of buildings income activities and self-employment
should be encouraged in towns and that would reduce the problem of
cities to minimise overcrowding of sub- unemployment. Such strategies also

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DO NOT
entail the formation of self-help DUPLICATE
groups be involved in raising awareness among
and associations to access financial people on the dangers of engaging in
services, reducing interest rates and crimes and drug abuse. These measures
using alternative assets as collaterals would also curb the growth of street
for accessing loans. families in urban areas.
Control of wastes disposal and Improvement in infrastructure and

sewage systems: The government transport systems: Road traffic systems
should establish some strategies for should be extended to other small and
controlling wastes disposal and sewage medium-sized towns to manage traffic
systems in the squatter settlements. For jams. Also, the establishment of fly-
example, it can establish some waste overs, interchanges and well designed
collection points and bins, extend the round-abouts at crossing roads can
sewage systems and waste stabilisation reduce traffic jams. Investment in public
ponds to serve people living in transport should be emphasised to reduce
informal settlements as well. Also, it congestions, especially in urban areas
can provide environmental education such as Dar es Salaam, Arusha, Dodoma,
to influence urban dwellers to embrace Tanga, Mbeya, and Mwanza. Moreover,
pro-environmental behaviours.
LY
the government must discourage the
use of private transport and encourage
N
Allow private sectors to provide services: the use of public transport. People
O
Non-Governmental Organisations should also be encouraged to use non-

SE
(NGOs), Community-Based motorised transport and develop the

Organisations (CBOs), and Faith-Based habit of walking on foot to nearby
U
Organisations (FBOs) have potentials to work places or to get socio-economic

contribute to the reduction of challenges services.
E
to urban growth. These organisations may

N
be involved in mobilising communities Control of building in towns: The

LI
in the provision of community-related government should also simplify

N
services such as water and sanitation procedures for accessing building permits
O
rather than depend entirely on the central and ensure that house construction is
R
and local governments to provide all done according to the conditions in the
FO
the services. These organisations may permit. Also, there is a need for urban
help the government to raise awareness authorities to control the density of
among youths in rural areas on the buildings and also increase supply of
importance of staying in rural areas surveyed plots. Doing so could lead to
and engaging in agriculture and other the construction of buildings according
productive ventures instead of moving to established plans. The relevant
to urban areas. The private sector may authorities should also plan for more

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DO NOTand
public spaces, gardens, playgrounds DUPLICATE
strategies to reduce high birth rates,
sports field. which cause rapid urban growth.
Application of family planning methods: Activity 4.4

Rapid urban growth is also influenced
by uncontrolled population growth due Visit a nearby government authority,
to high birth rates. In the context where ask them about how they deal with
resources are inadequate and not equally settlement growth. From their experience
distributed, family planning methods and expertise, suggest any solutions to
should be adopted to control the fertility problems related to settlement growth
rate. The government should, therefore, that are applicable in your area. Present
encourage people to use family planning your findings in class.
Revision exercise
Section A

LY
N
(i) What are the main characteristics of a settlement?
O
(ii) Why do we associate the existing environmental problems with urban

SE
growth?
U
(iii) With the aid of relevant examples, describe the political and socio-economic
activities taking place in the following regions:
E
N
(a) Dar es Salaam

LI
(b) Mwanza
N
(c) Arusha.
O
(d) Dodoma
(e) Mbeya
R
FO
(iv) Distinguish between urban and rural settlements.
(v) Describe the following settlement patterns:

(a) Linear
(b) Nucleated
(c) Dispersed

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Section B
1. As a Regional Planning Officer, you have been assigned to analyse the
settlement patterns found in your region. With relevant examples, describe
the settlement patterns in your region or the region of your choice.
2. Apart from building entertainment centres in rural areas as one of the ways
for attracting people to remain there, suggest five ways of solving the existing
problems related to urban growth.
3. Identify six cities in Tanzania and describe six functions of settlement for
each one of them.
4. "Socio-economic problems and urban population growth are two sides of the
same coin." With six points, comment on this statement.
LY
5. Describe the influence of the following factors in the settlement growth:
N
(a) Climate
O
(b) Topography
(c) Drainage systems
SE
(d) Security and defensive sites

U
(e) Soils
E
6. Assume you are in an urban planning team, how would you advise the
N
Government of Tanzania to overcome the challenges associated with urban

LI
growth? Give advice by using at least six points.

N
O
7. You have met five Form Two students debating that the current modification
of infrastructures in Dar es Salaam is a wastage of public funds as long as
R
the capital city is officially in Dodoma. Based on the settlement functions of

FO
Dar es Salaam city, explain how you would convince them on the importance
of developing its infrastructures.
8. What are the possible five human factors which may influence the development
of nucleated settlement pattern?

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Chapter Five Environmental

issues and
management
Introduction
In recent years, there have been discussions on the relationship between human
activities and the influence they have on the environment and climate change.
In this chapter, you will learn about the concept of environment, importance
of the environment, environmental problems and environmental conservation.
The competencies developed from this chapter will help you to ensure proper
management and conservation of the environment.
LY
N
The concept of environment essential that the environment is well-
O
An environment refers to external managed and conserved to make life

SE
conditions surrounding an organism; sustainable and productive for all

It has a bearing on its behaviour or components of the environment.
U
activities. The environment comprises

living things and non-living things. Importance of the environment
E
N
A living thing could be a person, an The following descriptions present the

LI
animal, plant or other micro-organisms. importance of the environment:

N
Non-living things include gases (oxygen,

nitrogen and carbon dioxide), liquid It supports life: The environment plays
O
(water bodies), solids (soil and rocks), and an important role of maintaining life
R
energy (sunlight). The environment can support systems. Such life systems
FO
be divided into four basic components: include nutrient cycle and production
Atmosphere, Hydrosphere, Lithosphere of oxygen, soil formation, water cycle,
and Biosphere. provision of habitats and other forms of
life supporting systems. Those systems
Living organisms on Earth depend on are important for supporting all living
the environment for life. It is, therefore, organisms. For instance, a constant

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supply of oxygen is DOfor
crucial NOT DUPLICATE
life. purification,
climate modification, and
The environment contains all resources carbon sequestration. Environmental
which are responsible for sustaining life regulation is important for controlling
of living organisms. the balance of environmental services.
It provides socio-economic services It promotes tourism: The geomorphic

to the societies: The environment landscape, drainage features, plants
provides products such as food, building (flora) and animals (fauna) in their
materials, medicines, fuels and others natural settings are beautiful to look
for daily social and economic needs in at and, therefore, attract local and
the societies. Food and water demands international tourists. Through tourism,
from the environment increase as the the environment acts as an essential
world population increases. A healthy source of income for individuals and
environment is important for the the nation as a whole. Therefore, good
provision of food and water to human sceneries should be preserved for the
beings whereas a degraded environment present generation and posterity. For
will lead to the decline of the essentials example, national parks such as the
of life. The availability of water and Serengeti and Mikumi in Tanzania have
vegetation is also important for the
survival of wild and domesticated LY
different species of trees, wild animals,
and insects which attract tourists.
N
animals.
O
It provides cultural services: The

It is a source of natural resources: The environment has cultural values.
SE
environment contains a variety of natural Some areas are conserved for cultural
resources such as forests, soils, animals, heritage and serve as an icon of a
U
and minerals. Natural resources can be particular community or nation. The

E
exploited by people for various social and environment also contains areas which
N
economic development. For example, are preserved for traditional rituals

LI
minerals such as gold, tanzanite, diamond and religious activities. Management

N
and others contribute to the growth of of cultural heritage and spiritual sites
O
the country’s economy. Furthermore, the is important for social and economic
R
environment is a source of medicinal development. For example, Nyumbanitu

FO
plants for treating different diseases. forest in Njombe is important for these
cultural services.
It regulates ecosystem services: The
environment regulates services provided Environmental problems
by the ecosystem. This is an important Environmental problems are harmful
characteristic of the environment. The effects caused by environmental hazards
regulating services include air and water and human activities. As human beings

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struggle to satisfy their needs,DO
theyNOT DUPLICATE
affect Causes of deforestation and forest
the environment. Improvement in science degradation
and technology has posed some threats There are several causes of deforestation
and environmental problems that require and forest degradation. These include
attention. Common environmental agricultural expansion, fuelwood
problems include environmental harzads, harvesting, charcoal production, and
deforestation and forest degradation, loss population growth.
of biodiversity, pollution, desertification,
floods and climate change. Agricultural expansion: Clearance of
forested land for agricultural activities is
Deforestation and forest degradation one of the main causes of deforestation.
Deforestation is the long-term or As human population grows, there is an
parmanent loss of forest cover and obvious need for more food. This leads
implies transformation into another to clearance of more land for farming.
land use. Forest degradation is the In Tanzania, between 70 and 80 percent
reduction of the forest qualities, which of the country’s deforestation is due to
lead to loss of forest capacity to provide clearing of land for both subsistence
important goods and services to people and commercial farming. Some
LY
and nature. Forests are important to farmers practise shifting cultivation for
the human population as they provide production of major agricultural cash
N
direct and indirect benefits. The direct crops. For instance, sesame farmers
O
benefits include foods, fire-wood, in Lindi Region practices shifting

SE
charcoal and building materials. Also, cultivation, which affects forests. In

forests provide habitats for birds and some societies, shifting cultivation is
U
wild animals. Indirect benefits include also conducted as an adaptation measure

services such as climate modification to climate change to maintain crop
E
production. Nomadic cattle rearing is

N
and pollination.
another factor causing deforestation and
LI
Recently, forests have been declining forest degradation.

N
and degraded due to human activities

O
and climate change. Deforestation Fuelwood harvesting and charcoal

R
and forest degradation are among production: Demand for wood materials,
FO
environmental problems, particularly including fire-wood, charcoal and

in the tropical countries where many of building materials has caused pressure
the forests are found. For example, it is on deforestation, forest degradation
estimated that the annual forest loss from and fragmentation in many countries.
deforestation is 483 859 hectares over Most people in both rural and urban
the period of just a decade (2002-2013) communities in developing countries
in Tanzania. depend on fire-wood and charcoal as

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their main sources of DO energy.
domestic NOT DUPLICATE
Effects of deforestion
They also demand poles and timber as Drought: Cutting down of trees can lead
building materials. Such a huge demand to disturbance in hydrological cycle.
has triggered the extraction of large
Trees help in rain formation through
quantities of forest resources, thereby
transpiration.
causing deforestation.
Loss of biodiversity: This results in
Population growth: The increasing
the extinction or disappearance of
population has accelerated the
native species due to loss of habitats
consumption of forest resources in both
or food.
rural and urban areas. Resources such as
fire-wood, charcoal and poles used in Increased greenhouse gases: When trees
urban areas are extracted in rural areas. are cut down the ratio of greenhouse
Increased population means increased gases in the atmosphere increases,
human exploitation of natural resources thus leading to global warming.
including soil, minerals, and water. The Trees are good absorbers of carbon
result is overuse, which consequently dioxide.
causes forest degradation. Population
growth provides a ready market for wood
products, hence triggering more utilisation LY
Land degradation: Deforestation
increases the rate of soil erosion because
N
of forest resources. Also, population bare areas are heavily affected by surface
O
growth has increased the demand runoff.

SE
for land for establishing settlements.

