Chapter (2) Mathematical Background


 lim x0 1  e  xs  xs1
1  ( xs ) 2 ( xs ) 3 
 lim x0  1  ( 1  xs    ..........
xs  2! 3! 
 ( xs ) 2 ( xs ) 2 
 lim x0 1    .....
 2! 3! 

When the limit is taken it is observed that

£ (t )  1 (2.38)
Thus the Laplace transform of the impulse function is equal to the area
under the impulse. The concept of the impulse function is quite useful
in differentiating discontinuous functions. The unit impulse function
 (t  t0 ) can be considered the derivative of the unit step function 1(t-t0)

at the point of discontinuity t = t0 or

d
 (t  t0 )  1(t  t0 )
dt
On the other hand the integration of the unit impulse function
 (t  t0 ) will result in the unit step function 1(t-t0)

The scaling property

It is desirable in some physical systems to change the time
scale or normalize a given time function. Consider the scaled time
variable (t/) where  > a, then the function f (t) is changed into f(t/),
then the Laplace transform of f (t/α) 
may be obtained as
£ f ( t /  )  f ( t /  ) e st dt
0
let t /   z , dt  ( ) dz
Then


 f ( z) e
 (z ) s
£[ f ( t /  )]   dz
0


   f ( z) e  ( s ) z dz
0

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Chapter (2) Mathematical Background
  F ( s )
or
£  f (t /  )   F ( s) (2.39)
Final - value theorem:
\
If f(t) and f (t) are Laplace transformable, if the Laplace
transform of f (t) is F(s) and lim t→α f (t) exist, then
lim s0 sF (s)  lim t  f (t ) (2.40)
This theorem states that he behavior of f (t) in the neighborhood
of t =  is the same as the behavior of s F(s) in the neighborhood of
s = 0. The final - value theorem is not valid if s F(s) contains any pole
whose real part is zero (on the j axis) or positive (in the right half of
the s-plane. If f (t) is sinusoidal, the theorem is invalid, since £(sin ωt)
has poles at s = + jω and lim t→ sin ωt does not exist.

Initial value theorem

If the function f(t) and f\(t) are Laplace transformable, if £[f(t)] is F(s)
and the lims→∞sF(s) exists,
then,
lims→∞sF(s) = limt→0f (t) (2-41)
This theorem states that the behaviour of f (t) in the
neighborhood of t = 0 is the same as the behaviour of sF(s) in the
neighborhood of s   There are no limitations on the locations of
the poles of sF(s).

The convolution integral:

If £[ f 1 (t )]  F1 (s) and £[ f 2 (t )]  F2 (s) and,
f 1 (t )  0 , f 2 (t )  0 for t  0 ; then

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Chapter (2) Mathematical Background
 
 
t

£  f 1 ( t   ) f 2 ( ) d   £ f 1 (t ) * f 2 (t )  F1 (s) F2 (s) (2-42)

0 
The mathematical operation f1(t) * f2(t) is called convolution. The
operation of convolution is associative, hence
f1 (t) * f2 (t) = f2(t)* f1 (t)
Table 2.2 summarizes a list of the useful theorems and relationships in
Laplace transform theory.

2.5 THE INVERSE LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION

The inverse of Laplace transform is the process that recovers
the function from the Laplace transform in the algebraic s domain F(s)
into the time domain, f (t). The inverse transform operation may be
expressed as
f (t )  £ -1 F (t ) (2.43)
A convenient method for obtaining inverse Laplace transforms
is to use table of Laplace transforms. If a certain transform F (s)
cannot be found in a table, then we may expand it into partial fractions
and write F(s) in terms of simple functions of s for which the inverse
Laplace transforms are already known.
For problems in control theory, Laplace transform, F(s) may
take the following form:
P( s )
F ( s)  (2.44)
Q( s )

Where P(s) and Q(s) are polynomials in s and the degree of Q(s) is always
greater than that of P(s). If both p(s) and q(s) have the same degree, the

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Chapter (2) Mathematical Background
inverse will contain impulses. Notice that a long division of
p ( s) s 2  3s  2
F ( s)   contains an impulse because
Q( s ) s 2  2 s  1

 s 2  3s  2   s 1 
£ 1  2  £
1
1  2 
 s  2 s  1   s  2s  1 

and £ 1 1   (t )

The method of partial - fraction expansion will be studied for the cases
of simple pole, multiple- order poles and complex poles of F (s).

Table 2-1 Properties of Laplace transforms:

1 £ [A f(t)] = A F(s)
2 £ [f1 (t) + f2 (t) ] = F1 (s) + F2 (s)
3 d 
£ ±  f (t )   s F ( s)  f (o)
 dt 
4 d 2
£ ±  2 f (t )   s 2 F (s)  f (o)  f (o)
 dt 
5  dn  n
£ n f (t )   s F ( s)   s nk f ( k 1) (o)
n

 dt  k 1

d k 1
where f ( k 1) (t )  k 1 f (t )
dt
6  f (t ) dt t o 

£  f (t ) dt 
s

F ( s)

s
7 
 f (t ) dt t o     t o

£   f (t ) dt dt  2 