Fuel wood scarcity: The availability of
U
Forest fires: This can be naturally fuelwood such as charcoal and fire-wood
occuring or initiated by human beings.
E
become difficulty because of massive

When fires are not controlled or properly
N
and uncontrolled cutting of trees. Due

managed, they can be problematic.
LI
to this shortage, the price of fuelwood

Each year, millions of acres of forests may rise as well.
N
around the world are destroyed or

O
degraded by fire. Most forest fires are Measures to reduce deforestation and
R
caused by human. Fire can be initiated forest degradation

FO
when hunting wild animals, collecting

Afforestation and reforestation:
honey and clearing land for agriculture.
Afforestation involves planting of
Naturally occurring fires might be caused
trees on a new piece of land whereas
by lightning. Generally, when fires break
reforestation refers to the action of
out they destroy the biological diversity
replacing trees that have been cut down
of forests, water cycles and soil fertility
with others on the same open land.
within the forests.

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The use of atternative DO NOT of
sources DUPLICATE
Loss of biodiversity
energy: When other sources of energy Biodiversity refers to the variety of
are used apart from fuelwood they species of organisms on the Earth's
reduce the use of forest as a source surface or its variety and variability of
of charcoal and fire-wood. Use of life on Earth. Loss of biodiversity is
alternative energy such as biogas and largely caused by human activities that
solar power could help ease pressure on take place on the Earth's surface. These
forests. activities may lead to the loss of various
species on the Earth. The loss can be in
Enforce forest laws and regulations in terms of numbers of the given species or
the society: Employing rules or laws to loss of the entire species, a process called
prevent the unnecessary cutting down of extinction. Extinction of biodiversity is
trees. Example, the Tanzania Forest Act caused by natural and human factors.
No.14 of 2002 controls the use of forest
products and reduces forest destruction. Natural causes: These include floods,
If this law is fully implemented, it will drought, lighting, windstorms, pests
ensure the existence of forests and reduce and diseases, landslides, earthquakes
the emission of greenhouse gases in the as well as volcanic eruptions. Occurance
environment.
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of these hazards also contribute to loss
of biodiversity.
N
Recycle and re-use forest products:
O
When forest products are recycled Human causes: These include constrution
SE
or re-used, the demand for new raw activities for (roads, airport, railways or
materials from the forest, for instance, dams) and agriculture activities as Figure
U
notebooks, shipping bags will go down 5.1 illustrates. Other human causes
E
as recycling reduces the need for new include poaching, pollution, draining
N
raw materials. of wetlands, introduction of exotic

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species or invasive species as well as

Controling population growth: This will
N
climate change. Also, clearing of land for

reduce the demand for forest resources
O
construction activities, crop production

including building materials, fuelwood, and animal keeping. For example, in
R
land for agriculture and settlement, Tanzania, large areas of Ruvu (Pwani),
FO
which can cause deforestation. Kongwa (Dodoma), Kalambo (Rukwa),

Mkata (Morogoro), Uvinza (Kigoma),
Control wild fire: Prohibiting the Misenyi, Kitengule and Kikulula
initiation of fires in forests or areas near (Kagera), Usangu (Mbeya), Mzeri
forests also requires frequent patrols for (Tanga) have been cleared to establish
early detection of wild fires. national ranches.

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DO NOT DUPLICATE
Figure 5.1: Deforestation
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Source: https://cdn.climatechangenews.com/files/2014/09/Amazon_deforestation
N
Pollution: This involves the addition thus causing those species to be
O
of toxic elements in the water, air or underpopulated. Such illegal fishing does
SE
land which may cause death of species. not comply with the rules and regulations
For example, when chemical elements governing the harvesting of fish from
U
from industrial waste or mining are water bodies.

E
poured into water systems, it may cause

N
the death of aquatic species. Also, oil Illegal fishing may cause loss of
biodiversity due to the use of dynamites,
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leakage from tankers may cause the

which can result in the destruction of
N
death of fish and other marine organisms.

the breeding areas for fish, for example,
O
Chemicals used in agricultural activities

also kill some species living on land and coral reefs. With illegal fishing, even the
R
in the air. smallest fishes that are not supposed to

FO
be fished are harvested. Illegal fishing is

Overfishing: Overfishing refers to sometimes caused by using illegal fishing
excessive fishing that may depletes some tools including prohibited fishnets and
species of fish from water bodies at a dynamites. This behaviour affects the
rate that the species cannot replenish, fishing industry.

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DOanimals
Poaching: Illegal killing of wild NOT DUPLICATE
Climate change: Climate change causes
leads to the disappearance of some loss of biodiversity in different ways. An
animal species such as hyenas, warthogs, increase in temperature on the Earth's
antelopes, giraffes, zebras, elephants, surface causes some of the species to
and rhinos. For instance, in the Serengeti die. Also, the rise in temperature results
National Park poaching is substantial in the destruction of habitats for some
problem because wildlife species such of the species and cause shortage of
as rhinos, elephants, buffalos and many foods. Climate change may cause floods
others are killed by poachers for ivory, when there is excess rainfall (heavy
wild meat, and as trophies. rainfall) or droughts where there is
no rainfall, which can cause death of
Draining of wetlands: Wetland is a species.
natural or artificial landscape flooded by
fresh or salt water. For example, where The extent of loss of biodiversity
the soil is water logged, the water table Around the world, animals and plants
tends to be near the Earth's surface. There are threatened due to human population
are circumstances in which humans growth. Due to such increase, the
reclaim wetlands for socio-economic daily demand for life necessities also
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development such as building houses increases. The large part of the world's
or building of roads. Once done, some natural ecosystems has been encroached
N
natural springs may disappear due to loss by economic activities and settlements.
O
of their source. In other places, wetlands Additionally, the building of roads,

SE
have been changed into dumping places railways and airports has also contributed
for wastes. Wastes, which contain to the loss of biodiversity. Furthermore,
U
harmful chemicals, detergents and some the exploitation of natural resources

residues from pesticides when dumped such as minerals and trees for several
E
into the wetland, may cause deaths to purposes affect biodiversity. Overall,
N
various species in the area.

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human activities create imbalances in

the ecosystem.
N
Introduction of exotic species or invasive

O
species: Species that originated from It is estimated that the current rate of
R
a particular area when introduced to species extinction to be 100 to 1 000

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new natural environments can lead to times higher than natural background
imbalances in the ecological equilibrium. extinction rate. In the 20th Century alone,
For example, the introduction of the Nile 477 vertebrates became extinct. The
Perch caused disappearance of some of population of fresh water species have
the local fish species in Lake Victoria in been lost by 83 percent since 1970. Also,
East Africa as the new fish species tend out of 96 500 species, 27 percent are
to eat local fish species. threatened by extinction globally.

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In the ecosystem, organismsDO NOT DUPLICATE
interact and compete, co-operate,
prey and provide
food. In this process, they modify non-biological aspects of the ecosystem, hence
leading to the availability of nutrients, and energy source such as sunlight, water
and nitrogen-fixing organisms. Ecosystem functions depend on how, organisms
interact among themselves within that system. For example, if carnivorous animals
are removed, prey species will grow, hence leading to a series of changes in the
ecosystem. Hence some species will have greater influence than others. Figure
5.2 shows a leopard with a rabbit it has caught for its meal.
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N
O
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Figure 5.2: A leopard (carnivorous) catches a rabbit (prey)

E
N
Source: https://www.google.com/search?q=A%20leopard(carnivorous)eats+rabbit
LI
N
Effects of loss of biodiversity (lumbering, grazing of animals, fish

O
A number and types of tree species species and tourism) will be affected.
decrease because land has been degraded. The major effects of the loss
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Hence, medicines, vegetations and other of biodiversity are as follows:

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things obtained from the environment Environmental degradation, hunger or

will no longer be available. Loss of famine due to the failure of the land to
biodiversity means many economic and produce enough food; and increase in
social activities will be affected. Once poverty among the people due to failure
this is lost, people’s culture (traditions in agricultural productivity.
and religions), and economic activities

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Also, loss of biodiversity DO lead
can NOT to
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Environmental
pollution
a decline in tourism activities due to Pollution is the release of harmful
depletion of some species that serve as substances into the environment that
tourist attractions. can harm living organisms. Pollution
can affect all aspects of the environment
Measures to reduce loss of biodivesity including natural, abiotic and biotic
Establishment of proctected areas: components. Pollutants are harmful
Proctected areas such as game substances added to water, air or soil.
Pollutants can be classified as primary
reserves prevent people from utilising
or secondary. Primary pollutants, on
the areas without permission from
the one hand, are directly emitted from
the government. These areas include
a particular source such as carbon
Usangu, Rukwa, Moyowosi, Maswa
monoxide gas from a motor vehicle
game reserves and Ngorongoro
exhaust pipe or sulphur dioxide released
conservation areas.
from industrial processes. Secondary
pollutants such as ozone (O3), on the
Control environmental pollution: other hand, are not emitted directly, but
Environmental pollution may affect form in the air when primary pollutants
the survival of various species. Control react or interact.
of environmental pollution is a key to LY
N
safeguarding aquatic and terrestrial
Factors which cause environmental
O
species.
pollution
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Environmental pollution is caused by

Provision of environmental education:
various factors. The factors include rapid
This is important in influencing human
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population growth, which has been a

behaviour towards conserving nature
major factor behind environmental
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and biodiversity protection.

pollution. An increase of population leads
N
to more production of wastes that pollute

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Control poaching and illegal harvesting:

the environment. The development of
N
Controlling poaching and illegal

manufacturing industries, transport
O
harvesting, especially of sensitive

infrastructure and increase of fuel
species such as rhinos and elephants.
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vehicles emit of a lot of fumes into the

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atmosphere, which cause environmental

Activity 5.1 pollution.
In groups, identify five environmental Other factors include the use of bombs
problems in your locality and present and nuclear weapons. Also, unregulated
them in class. Include possible solutions use of agricultural chemicals such as
to those problems. pesticides, insectsides and fertilisers.

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These chemicals contributeDOmuch
NOT to
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Human causes:
Human causes involve
water pollution when washed away industrial activities, which lead to
from farms into water bodies. Mining emission of fumes and gases that pollute
activities also pollute the environmentair. Also, the use of charcoal, fire-wood
by discharging untreated effluents and and fossil fuels for different purposes
substances from mines into the land, such as cooking, lighting, and smelting
water and air. pollute the air by releasing carbon
dioxide gas. Construction activities
Classification of environmental cause air pollution by releasing dust and
pollutions other gases into the air. Other causes
Environmental pollution can be divided include agricultural activities which
into four areas: Air pollution, water involve the use of chemicals (pesticides
pollution, noise pollution and soil or and insecticides), and mining activities
land pollution. which lead to the addition of dust and
some gases into the atmosphere.
Air pollution
Effects of air pollution
Air pollution is one of the most pressing
environmental problems facing modern Air pollution has various effects on the
societies. Air pollution is caused by the LY
environment and human beings. Some
of the effects are bad and irritating
N
release of excessive gases and dust into
smell causing diseases (skin cancer,
O
the atmosphere, which are harmful to
people and other living organisms. respiratory system disease such as
SE
bronchitis, and itching eyes), death of

Causes of air pollution living organisms due to poisonous gases,
U
therefore causing the disappearance of

The causes of air pollution are mainly
E
some species. Also, air pollution may

grouped into two categories: Natural and
N
reduce insolation since some parts of the

human causes.
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atmosphere may be covered by layers

N
of dusts or fumes, hence leading to

Natural causes: Natural causes of
O
inefficient photosynthesis. Air pollution

air pollution constitute volcanic
also contributes to global warming as
eruption (which emits dusts, ashes
R
air pollutants contribute to warming and

and gaseous like Sulphur and Carbon
FO
dioxide) and wind, which raises dust cooling of the Earth.

and pollen to certain levels. Dust
Measures to reduce air pollution
is the collection of fine particles of
solid matter that are harmful to living Air pollution cannot be completely
organisms. stopped, but there are some effective,

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measures that can be used toDO NOT it.
reduce DUPLICATE
occurs when
pollutants are directly or
Some of the measures include: indirectly discharged into the water
systems without adequate treatment to
Planting trees, which absorb gases such remove harmful compounds.
as carbon dioxide. Trees need carbon
dioxide to manufacture their own food Causes of water pollution
through the process of photosynthesis. Some causes of water pollution include
the following:
By using fuel efficient engines that
emit less fumes into the atmosphere, Residues from agro-chemicals: The most
encouraging environmental-friendly common problem of water pollution
technology that uses alternative occurs when inland water is polluted
energy such as electric vehicle and with nitrogen, phosphate and phosphorus
diversifications of industries. This run-offs from fertilisers used in intensive
approach may effectively reduce agricultural schemes.
production and emission of harmful
gases. Inadequate treatment of sewage: Most
of the wastes from sewage systems are
The use of alternative sources of energy, not treated especially in developing
such as natural gas instead of charcoal LY
countries. Inadequately treated sewage
N
and fire-wood can also reduce air substances deposited into the water
O
pollution. bodies such as lakes, rivers and oceans
may cause severe water pollution.
SE
Enacting policies, laws and technology

advancement that minimise industrial Poor industrial waste management:
U
pollution into the atmosphere will also Drainage from urban areas, industrial
E
help to reduce air pollution. and waste disposal sites are often
N
contaminated with heavy metals

Furthermore, landfilling when dumping
LI
or hydrocarbons. Heavy metals,

wastes is important so that when wastes
N
for example, copper, lead and zinc

decomposes they may not emit gases
O
may penetrate into soil and pollute

such as methane into the atmosphere.
underground water. Some may be
R
carried by rain water into rivers, lakes

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Water pollution and sea.

It is the addition of unwanted substances
into water bodies and water sources. Thermal pollution: This is a harmful
Water pollution is the contamination of increase of temperature in water
water bodies such as rivers, oceans, lakes bodies such as streams, rivers, lakes or
and underground water. Water pollution occasionally in ocean water. Common

FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

causes of thermal pollution areDO NOT DUPLICATE
discharges In addition, high levels of contamination
of water from factories and power with heavy metals, pesticides and
plants. It can also occur when trees and pollutants from oil apparently lowers
vegetation that provide shade to streams body immunity and reduces resistance
or rivers are removed, thus, permitting to diseases. Other effects include
sunlight to raise the temperature of the declining levels of dissolved oxygen
water. in water bodies, which is caused by
thermal pollution in water. At the same
Oil spills: Spill of oil is a major hazard time, warm water raises the metabolism
to the marine and coastal environment. of the organisms and increases their
The main sources of marine oil pollution oxygen demand, which is already
are damage of oil tanker ships through deficient. Pollution from oil affects
collision with other ships, explosion, living organisms in various ways. A
flushing of tankers and leakage from layer of oil on water surface reduces
offshore installations. A good example the exchange of oxygen between water
of oil spill is that which happened in the and air. This affects organisms in the
Gulf of Mexico in 2010. water. Plants also suffer particularly in
salt marsh areas; their roots may become
Effects of water pollution
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coated with oil and, hence, prevent
normal ventilation. Toxic substances
N
Water pollution has various effects on
from oil kill marine organisms such as
O
human and other living organisms in
the environment. Untreated sewage plankton, shell fish and birds. Water
SE
from coastal settlements is sometimes pollution also leads to a decline of

discharged directly into the sea or tourist activities due to water pollution,
U
ocean water. The use of polluted water since tourists prefer swimming in clean
E
has direct effects on people. Polluted water bodies.

N
water may cause diarrhoea, typhoid and

LI
when used for swimming it can cause Measures to reduce water pollution
N
skin diseases. Also, the concentration Water pollution can be minimised

O
of heavy metal in marine food affects by taking various measures. These

people who consume the food. Marine measures include encouraging use of
R
food includes fish and other edible proper fishing methods instead of using
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marine organisms. For example, the chemicals, that kill fish, animals, plant
discharge of mercury into the coastal species and other aquatic. The use of
water of Minimata in Japan in the 1960s chemicals and fertilisers in agriculture
caused a high concentration of mercury should be discouraged while encouraging
in fish. This resulted in the death of many organic agriculture. There is also a need
people and other animal predators. to educate people on the proper use

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and conservation of water DO NOT DUPLICATE
to prevent Improper drainage systems and increase
water pollution. Furthermore, control of run-off: Improper drainage systems
of oil spills in water bodies is required. may leak into groundwater systems or
National and international collaboration be washed into local water systems and
is necessary to control oil refinery in contaminate nearby land area. Excess
seas and spills caused by ships. Other waste deposition increases the presence
effective measures worth implementing of bacteria in the soil. Decomposition by
include recycling of wastes rather than bacteria generates methane gas, hence
throwing them into the water bodies; contributing to global warming and poor
and introducing and implementing good air quality.
government policies that come up with
strict rules and regulations to prevent Agricultural chemicals: While fertilisers
agricultural activities near waterbodies increase crop yields, they also cause soil
and catchment areas. Also, there is a pollution that impacts on soil quality.
need to control and regulate industrial Soil pollution is often associated with
discharge of waste water into water improper use of farming chemicals, such
systems. as pesticides and fertilisers. Chemicals
get deep into the soil and pollute the
Soil or land pollution
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ground water system. These chemicals
are also transferred by rain and irrigation
N
Land or soil pollution is due to
and contaminate the local water system.
O
depositing of solid and liquid materials
Pesticides applied to plants can also leak
on land or underground in a manner that
SE
into the ground, leaving long-lasting

contaminate land systems. Soil or land
effects. Some of the harmful chemicals
pollution also refers to the addition or
U
found in fertilisers may accumulate

introduction of pollutants to the soil or
above their toxic levels and poison
E
land. These pollutants can be in gaseous,

crops.
N
liquid or solid state. They are harmful

LI
to plants, micro and macro-organisms, Industrial wastes: About 90 percent of

N
which are important to soil fertility. Soil

soil pollution is caused by industrial
O
or land pollution affects the amount of products. Improper disposal of wastes

air and water in the soil. It also changes
R
from the industries contaminates the

soil structure and texture, thus leading
FO
soil with harmful chemicals. These

to land degradation. pollutants affect plants, animals, local
water supplies. Iron, steel, power and
Causes of Soil or land pollution chemical manufacturing plants, which
Human activities can lead to soil use the Earth's surface as a dumping
pollution directly or indirectly through ground, may have lasting effects for
the following ways: years to come.

FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

Improper disposal of DOmetals:
heavy NOT DUPLICATE
as well as important nutrients found in
Improper disposal of heavy metals it. Also, when oil enters the soil it may
such as radioactive minerals can pollute kill some species.
land or soil. Heavy metals can enter
and contaminate the soil as well as Measures to reduce Soil or land
underground water. When heavy metals pollution
pollute the soils, they are utilised by It is not possible to stop land pollution
plants or crops and then consumed by entirely because it is mostly a result of
human beings or animals. Heavy metals human activities. However, land pollution
are among the sources of cancer when can be reduced to minimise the effects.
consumed by human beings. Some of the measures to be taken include
encouraging farmers to use organic-
Improper dumping of wastes: Faulty
fertilisers (manure) instead of chemical
landfills, bursting of underground
fertilisers. The micro-organisms present
bins and faulty sewage systems could
in the organic-fertilisers help to increase
also cause the leakage of toxins into
soil fertility. Also, farmers should be
the surrounding soil. The chemicals
encouraged to use organic-pesticides and
when entering the soil may affect soil
fungicides (herbicides). These pesticides
formation and its quality. Also, in recent
years, plastic waste has become one of LY
are environmentally-friendly compared
N
to chemical pesticides from industries.
the main causes of soil pollution as it
O
Pesticides from industries contain toxic
takes time to decompose or disintegrate.
substances, which eventually cause soil
SE
Many people prefer to use plastic

pollution. It is, therefore, advisable to
containers and bags because they can
treat industrial pesticides before they
U
be disposed of after use. Such situation

are disposed of to reduce their toxicity.
results in improper use of plastic bags
E
that lead to the spread of plastic waste

N
Other measures include encouraging

in the streets and dump sites. Scattered
LI
households or families to collect wastes

plastic wastes have become a serious
N
to reduce soil or land pollution caused

problem in the environment and cause
O
by landfills, especially plastic wastes.

many environmental problems in the
R
world.
Banning of plastic bags in Tanzania
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Fuel leakages from oil plant and The Government of Tanzania banned
automobiles: Leaked oil from petrol the use of plastic bags with effect from
stations and automobiles get washed the 1st June 2019. Tanzania joined other
away by rain and can seep into the 34 African countries in banning the use
nearby soil and cause soil pollution. of plastic bags. It was the 3rd country in
As a result, the soil loses its structure East Africa to effect the ban. All plastic

FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

bags, regardless of their DO NOTare
thickness, DUPLICATE
(iv) Selling of plastic bags; the fine
prohibited from being imported, exported, is between TZS 100 000 up to
manufactured, sold, stored, supplied TZS 500 000, or up to 3 months
and used in Tanzania. However, it is of imprisonment, or both; and
recommended that people should shift to (v) Possessing and using of plastic
re-usable containers such as glass, paper bags; the fine is between TZS
and cotton bags. Plastic materials, which 30 000 up to TZS 200 000, or up
were not banned, are plastic packaging to 7 days of imprisonment, or both."
for medical services, industrial products,
for the construction industry, for the Reasons for banning the use of plastic
agricultural sector, for foodstuff, and bags in Tanzania
sanitary and waste management. The
Plastic wastes are among the main
Government of Tanzania introduced
pollutants of land. As a result,
a regulation governing the banning of
governments including that of
plastics as follows:
Tanzania have taken several initiatives.
The government regulation, which Specifically, Tanzania has banned
was used to ban the use of plastic bags plastic bags due to the following reasons:
states: "A person who imports, exports, Plastic bags pollute not only our
LY
manufactures, sells, stores, distributes, waterbodies but also our land. Plastic
N
supplies, possesses and uses plastic bags are usually lightweight, and as
O
bags in contravention of the regulations such, they can be carried easily from
commits an offence and shall, upon one point to another by either water
SE
conviction be liable, in case of: or wind. They end up being caught up

U
(i) Manufacturing or importation of in trees and fences. They also float in

E
plastic bags; the fine is between water bodies, thus moving to the world’s
N
TZS 20 million up to TZS 1 billion, oceans. Also, most of the plastic bags
LI
or up to 2 years of imprisonment, are made of non-renewable resources

or both; such as polypropylene, petroleum and
N
(ii) Exportation of plastic bags; the natural gas, which are hazardous to the
O
fine is between TZS 5 million up environment.

R
to TZS 20 million, or up to 2 years Another reason is that plastic bags

FO
of imprisonment, or both; manufactured from petroleum do not

(iii) Storing, supplying and distributing degrade. Instead, they are broken down
plastic bags; the fine is between TZS into small pieces that are swept down
5 Million up to TZS 50 Million, or and end up in water bodies, which are
up to 2 years of imprisonment, or then consumed by aquatic organisms
both; such as fish. Plastic bags are filled with

FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

toxic, harmful chemicals DOinclude
that NOT DUPLICATE
management at the national level.
estrogen-like substances. They are District, municipal and city authorities
thus dangerous to human health as are also tasked with ensuring solid waste
they disrupt human hormones such as management in their respective areas.
estrogen and testosterone, causing a These authorities ensure the collection,
hormonal imbalance that result in severe transportation and disposal of wastes and
effects on our health. the public has to pay for such services.
Also, the government introduced
Moreover, plastic bags are banned
the public cleanliness day which is
because they are not easy to recycle.
on the last Saturday of each month.
Plastic bags present a significant challenge
This has contributed to improve waste
in terms of recycling. Recycling facilities
management including reducing plastic
do not have the capacity to recycle plastic
waste from the environment. Other
bags into usable items. Therefore, the
efforts made by the government include
actual recycling rate for plastic bags
enforcing a total ban on plastic bags
in Tanzania is around only 5 percent.
under the Environment Management
Regulations of 2019 while emphasing
Initiatives taken by the government the use of alternative carrier bags. For
of Tanzania to manage plastic wastes
The government tasks the National LY
example, industries and investors are
encouraged to produce alternative bags
N
Environment Management Council such as paper and jute bags, as shown
O
(NEMC) of Tanzania to oversee waste in Figure 5.3:

SE
U
E
N
LI
N
O
R
FO
Figure 5.3: Some of the alternative carrier bags in Tanzania

Source: https://www.google.com/alternative+carrier+ bags+jutes+in+tanzania

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The government has also DO NOTthe
engaged DUPLICATE
pollution decreasing the ability of soil
private sector, Non-Governmental to support life, it can also have an effect
Organisations, and Community Based on predators such as birds as it forces
Organisations in solid waste management them to move to other places in search of
services. This engagement has reduced food. Another effect is that people living
the amount of solid waste in urban areas near the polluted soil tend to have higher
although more efforts are still required. incidences of migraines, nausea, fatigue,
Also, private investors are encouraged skin disorders as well as miscarriages.
to establish solid waste recycling Furthermore, contaminated soil reduces
systems to minimise the amount of soil fertility, hence decreasing crop
non-degradable waste materials. This yields. Soil pollution is in the form
is a potential source of employment, of increased salinity of soil and, thus,
jobs and income. Currently, there are impedes agricultural production.
minimal recycling activities for some
types of waste materials in few towns in Noise pollution
Tanzania. These materials include waste Noise pollution refers to voluminous
papers, metals, glass, plastic bottles anddisorganised sound produced from
used tyres. different activities. Sound may also
Effects of soil or land pollution

LY
be excessive as it disturbs activities
N
of human beings. Loud sounds tend
O
Soil or land pollution leads to health to be harmful as they can cause partial
risks due to direct and indirect contact hearing impairment and blood pressure
SE
with contaminated soils. It causes huge diseases.

disturbances in the ecological balance
U
and health of living organisms on Causes of noise pollution

E
earth. Normally, crops cannot grow and Noises produced at the household level
N
flourish in polluted soil. If some of the by various equipment such as television,

LI
crops manage to grow, it is likely that radio, washing machines, and games, are
N
these crops might have absorbed toxic sources of noise pollution. Other sources
O
chemicals from the soil, which might include noise from commercial and
cause serious health problems to people industrial activities. These sounds can
R
consuming them. result in noise pollution when excessive

FO
particularly from industrial machines,

Additionally, when soil pollution construction activities and public
affects the soil structure the beneficial outdoor advertisements. Transportation
soil organisms such as earthworms die. and communication services such as
This makes soil unproductive to most of trains, motor-vehicles and airplanes
the agricultural crops. Apart from soil are other sources of noise pollution.

FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

DO NOT DUPLICATE
Additionally, road works, thunderstorms, unnecessary use of explosives and
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and staying away from railway lines, airports
explosion of bombs can also cause noise as well as roads. Also, recreational
pollution. centres should be walled using sound-
proof materials.
Effects of noise pollution
Noise pollution has the following Activity 5.2
effects. It can interfere with people's
concentration on mental work in offices, In groups, visit your local area and then
hospitals, courts or classes. Noise levels observe the sources of environmental
greater than 80 dB (decibels) may cause pollution. Present the findings of your
partial or permanent loss of hearing. observation with possible solutions in
Also, it may disrupt the learning process class.
that may contribute to poor academic
performance among students. Constant
Desertification
high-level noise may cause heart failure,
hearing impairment, and sleeping Desertification is a type of land
problems. Explosive noise can be so degradation in which a relatively dry
shocking or terrible that some people
may end up fainting or even dying.
LY
land region becomes increasingly arid,
typically losing its water bodies as well
N
Another effect is that, noise pollution, as vegetation and wildlife. It is a process
O
sometimes, causes conflicts among of transforming arable or habitable

SE
neighbours. Additionally, noise pollution land into a desert as a result of natural

can discourage the development of processes or human activities.
U
institutions such as hospitals, rest houses

Causes of desertification
E
or schools in an area. Also, explosive

N
sounds from bombs can cause deafness, Desertification is caused by a number

LI
hearing loss, cracks in buildings and of human and natural factors as

N
earth tremors. follows:

O
Measures to reduce noise pollution Human causes

R
Due to the effects associated with Deforestation: Deforestation is the

FO
noise pollution, the following are some removal of the forest cover by cutting
measures recommended for controlling down trees for constructing roads,
it: The use of sound-proof facilities; railways, airports, powerlines, houses,
fitting silencers to the exhaust pipes of agricultural expansion, fuel-wood and
aircraft and motor-vehicles and applying grazing. Deforestation contributes to a
lubricants to parts of machines; avoiding shortage of rainfall, which may lead to

FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

drier conditions. It also DO NOT
exposes soil DUPLICATE
to Northern-East
of China, an extensive
agents of soil erosion such as wind and area of semi-arid grassland is undergoing
running water. desertification due to the deterioration of
the land caused by poor irrigation before
Cultivation in marginal land: Some areas the cultural revolution in agriculture.
experience rapid population growth. As
a result, arable land diminishes forcing Natural factors
people to cultivate the marginal land
Insufficient rainfall: Desertification
where there is a high risk of crop failure
could occur in areas where rainfall is
and low economic returns. This process
low and unreliable. Such areas receive
exposes land to agents of soil erosion and
less than 250 mm of rain annually.
the land becomes unproductive.
However, inadequate rainfall can also
Overgrazing: This refers to keeping be caused by human activities such as
large herds of animals disproportional deforestation.
to the carrying capacity of the land.
High temperature: Areas experiencing
Overgrazing is a major cause of
high temperature tend to have a high rate
desertification. Plants of semi-arid
of evaporation. If the rate of evaporation
LY
areas are sparse and scattered, and yet
exceeds the rate of precipitation, there
they are eaten by large grazing animals
would be moisture deficiency in the soil.
N
which move in response to the patchy
This affects vegetation and other living
O
rainfall common in these regions. Due

organisms
to limited pasture land, animals feed on
SE
almost every vegetation cover, leaving Cold ocean currents: Onshore winds
the ground bare. When rain falls, the
U
cross over cold ocean currents and then

bare ground is easily eroded, resulting drop most of the rainfall over the sea and
E
in land rills and gullies. Examples of

N
reach the land as dry wind. This effect

overgrazed areas in Tanzania include
LI
is experienced on the western coasts of

parts of Dodoma, Arusha, Manyara, South Africa due to the influence of the
N
Shinyanga and Tabora. cold ocean current called Benguela.

O
Poor irrigation methods: Poor irrigation

R
Relief barrier: Land situated on the

methods can lead to desertification
FO
leeward sides of the mountain are usually

through water logging and salinization. dry because of the rain shadow effect of
Salinization results from alkaline soils, the mountain.
which contribute to the deterioration of
the soil structure, hence land becomes Distance from the sea: Places located in
unsuitable for plant growth, leading the interior of continents are far from the
to soil degradation. For example, in effects of onshore moist wind.

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DO NOT
Wind system: Dry wind originating DUPLICATE
from Measures to reduce the spread of
the interior of continents can contribute desertification
to desertification of the region over Implementation of substantive policies
which they blow. that lay down principles to guide the
development and control utilisation of
Pressure system: Regions with low forest resources. There is also emphasis
humidity and descending air masses on the use of alternative sources of
have no rainfall because rain is caused energy instead of depending solely
by ascending and not descending air. on fire-wood and charcoal. The use
of alternative energy, such as solar-
Extent of desertification
energy, wind energy, and biogas should
About one-third of the world's land be encouraged especially in developing
surface is arid or semi-arid. It is predicted countries, Tanzania inclusive.
that global warming will increase the area
of desert climates by 17 percent in the Other measures include educating people
next century if proper measures are not on conservation of the environment
put in place. Worldwide, desertification by introducing programmes on
makes about 12 million hectares of land afforestation and reforestation, and
useless for cultivation every year.
LY
reducing the number of their livestock
(destocking) in a particular area in
N
Effects of desertification order to minimise overgrazing which
O
Desertification affects the quality of life causes land degradation and, eventually
SE
of people and natural resources. The desertification. Further important

effects of desertification are as follows: measures include enacting by-laws,
U
It leads to soil erosion as land is exposed which prohibit setting of forests on fire
to agents of soil erosion. Consequently, and the use of poor farming methods
E
N
water sources are destroyed, leading such as shifting cultivation.

LI
to water shortage. Also, desertification

N
leads to loss of biodiversity. Biological Climate change

O
species are lost due to insufficient Climate change is a long-term shift in

rainfall; animal and plant species the average weather conditions identified
R
becomes extinct because of lack of water by changes in temperature, precipitation,

FO
and protection from sunrays. Another winds and other elements. Since it affects
effect is that desertification leads to food a large part of the globe, sometimes it
shortage as it reduces productivity of is called global climate change. Global
land hence less harvests. Food shortage warming is the most well-known aspect
affects the quality of life of people and of climate change. Global warming refers
animals.

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DO NOT of
to the increase in average temperature DUPLICATE
Other human causes are agricultural and
the Earth's surface. Changes in average mining activities. The concentrations
temperature have implication for other of methane gases have also risen due to
climate elements such as precipitation, cattle rearing, cultivation of rice as well
winds, humidity, atmospheric pressure, as release from landfills. The methane
etc. Thus, apart from global warming, the gas released into the atmosphere leads
term climate change draws our attention to greenhouse effects, consequently
to climate challenges such as drought, causing climate change.
food insecurity, and fresh water scarcity,
The clearing of vast forested area for
sea level rise, changing ocean currents,
hurricanes emissions and ozone layer mining activities implies the increase
depletion. in the concentration of carbondioxide
in the atmosphere as forests act as
Causes of climate change the main absorber of carbondioxide.
High concentration of carbondioxide
Climate change is mainly caused by
in the atmosphere leads to climate
human activities and, to some extent,
change.
by natural factors.
LY
Transportation activities also contribute
Human causes: Various human activities to climate change. With an alarming
N
cause the occurrence of climate change. growth of population, the demand for
O
Industrial activities lead to emission into transport means also increases. When
and concentration of greenhouse gases vehicles, ships and airplanes are used
SE
such as carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. for transportation, the emission of

Nearly one-third of human-induced carbondioxide into the atmosphere
U
nitrous oxide emissions result from also increases, hence causing the
E
industrial activities. Chlorofluorocarbon concentration of greenhouse gases,

N
(CFCs) and other greenhouse gases that which adversely lead to climate change.
LI
stem from industrial activities have a

N
powerful warming effect due to their Additionally, deforestation is another

O
heat trapping abilities in the atmosphere. cause of climate change. The permanent
Furthermore, the use of fossil fuels and removal of trees without replacement
R
burning of vegetation release carbon for various purposes such as lumbering,

FO
into the atmosphere. It is estimated that extraction of logs, settlement and sports
about a quarter of the carbondioxide fields contribute to climate change. The
emission into the atmosphere is absence of trees, in this regard, increases
contributed by land use changes such the concentration of greenhouse gases.
as deforestation.

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Natural causes: The DOclimate
Earth's NOT DUPLICATE
Consequences of climate change on
can be affected by natural factors that the environment
are external to the climate system, for Climate change has far-reaching
example, volcanic eruption, solar output implications for the environment.
and the distance from the Earth to the The rising temperatures increase the
Sun. Changes in solar radiation, for frequency and severity of weather
instance, contributed to climate trends events such as heat waves and heavy
over the past century, where it was rainfall. In recent years, many countries
estimated that the solar output increased have experienced heavy rains. Some of
at the rate of 1 percent per century. This the rains are unpredictable, which also
led to a global rise in temperatures of up cause floods. For example, in December
to 10 degree Centigrade. 2011, Dar es Salaam experienced the
worst floods which were likely caused
Another natural cause of climate change by climate change. An increasing trend
is the changes in oceanic circulation. of floods has impact on human health.
This affects the exchange of heat Floods create swamps that support the
between oceans and the atmosphere. breeding of mosquitoes, which cause
Differential heating refers to changes malaria. Also, increasing temperatures
in water temperature from the poles to
the Equator because of differences in LY
could lead to large-scale effects such
as melting of ice sheets, which cause
N
distances from the Sun to the Earth. flood disasters on low lying regions and
O
Also, the composition of various gases islands throughout the world.

SE
in the atmosphere can cause climate

change. At present, there is an increase The disappearance of some species
U
in concern over greenhouse gases such as is another effect of climate change.

carbondioxide in the atmosphere, which
E
Because of temperature changes, the

are the main cause of global warming.
N
ecosystem changes as well. In other

Apart from the concentration of gases
LI
circumstances some plants could bloom

in the atmosphere, volcanic eruptions
N
earlier than usual; insects become active.

can be another contributory factor to
O
The changes in temperature leads to

climate change. Global temperatures butteries, foxes and alpine plants moving
R
can be lowered after a large single or shifting further north to higher and
FO
eruption due to increase in dust particles cooler areas. Polar bears are becoming
in the lower atmosphere, which absorb more at risk of extinction because of
and scatter incoming radiation from the changing temperature and massive
the Sun before reaching the Earth's melting of ice. The destruction of
surface.

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property due to hurricanes DO
andNOT DUPLICATE
other Kondoa and Same are some of the
storms is likely to continue because of the areas in Tanzania, which are largely
ongoing climate change. For example, experiencing drought.
in 2013 a strong typhoon struck one of
the islands of the Philippines causing Causes of drought
deaths and leaving thousands of people The causes of drought are broadly
homeless and desperate. grouped into two categories: Natural
and human causes.
Additionally, food production has largely
declined particularly in countries, which Natural causes: Wind system is one of
largely depend on rain-fed agriculture. the causes of drought. When the wind
This threatens food security, and blows across narrow water mass, it
consequently malnutrition in seasonally
causes drought as it carries less moisture
dry and tropical regions. Because of
for rain formation. Also, the landscape or
drought, crops do not grow as required,
location of the place can cause drought.
hence agricultural yields decline. Also,
Places located in the leeward side of
flooding associated with sea level rise
mountains tend to experience dryness
has a substantial impact on lowland areas
due to being in a rain shadow. Moist
and on the present habitats of mangroves
on which fish depend for their nurseries. LY
wind from another side of the mountain
N
Climate change will also increase the is obstructed by one side of the mountain.
O
current stress on water resources. Additionally, natural fire can be another

Widespread mass losses from glacier cause of drought. Fire resulting from
SE
will also reduce fresh water availability. natural hazards such as lightning and
volcanic eruption may destruct large-
U
The climate change will have a number scale of vegetation leaving the land bare,
E
of implications for people as well hence unstable. The apparent movement

N
such as lack of clean and safe water, of the Sun and shifting of the overhead
LI
insufficient food, risking people's health, Sun to other places also lead to rainfall
N
insecure settlement due to floods and regime shift. When the Sun shifts to the
O
scarce resources in the ecosystem. These Northern Hemisphere, dryness occurs in

implications are described hereunder:
R
the Southern Hemisphere and vice-versa.

FO
Drought Human causes: Human activities lead

This is a state of an area facing a to intensification of drought. Daily
prolonged condition of dryness without activities carried out by human beings
precipitation or a long period of dry such as lumbering, poor agricultural
weather. Singida, Dodoma, Shinyanga, practices, poor ploughing methods, over

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DOfire
cultivation, setting the bush on NOTand
DUPLICATE
Measures to address the problem of
shifting cultivation lead to deforestation. drought
Other activities such as mining, As described earlier, there are natural
construction of dams and industrial causes of drought, which can be difficult
activities contribute significantly to the for humans to prevent. However, humans
increase of drought incidents. can still take some measures to reduce
the impacts of drought on our daily lives.
Effects of drought Some of the measures can be conservation
Drought has various effects on human of forests using alternative energy
development and the environment. resources such as solar energy, biogas,
Drought leads to the disappearance of hydroelectric power and coal to control
vegetation and animal species. Because deforestation. Also, water conservation
of the prolonged dryness, some plant schemes such as constructing dams to
and animal species with less tolerance create resources from which the water is
capacities die and may disappear used for irrigation agriculture, domestic
completely from that area. Also, drought and industrial uses, will ensure food
leads to poor supply of energy and power production even during dry periods.
to people who depend on hydro-electric Other measures include the conservation
power as the main source of energy.
Water levels in dams and rivers decrease,
LY
of water catchment areas to ensure
reliable water supply and proper farming
N
hence affecting power generation for methods, which do not deplete vegetation
O
various human development. like shifting cultivation; farmers should

SE
practise agro-forestry and bush fallowing

Also, drought intensifies desertification cultivation as another way of addressing
U
development process. Desert conditions the impacts of drought.

spread over towards places which were
E
not affected by desertification. This Mass education on water conservation

N
occurs because of loss of vegetation can also serve as a drought control

LI
cover and some animal species due measure. Farmers should be educated
N
to prolonged dryness. Decline in food on how to use resources available

O
production affects negatively industries sustainably to avoid environmental

R
which depend on agricultural produce. degradation which accelerates drought.

FO
These industries are involved in food In addition, there should be strict policies
processing. Another effect of drought instituted to restrict the excessive felling
is the shortage of water supply for of trees. Forest is one of the major
domestic, agricultural and industrial use. factors contributing to the availability
This affects sanitation, crop production of water from all sources such as rainfall,
and manufacturing industries. underground and running water.

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Floods DO NOT DUPLICATE
effects of floods. Frequent floods in
Flood refers to an overflow of water Tanzania have caused death of people
that submerges land that is usually dry. and destroyed property. These floods
It occurs when a large amount of water occurred in Dar es Salaam (2011), Lindi
covers an area that is usually dry. It (2020), Babati-Manyara (2019), Kilosa
occurs as a result of heavy rains that take (2020) and Gairo (2020). Outbreak and
place in highlands and flow to lowland spread of diseases especially waterborne
areas. diseases such as cholera, dysentery,
diarrhoea and typhoid, which affect the
Causes of floods health of people and sometimes cause
Normally floods are caused by heavy death are other effects of floods. Also,
rainfall. When the area is at a low land, floods may cause soil erosion, mud
water accumulates and causes floods. flows, slumping and solifluction.
This becomes more severe when the
Destruction of water sources through
area is not covered by vegetation. Also,
siltation of dams and other water
urbanisation intensifies the flood intensity
resources causes water shortage for
because of bare lands which result from
domestic and industrial use as well as
the removal of vegetation cover to
replace it with buildings or because of LY
for hydro-electric power generation.
N
poor infrastructure. Also, bare lands and
Measures to control floods
O
blocking the natural drainage systems
result in free movement and spread of Floods can be controlled by constructing
SE
water. Example, Kawe, Jangwani and dams across the river channels to create
Msimbazi valley in Dar es Salaam. reservoirs, to help reserve excess water,
U
Sometimes, flooding occurs as a result and control floods. Frequent inspection

E
of collapsing of reservoirs such as dams, and clearing of drainage systems,

N
emergence of springs, melting of ice and both, constructed and the natural ones
LI
bursting of water pipes. is imperative. Also, Meteorological

N
Agencies should be strengthened to

O
Effects of floods provide accurate and timely alerts to

Floods have various adverse effects on people on the coming of floods. The
R
human development and environment. proper management of the watersheds

FO
Floods destroy infrastructure and, and catchment areas through planting

hence, hinder the movement of goods trees and conserving the existing ones
and services from one place to another, can help to control floods. Large amounts
retarding development gained over of surface run-offs can be stored in
decades in the process. Death of people those areas to avoid the over-flowing
and destruction of property are other of water to settlements. Moreover, proper

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urbanisation policies are DO NOT DUPLICATE
necessary to Kahama-Shinyanga
and Geita mining
avoid the blocking of the natural drainage centre in Geita.
systems.
Industrial activities: Another cause of
Land degradation land degradation is industrial wastes as
Land degradation refers to the when dumped on the Earth's surface,
deterioration of the quality of land they destroy soils and, thus, become
through the loss of soil fertility, soil unfit for agriculture and settlements. For
pollution and other natural processes example, the dump site located at Pugu-
like landslides. Kinyamwezi in Dar es Salaam.
Population pressure: Population

Causes of land degradation
pressure which causes excessive use
Human causes of the available land resources may
Poor farming practices: These refer to accelerate land degradation. This means
excessive use of chemical fertilisers, the land will be over utilised hence
and pesticides and over-cultivation. become exhausted.
Monoculture may affect the quality of
LY
land or soil through exhaustion, which Acidic rainfall: Acidic rainfall, which
in time lowers its quality to support is formed from sulphur dioxide and
N
agricultural production. nitrogen oxide emitted by thermal power
O
stations, industries, motor vehicles and

SE
Deforestation: Deforestation also burning coals, leads to an increase in

accelerates land degradation. Forests acidity on land, hence causing soil
U
play an important role in maintaining infertility.

E
fertility of soil by shedding their leaves,

N
which contain many nutrients. Also, Natural causes

LI
forests help to bind the soil particles Natural hazards such as landslides,
N
together. Therefore, cutting down trees floods and earthquakes can also cause
O
will accelerate the land's loss its quality land degradation, as they tend to destroy
through erosion. the land, and leave it unfit for human
R
use.
FO
Mining activities: Mining activities cause

land degradation. When minerals are
Effects of land degradation
extracted from the land many holes left
Land degradation has a far-reaching
behind collapse, especially in the open
consequences for human life and
cast mining. For example, Bulyanhulu
environment. Some of the effects include
and Buzwagi gold mining centres in

FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

the deterioration in the DO NOT
chemical DUPLICATE
and lighting, windstorms, pests and diseases,
physical properties of soils, decline of drought, earthquakes and volcanic
biodiversity (native species), increase eruption.
in hazards for human occupation, loss
of land productivity and, hence, food Our environment generally consists
shortage. Moreover, land degradation of physical, chemical and biological
leads to migration of people to other components and our relationship with
places, which are still conducive for the environment is always interactive.
agricultural production and the cost to This means that when we affect our
rehabilitate the degraded land is usually environment and our environment affects
very high. us. These interactions may expose us to
environmental health hazards, that is,
any environmental factor or situation
Measures to reduce land degradation
which can cause injury, disease or death.
Land degradation can be reduced by There is a difference between a hazard
practising proper agricultural methods, and a risk. A hazard is something which
for example, agroforestry, the use of is known to cause harm, that is, a source
terraces on slopes and the use of minimal of danger to health, whereas a risk is the
tillage to avoid soil erosion. Encouraging
people to practice afforestation and LY
likelihood or probability of the hazard
occurring and the magnitude of the
N
reforestation can also help to control land resulting effects.
O
degradation. Other measures include
enforcement of laws and rules that guide The conditions or the situation of making
SE
the proper land utilisation to avoid its cow-dung cake near the houses for
misuse and provision of mass education getting fuel is hazardous (or dangerous)
U
to create awareness to people through because it facilitates the breeding of flies

E
meetings, seminars, and the mass media. in our environment. The infected food
N
is a hazard that can damage a child’s

LI
Environmental hazards health. The risk of getting an infection

N
In our environment, there are several is very high if we live in a contaminated

O
hazards which affect the sustainability of environment.

R
life to living and non-living organisms.

A hazard is a danger that may result in Categories of environmental hazards
FO
the destruction of mankind and his or Hazards are generally categorised into
her property in his or her environment. five forms as physical hazards, biological
It is something which is known to cause hazards, chemical hazards, cultural or
harm to the environment. Hazards, which practice-related hazards and social
may affect environment, include floods, hazards.

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Physical hazards DO NOT DUPLICATE
Chemical hazards
Physical hazards are those substances These are present when a person is
or conditions that threaten our physical exposed to a harmful chemical at home,
safety. Fires, explosive materials, street or at work. The chemicals can be
temperature (hot or cold), noise, in the form of gases, solids or liquids.
radiation, spills on floors and unguarded Exposure to chemicals could cause
machines are some examples of physical acute health effects (an immediate or
hazards. rapid onset) if taken in wrongly and
large quantities in a single dose; and
Biological hazards chronic health effects (long-term
Biological hazards are organisms, or effects on health) if taken in wrongly
by-products from an organism, that and small doses over an extended
are harmful or potentially harmful to time. Detergents (powdered soap,
human beings. They include pathogenic bleaching agents), drugs (veterinary
bacteria, viruses and parasites, and and human) and pesticides are chemical
toxins (poisons) that are produced by hazards that are commonly found in
organisms. Biological hazards are the rural households. A person is exposed
main causes of most of human diseases. to chemicals through various ways:
Examples of these diseases are cholera, LY
Through inhaling the vapours, gases
or dusts; through skin contact with
N
tuberculosis, leprosy, relapsing fever and
solvents, acids and alkalis; or through
O
many diarrhoea related diseases. Some
diseases are caused by viruses. Examples eating food and drinking water which
SE
of such diseases are hepatitis B and C, contain chemicals.

HIV/AIDS, Covid-19, measles and polio.
U
Incomplete burning of fuel releases

Other diseases are caused by parasites,
carbon monoxide (CO), which is
E
for example, malaria, trypanosomiasis

a chemical hazard. When breathed
N
and toxoplasmosis.
in, CO binds to the hemoglobin in
LI
Biological hazards arise from working our blood, reducing the uptake of
N
with infected people or animals, or oxygen; the cells of the body suffer
O
handling infectious waste and body because of insufficient oxygen. This

R
fluids, as well as contact with unsafe can result in severe sickness and even
FO
water, food or waste. The hazards may death.

occur at home, school, playgrounds,
hospitals, in hotels, hospital laundries, Cultural or practice-related hazards
laboratories, veterinary offices and Culture is the knowledge, belief, art,
nursing homes. All these places may law, morals, customs and habits that are
expose someone to biological hazards. acquired by people as members of the

FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

DO NOT
society. It is also refers to common DUPLICATE
ways Establish the context and identify the
of life and set of thoughts and feelings hazard: This is the first step. You have
shared by members of a society. Culture learned that a hazard is something that is
is also a component of the environment. harmful to our health. You should identify
Just as there are cultural practices that are the type of the hazard in as much detail
good for health and environment, such as you can. You should also describe the
as breastfeeding a child, washing hands exposure conditions and try to answer
before and after using a toilet or eating. the following questions: What is the
There are also cultural practices that source of the hazard? Who is exposed?
adversely affect health and these can be What pathways or activities expose a
cultural hazards. There are practices that person? What part of the environment
are widely practised in different areas of or context is involved in the transfer of
Tanzania, which are hazards to human the hazard to humans?
health. For example, the belief that evil
Hazard or risk analysis and evaluation:
spirits are the source of diseases, practices
of storing drinking water uncovered, open Analysis and evaluation of hazard or risks
defecation, and eating without washing is a Vitals step. It needs a deeper appraisal
hands. in collaboration with the environmental
LY
health worker. The evaluation may
Hygiene and health promotion and require appropriate design, sampling
N
community mobilisation are critical and laboratory investigation.
O
interventions that help to improve

practices that are useful to the community. Communicate and consult: When the
SE
Right knowledge is needed to change hazards and risks have been determined,
U
human behaviour and the attitudes advice can be communicated on the

towards environmental conservation. interventions or control measures that
E
This will add value to the fight against are needed to control the hazard. There
N
environmental problems.
LI
can also be consultations with relevant

people and organisations.
N
Principles of hazards management

O
You may be asked to plan how to Monitoring and reviewing: The

R
manage environmental hazards, in a implementation of interventions or

FO
health post, school or mill house that control measures for the hazard must
exists in your locality. Involvement in be followed up to determine whether
hazard management requires you to they are successful. Correct measures
follow certain steps, which are explained can be applied if there is any failure.
below. Identifying appropriate indicators for

FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

DObe
monitoring is critical and must NOT DUPLICATE
done women to bear many children. Also
formally. few deaths at an infant or child stage
is another cause of rapid population
Record keeping: Keeping records and growth. For example, in Tanzania in
reports on hazard management is always 2021, life expectancy stood at 66.4 years.
important. These records should show
the following information: The type Consequences of rapid population
of hazard, exposures and what control growth on environment
measures were taken.
The rapid increase of human population
is exerting pressure on the environment.
Population and urban growth and
The effects are as follows:
their effects on environment
Population is the number of people Global warming: The rapid population
occupying a certain geographical area. growth leads to global warming. Energy
Global population growth is around production through power plants and
81 million annually, or 1.2 percent per burning of fossil fuel needed to support
annum. The rapid increase in human human life increases the emission of
population has raised concerns that the greenhouse gases which lead to rising
planet may not be able to sustain the
increasing number of people in terms of LY
global temperatures.
N
essential and necessary needs. Deforestation: Deforestation results from
O
rapid population growth. To support the

SE
Causes of rapid population growth growing population, forests are cleared

Population change is determined by and destroyed at an alarming rate for
U
three factors which are births, deaths agriculture and human settlements.
and migration. However, migration is Many countries are cutting down forests
E
N
a factor for population change when to clear land for farming, grazing for
LI
referring to a country but it is not a commercial purposes and for use as a

factor for population change if we refer source of energy to meet the demands
N
to the world population size. The causes of the available population at an alarm
O
of world rapid population growth are: rate. This causes loss of biodiversity
R
Decreased death rate due to increased resulting in the extinction of some plants
FO
food production and distribution, and animal species.

improved public health sources and
medical technology. Another cause is The depletion of non-renewable
increased birth rate due to polygamy resources: Rapid population growth
and early marriages. Increased life causes depletion of non-renewable
expectancy which has enabled many resources as human beings continue to

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put pressure on the natural DO NOT DUPLICATE
resources. such as cow-dung,
fodder and crop
Increased population translates into residues because of scarcity of fuel
increased demand for resources, thus wood. If biomass is left on the farms to
resource depletion. decompose it adds nutrients to the soil.
So, by using it as a source of fuel, soil
Pollution: Rapid population growth becomes less productive.
causes envirnmental pollution. For
instance, air pollution resulting Ozone layer depletion
from the use of fuelwood, which are The ozone layer is an isotope of oxygen
environmentally-unfriendly. Water (O ) whose concentration zone is in the
3
pollution may occur due to excessive stratosphere as shown in Figure 5.4.
utilisation. Therefore, if the rate of The ozone layer is important because
utilisation is greater than the rate of its it protects the Earth from the damaging
management water pollution can result. effects of ultra-violet radiations from
the Sun. The ozone layer absorbs such
Solid and liquid waste disposal: radiations. When ozone depleting-
Rapid population growth increases the substances such as chlorofluorocarbons
production of solid and liquid wastes. (CFCs) react with ozone they result in
they pollute the environment.

2
LY
In case these are not properly managed, oxygen (O ) and oxygen atom (O). Such
reaction depletes the ozone layer, hence
N
reducing its capacity to filter ultra-violet
O
Environmental degradation: In some rays.

SE
areas, people depend on biomass fuel

U
E
N
LI
N
O
R
FO
Figure 5.4: The Ozone layer

Source: https://www.google.com/search?q=ozone+layer+depletion&tbm.

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DO NOT
Causes of depletion of the ozone DUPLICATE
layer Environmental conservation
Air pollution with gases such as Conservation of environment means
Chlorofluorocarbons, Carbon monoxide its protection and maintenance for
and methane deplete the ozone layer sustainable use of natural resources
leading to the formation of holes. These such as minerals, soil, forests and
holes allow free passage of ultra-violet wildlife.
rays from the Sun (unfiltered), hence
damaging plant tissues and causing Ways of conserving environment
cancer in human beings. There are several ways of conserving
the environment, such as the
Effects of destruction of ozone layer afforestation, reforestation, destocking,
When the ozone layer is destroyed, re-using, returning and recycling, laws
various impacts result. The increase of enforcement, pollution control, soil
incidents of skin cancer is one of the conservation as well as awareness raising
effects of ozone layer depletion. Ultra- education.
violet rays coming directly from the
Sun destroy human skin tissues, hence Afforestation and reforestation
leading to the occurrence of skin cancer Afforestation is a direct human-induced
and the destruction of skin pigment LY
conservation of land that has not been
N
melanin which protects human skin forested (where there was no previous
O
from the impacts of solar radiation. tree cover) for years to forest land by
Also, the Ozone layer depletion leads planting, seeding or human-induced
SE
to the death of some plants and animal promotion of natural seed resources.
species. Overall, the unfiltered ultra- The forested land will minimise the
U
violet radiation from the Sun comes exposure of the soil to agents of
E
directly to the Earth's surface without erosion and, therefore, conserve soil
N
being filtered because of Ozone layer nutrients, increase soil fertility as

LI
depletion. well provide habitats to varieties of

N
biodiversity.
O
Protection of the ozone layer

Ozone layer can be protected by controlling Reforestation is the practice of planting
R
the emission of ozone depleting trees on land to replace the removed forest
FO
substances such as Chlorofluorocarbons cover. Figure 5.5 shows the reforestation

and Hydro-chlorofluorocarbon (HCFCs) process in one of open spaces. As
from cars, industries, refrigerators, air mentioned in the previous section,
conditioners, perfumes and sprays.

FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

human beings tend to clear DO NOTfor
forests DUPLICATE
Evapotranspiration is the sum
various purposes such as agriculture, of transpiration from plants and
settlement, industrial development, evaporation from the Earth's land and
grazing and mining. This practice water bodies. Evaporation accounts
leads to environmental degradation. for the canopy interception and water
Reforestation fosters environmental bodies. Transpiration accounts for the
conservation because trees prevent the movement of water within a plant,
land from soil erosion by holding the which, subsequently, results in the loss of
soil together. Leaves reduce the impact water vapour through stomata. Through
of rain drops and wind on soil surface. transpiration, leaves release moisture
They also provide shade, which lowers and gases into the atmosphere, hence
the rate of evapotranspiration of water creating an important link in the water
from the soil. cycle.
LY
N
O
SE
U
E
N
LI
N
O
R
Figure 5.5: People plant trees on an open space

FO
Source: https://www.google.com/search?q=planting%20trees&tbm
Soil conservation
This is a way of protecting and preventing the soil from erosion either by wind or
water. Ways of conserving the soil are as follows:

FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

DO NOT DUPLICATE
To control animal grazing: Overgrazing Proper methods of farming
contributes to environmental problems The following are farming methods
such as soil erosion and loss of which protect soil from being
biodiversity; so controlling grazing eroded.
is important. For example, organised
ranches are established by enclosing Terracing
certain areas for livestock and zero-
This method is normally practised on
grazing. Such areas are called paddocks.
slopes in which the land is cut into a
It is also important to reduce the number
series of wide steps (terraces), on which
of livestock to match with the carrying
the crops are grown as shown in Figure
capacity of a particular area with the
5.6. Normally, there are deep furrows
intention of reducing pressure on
between terraces which allow water to
pastures.
penetrate deep instead of water running
off on the ground.
LY
N
O
SE
U
E
N
LI
N
O
R
Figure 5.6: Terracing method of farming

FO
Source: https://rocketskills.in/terrace-farming-the-basics-to-get-started/
Planting of shelterbelts trees

Belts of trees are planted across a flat region, which is liable to suffer from wind
erosion. Trees act as wind-breakers as Figure 5.7 illustrates.

FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

DO NOT DUPLICATE
LY
N
O
Figure 5.7: Shelterbelt trees in a farm
Source: https://www.pinterest.ca/treetimeca/shelterbelt-trees/
SE
U
Crop rotation years for the purpose of restoring their

E
This farming method is done by rotating fertility.

N
different types of crops in different

LI
seasons to maintain soil fertility. Crop Mulching

N
rotation ensures that the soil remains This is the action of spreading dry
O
fertile and does not lose its texture and grasses and leaves over the surface
nutrients. of the soil to prevent evaporation as
R
shown in Figure 5.8. It also maintains

FO
Bush fallowing soil fertility when grass or leaves

This is practised by cropping on new decompose.
plots and former plots are left for some

FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

DO NOT DUPLICATE
LY
N
O
Figure 5.8: Mulching in agriculture

SE
Source: https://www.google.com/search?q=mulching+images&tbm
U
E
Promotion of alternative sources of Protection of catchment areas

N
energy A catchment area is the area of land

LI
Alternative sources of energy are biogas, over which rain falls and drains into
N
solar energy, natural gas and thermal bodies of water such as rivers and
O
power. The use of such sources reduces lake.

the rate of cutting down trees for fuel,
R
We protect catchment areas for the

which consequently maintains natural
FO
purpose of conserving water sources,

plant cover. These are non-pollutants to
biodiversity and other natural resources.
environment. There is a need of using
We get water for various uses from these
them for reducing the production of
catchment areas.
greenhouse gases, which pollute the air.

FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

DO NOT DUPLICATE
artists and media
to educate the public
Re-using or recycling of waste
materials on environmental issues. This will
Another method of controlling the contribute to improved awareness on
environmental pollution is re-using environmental protection.
materials such as bottles, plastic bags
and paper in their original form instead Allowing private sectors to co-ordinate
of throwing them away or giving others matters related to environmental
these materials for re-using them. conservation
Also, to reduce the amount of waste by The government should encourage the
buying products that are not wasteful establishment of many private institutions
in their packaging or use. Do not throw and organisations for co-ordinating
everything into the dustbin. So many matters related to environmental
things can be made into either the same conservation in the country, some
kind of things or new products through examples of public and private
recycling. organisations related to environmental
and conservation matters worldwide
In Tanzania, there are recycling systems are the United Nations Environment
in cities such as Dar es Salaam, Mbeya, Programme (UNEP), Sustainable Sea
Mwanza, Tanga, Dodoma and Arusha. LY
Trust in South Africa, Indonesian waste
N
For example, in urban areas you can platform in Indonesia and the National
O
find waste collectors picking discarded Environment Management Council
plastic waste up that would otherwise (NEMC) in Tanzania.
SE
litter the environment. These plastic

waste materials are recycled, turned into More researches should be carried out
U
pavement slabs, plastic flowers and other locally and globally on environment
E
building materials. Currently, Tanzania management and conservation practices

N
is turning waste plastic bottles into anti- and land rehabilitation, especially
LI
coronavirus face shields to be used in after post-quarrying and mining

N
hospitals and health centres around the activities had concluded.

O
country.
Activity 5.3
R
Provision of mass environmental

FO
In groups, visit your local area and assess

education
how the fast growing population affects
There is a need for the governmental environmental conservation. Present
a g e n c i e s , n o n - g o v e r n m e n t a l your assessment with possible solutions
organisations and influential people in class.
such as religious leaders, politicians,

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DO NOT DUPLICATE
Revision exercise
Section A
Choose the letter of the correct answer:
(i) Which of the following are common environmental problems?

(a) Loss of biodiversity, desertification and climatic change
(b) Afforestation, deforestation and desertification
(c) Economic activities, agricultural activities and human activities
(d) Global warming, afforestation and agricultural activities
(e) Desertification, afforestation and manufacturing
(ii) Identify the atmospheric pollutants among the following gasses:

(a) Chlorofluorocarbons, carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide
(b) Sulphur dioxide, hydrocarbons and chlorofluorocarbons
(c) Carbon tetra chloride, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide
(d) Carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons
LY
(e) Carbon chloride, carbondioxide and carbon monoxide
N
O
(iii) Overgrazing in Tanzania can lead to environmental problems. Identify the

SE
regions most affected by the problem:

(a) Dodoma, Arusha and Shinyanga
U
(b) Morogoro, Dar es Salaam and Tanga

E
(c) Mwanza, Singida and Tabora

N
(d) Pwani, Mbeya and Rukwa

LI
(e) Manyara, Iringa and Dodoma

N
O
(iv) Mr Bakari is a peasant at Ifakara in Morogoro who applies proper methods

of farming. Identify some proper methods of farming Mr Bakari uses which
R
suit him:
FO
(a) Terracing, overgrazing and contour ploughing

(b) Contour ploughing, crop rotation and mulching
(c) Recycling, bush fallowing and terracing
(d) Terracing, overgrazing and crop rotation
(e) Shifting cultivation, terracing and overstocking

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(v) Which of the DOisNOT
following not DUPLICATE
an effect of air pollution in urban areas?
(a) Acid rain
(b) Desertification
(c) Soil erosion
(d) Deforestation
(e) Loss of biodiversity
(vi) Identify the sources of physical hazards among the following:

(a) Pathogenic bacteria
(b) Social-cultural practices
(c) Solar radiation
(d) Skin contact with acids
(e) Drug abuse
(vii) Which among the following atmospheric gases is not one of the greenhouse
gases:
(a) Carbon dioxide
(b) Carbon monoxide LY
N
(c) Methane
O
(d) Nitrous oxide

SE
(e) Chlorofluorocarbons
U
(viii) For a person who is storing, supplying and distributing plastic bags in
E
Tanzania, the fine is between:

N
(a) TZS 5 000 000 up to TZS 20 000 000, or up to 2 years of

LI
imprisonment, or both
N
(b) TZS 5 000 000 up to TZS 50 000 000, or up to 2 years of

O
(c) TZS 20 000 000 up to TZS 1 billion, or up to 2 years of
R
FO
(d) TZS 100 000 up to TZS 500 000, or up to 3 months of imprisonment,

or both
(e) TZS 30 000 up to TZS 200 000, or up to 7 days of imprisonment,
or both

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Section B DO NOT DUPLICATE
Match the descriptions of the environmental problems in Column A with their

corresponding environmental concepts in Column B:
Column A Column B
(i) This is the contamination of water masses (a) Global warming

such as rivers, oceans, lakes and underground
water. (b) Water pollution
(ii) This is an increase in the Earth's average
(c) Deforestation
atmospheric and ocean temperature that
causes corresponding changes in climate.
(d) Air pollution
(iii) Disappearance of flora and fauna in an area.
(iv) Activated by clearing of vegetation for (e) Desertification
farming and settlement.
(f) Acid rain
(v) Removal of top or upper layer of soil in an
area. (g) Soil erosion
LY
N
O
Section C
SE

U
1. The people of Tanzania conduct different activities to sustain their socio-

E
economic needs for their daily life. However, some activities have impacts
N
on the environment. With six facts, support this statement.

LI
N
2. Biodiversity is very important to the environment. Using six points, examine

O
the causes and effects of the loss of biodiversity.

R
3. Bad smell and hearing impairment nowadays are common problems in society.
FO
With six points, explain the causes of these problems.
4. Due to industrial development in Tanzania, environmental pollution is

very common. Using five points, explain the impact of environmental
pollution.

FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

5. Urbanisation and DO NOT DUPLICATE
environmental conservation are always incompatible.
Justify this statement using six points.
6. “Poverty is one of the major problems facing developing countries”. In the

light of this statement, use six points to show the relationship between poverty
and the environmental degradation in Tanzania.
7. Currently, the world encounters frequent floods, catastrophic winds and extreme
temperature. This means the world climate keeps on changing. Giving six
points, explain the causes of climate change.
8. Climate change has never been friendly to the environment. Verify this
statement with five points.
9. As an NEMC Officer, you have been given an opportunity to conduct a

seminar with the citizens on environmental pollution and mismanagement.
Using six points, explain how you will advise the citizens on different ways
for conserving the environment?
LY
10. Plastic wastes pose the biggest threat to water bodies in the world, particulary
N
in the oceans. The United Nations Environment Programme warns that by
O
2050, we will have more plastics in the oceans than fish if nothing is done
to reverse the trend. Using any five points, explain the efforts taken by
SE
the Government of Tanzania to manage the plastic waste pollution in the

U
country.
E
11. “Life is only possible if the balance between the resources available and
N
human population is maintained by all of us. It is high time for humans to

LI
come together and work for the betterment of our environment.” Justify this
N
statement by explaining any six consequences of rapid population growth on

O
environment for the sustainable development in our country.

R
FO
12. “Fossil fuels are both energy resources for economic development and
instruments of environmental destruction”. Justify the statement with six
points.
13. Explain six problems associated with expansion of cities on environment in

Tanzania.

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Glossary
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Afforestation the act of planting trees in a barren land or converting a

farm land to a forest in order to use the trees for commercial
purposes
Arid having little or no rain; too dry or barren to support vegetation
Birth rate the number of live births per thousands population per year
Census an official survey of a population, typically involving recording
various details of individuals
Climate a long-term average weather conditions in a particular region
Crude birth rate the number of live births occurring during the year, per
1 000 population estimated at mid-year
Crude death rate the number of deaths occurring among the population of a
given geographical area during a given year, per 1 000 mid-
year population
Data facts and statistics collected together for reference or analysis
Data interpretation the process of analysing and determining the significance of
LY
important information such as survey results, experimental
findings, observations or narrative reports
N
Dependency ratio an age-population ratio of those typically not in the labour
O
force (the dependent part) and those typically in the labour

SE
force (productive part)

Desert a dry, barren area of land, especially one covered with sand,
U
that is characteristically desolate, waterless, and without

E
vegetation
N
Desertification the process by which fertile land becomes desert, typically as

LI
a result of drought, deforestation, or inappropriate agriculture

N
Drought a prolong period of time during which there is very little or

O
no rain
R
Ecosystem a geographic area where plants, animals and bacteria interact

FO
Emigrant a person who leaves his or her own country in order to settle
permanently in another country
Emigration the act of leaving one’s native country with the intent to settle
elsewhere
Equator an imaginary line drawn around the earth with equal distantance
from both poles, dividing the earth into northern and southern
hemispheres and constituting the parallel of latitude 0°

FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

Fertility rate the DOof
ratio NOT
liveDUPLICATE
births in an area
to the population of that
area; expressed per 1 000 population per year
Fertilizer a chemical or natural substance added to soil or land to
increase its fertility
Global warming a gradual increase in the overall temperature of the
Earth’s atmosphere generally attributed to the greenhouse
effects caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide,
chlorofluorocarbons, and other pollutants
Grassland is a land which is characterised by a continuous cover of
grasses
Hurricane an extremely large, powerful, and destructive storm with
very strong winds that occurs especially in the western part
of the Atlantic Ocean
Hypothesis supposition or proposed explanation made on the basis of
limited evidence as a starting point for further investigation
Immigrant a person who comes to live permanently in a foreign country
Infrastructure the set of inter connected structural elements that provide a
framework supporting an entire structure of development
Irrigation the artificial application of water to the land or soil for cropLY
N
farming
O
Latitude a geographic coordinate that specifies the north-south position

SE
of a point on the Earth’s surface

Life expectancy a statistical measure of how long a person may live, based
U
on the year of their birth, their current age and other

E
demographic factors including gender

N
Linear settlement a form of settlement where buildings are built along the river,
LI
a coastline or a road. It usually forms a long and narrow

N
pattern, which can be maintained even when the population

O
grows
Livestock domestic animals, such as cattle or horses, raised for home
R
use or for profit, especially on a farm

FO
Longitude an imaginary line that bisects the globe through the North
and South Poles
Lumbering cutting forest timber for transport and sale
Migration movement by people from one place to another with the
intention of settling temporarily or permanently in the new
location

FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

Moisture water DO NOT liquid
or other DUPLICATE
diffused in a small quantity as vapour,
within a solid, or condensed on a surface
Monsoon a wind system that influences large climatic regions and
reverses direction seasonally
Mortality rate a measure of the number of deaths (in general, or due to a
specific cause) in a particular population, scaled to the size
of that population, per unit of time
Observation is a way of gathering data by watching behaviour, events,
or noting physical characteristics in their natural setting
Overgrazing the presence of too many animals on the land or for too
long or in appropriate seasons, such that the land becomes
degraded
Pasture land covered with grass and other low plants suitable for
grazing animals, especially cattle or sheep
Poaching the illegal hunting, killing, or capturing of wild animals
Pre-testing research carried out to evaluate tools prior to its first use
Pull factor something that attracts people to go and live in a particular
place
LY
Push factor a factor that leaves one with no choice but to leave a place
N
to another place such as a town, country and region
O
Qualitative
SE
research approach It is a research approach that uses description of concepts,

ideas and other state of affairs. It does not use numerical
U
data
E
Quantitative
N
research approach the systematic empirical investigation of observable

LI
phenomena via statistical, mathematical or computational

N
techniques
O
Questionnaire a data collection research tool consisting of a series of

questions and other prompts for the purpose of gathering
R
information from respondents

FO
Radiation the process of emitting energy in the form of light, heat,

x-rays or nuclear particles
Refugee a person who has been forced to leave his or her country in
order to escape war, persecution, or natural disaster
Sample design a procedure or plan drawn up with strategies towards
obtaining a sample from a given population

FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

Sample DO NOT DUPLICATE
survey a cross-sectional study aimed to produce summary statistics
such as average, mean and percentage
Sanitation conditions relating to public health, especially the provision
of clean drinking water and adequate sewage disposal
Savannah a grassy flat land without many trees in a tropical or
subtropical region
Semi-arid a climate or place that is partially arid, or semi-dry and has
less than 200 millimetres of rain in each year
Sewage water-carried waste, in solution or suspension that is intended
to be removed from a community
Sex ratio the proportional distribution of the sexes in a population
aggregate, expressed as the number of males per 100 females
Sequestration the process of capturing and storing atmospheric carbon
dioxide
Slums heavily populated urban informal settlements characterized
by substandard housing and squatters
Soil erosion the washing or blowing away (by wind or water) of the top
layer of soil
LY
Sparse population a low population density in relation to the area that
N
contains it
O
Squatter a person who unlawfully occupies an uninhabited building

SE
or unused land
Thermal pollution industrial discharge of heated water into a river, lake, or other
U
body of water, causing a rise in temperature that endangers

E
aquatic life
N
Topography describes the physical features of an area of land

LI
Urbanisation the population shift from rural to urban areas, and the ways
N
in which societies adapt to this change

O
Variable an element, feature, or factor that is liable to vary or change

R
Vegetation plants considered collectively, especially those found in a

FO
particular area or habitat

Vitals statistics quantitative data concerning a population, such as the
number of births, marriages, and deaths
Waste disposal removing and destroying or storing damaged, used or other
unwanted domestic, agricultural or industrial products and
substances

FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

Bibliography
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Buchanan, R. H. (1979). The world of man. London: Longman.

Bunnett, R.B. (2003). Physical geography in diagrams. Singapore: Longman.
Doyne, S (2020). Should-plastic-bags-be-banned-everywhere? Accessed on March
5, 2021 from https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/02/learning/should-plastic-
bags-be-banned-everywhere.html.
Hasty, R and Reardon, J. (1997). Retail management. North America: Mc Graw-
Hill Companies, Inc.
http://www.columbia.edu/itc/hs/pubhealth/modules/demography. Retrieved:
03/06/2021
Khaleej Times (2017). Dubai population has increased by 459%. Accessed on
March 7, 2021 from https://www.khaleejtimes.com/nation/dubai/dubai-
population has-increased/.
Kombo, D. & Kand Tromp, L. A. (2006). Proposal and thesis writing. An Introduction
to Research. Nairobi: Pauline Publications Africa.
LY
Kothari, C. R. (2009). Research methodology: Methods and techniques
(2nd edition). India: New Age International (P) ltd.
N
Leong, G. C. (1991). Certificate physical and human Geography (3rd Edition).
O
London: Oxford University Press.

SE
Leong, G. C & Morgan G. C. (1982). Human and economic geography

(2nd Edition). London: Oxford University Press.
U
Lerner, A. & Wand, P. (2009). Climate change: Global view points: United State
E
of America.
N
McMaster, D.N. (1973). Map reading for East Africa. Longman: Longman.
LI
Ministry of Education and Vocational Training (2001). Population and sustainable

N
development. Dar es Salaam.

O
Mungo’ngo, C.G. Kikula, S and Mwalyosi, R.B.B. (2004). Geophysical and

R
socio-political dynamics of environmental conservation in Kondoa.

FO
Dar es Salaam: Dar es Salaam University Press.

National Bureau of Statistics, Planning Commission (1996). Tanzania demographic
and health survey. Dar es Salaam.
Newell. C., (1989). Methods and models in demography. London: Belhaven Press.
Senior, M., (1979). Tropical lands: A human geography. London: Longman
Group Limited.

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Shilla, D (2019). Status DO NOT
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on plastics pollution
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Tanzania. Tanzania Journal of Science 45(1): 101-113, 2019. Dar es Salaam:
Dar es Salaam University College of Education.
Tanzania Institute of Education (1999). Geography Course Book for Secondary
Schools Book Four. Dar es Salaam: Tanzania Institute of Education.
Schools, Book One. Dar es Salaam: Ecoprint Limited.
Schools Book One. Dar es Salaam: Inter Press Tanzania Limited.
Schools Book One. Dar es Salaam: Tanzania Institute of Education.
Schools Book Two. Dar es Salaam: Tanzania Institute of Education.
Tanzania Wildlife Research Institute (2014). Population status of elephants in
Tanzania. Arusha: TAWIRI-United Republic of Tanzania.
Waters, G. (1988). First lesson in physical geography (International Edition).
London: Longman.
LY
Wears, A. (2013). 10 places abandoned after disasters. Listverse Ltd. website.
N
Accessed on March 7, 2021 from https://listverse.com/2013/03/30/10-
O
places-abandoned-after-disasters.
SE
White. R. (1988). Physical geography. London: Macmillan Publishers.

World Wildlife Fund (2019). Tanzania bans the use of plastic bags. Dar es Salaam.
U
United Nations (2015). “World population prospects: The 2015 revision, key
E
findings and advance tables”. New York: Population Division, Department

N
of Economic and Social Affairs.

LI
United Republic of Tanzania (2013). National population and housing census.

N
Dar es Salaam: National Bureau of Statistics.

O
United Republic of Tanzania (1992). National population policy of Tanzania.

R
Dar es Salaam: National Bureau of Statistics.

FO
United Republic of Tanzania (2019). The third state of environment report.

Dar es Salaam: Vice President’s Office, Division of Environment.
World Bank. (2017). Urban water and sanitation in Tanzania: Remaining challenges
to providing safe, reliable, and affordable services for all. International
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Geography

FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

for Secondary Schools

Tanzania Institute of Education

Geography for Secondary Schools Book Four(TIE).indd 1 9/5/21 12:07 PM

FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

Tanzania Institute of Education

Mobile numbers: +255 735 041 168

ii Student’s Book Form Four

Geography for Secondary Schools Book Four(TIE).indd 2 9/5/21 12:07 PM

FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

The Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE) would like to acknowledge the

Besides, TIE also acknowledges the following individuals:

Writers: Mr Musa Mwalutanile & Mr Emanuel Stanislaus (TIE)

Editors: Dr Asubisye Mwamfupe, Dr Jackson Sawe & Dr Johnstone

Designer: Pamela Makusi

Illustrator: Mr Fikiri Msimbe (TIE)

Cartographer: Ms Sauda Kileo (UDSM)

Coordinator: Mr Musa Mwalutanile (TIE)

printing of this textbook.

Student’s Book Form Four iii

Geography for Secondary Schools Book Four(TIE).indd 3 9/5/21 12:07 PM

FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

Chapter One: Introduction to geographic research............................................1

Human population change.................................................................................95

Population issues or problems.........................................................................121

Chapter Four: Settlements.............................................................................130

The concept of settlements...............................................................................130

Revision exercise ............................................................................................152

Chapter Five: Environmental issues and management..................................154

The concept of environment............................................................................154

iv Student’s Book Form Four

Geography for Secondary Schools Book Four(TIE).indd 4 9/5/21 12:07 PM

FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

Tanzania Institute of Education

Student’s Book Form Four v

Geography for Secondary Schools Book Four(TIE).indd 5 9/5/21 12:07 PM

FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

2.1: Latitudes and their effects on temperature.............................................25

2.19: Livestock keeping in Savannah areas.....................................................43

2.21: Temperature and rainfall distribution for Manila in the Philippines......45

2.22: Tropical monsoon climate and tropical maritime climate regions.........46

2.24: Inﬂuence of cloud cover on climate ......................................................50

2.25: Temperature and rainfall distribution for In Salah (Algeria) .................51

2.26: Temperature and rainfall distribution for Lima (Chile)..........................52

2.27: Temperature and rainfall distribution for Windhoek (Namibia).............52

2.28: Cactus plant............................................................................................53

2.29: Camels in the desert ...............................................................................54

2.30: Mediterranean climate regions...............................................................55

vi Student’s Book Form Four

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FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

3.3: Regressive population pyramid............................................................111

4.1: Nucleated settlement pattern................................................................134

4.2: Linear settlement pattern......................................................................135

4.4: Cultural heritage centre in Arusha........................................................139

4.5: The Nyerere bridge in Kigamboni, Dar es Salaam...............................141

4.6: A factory emitting smoke.....................................................................148

4.7: Traffic jams in Dar es Salaam...............................................................148

4.8: Slum and squatter settlement in an urban area.....................................149

5.2: A leopard (carnivorous) catches a rabbit (prey)...................................161

Student’s Book Form Four vii

Geography for Secondary Schools Book Four(TIE).indd 7 9/5/21 12:07 PM

Writers: Mr Musa Mwalutanile & Mr Emanuel Stanislaus (TIE)

Editors: Dr Asubisye Mwamfupe, Dr Jackson Sawe & Dr Johnstone

examples of primary data. (iii) Allows researcher(s) to understand

(iv) Provides practical knowledge to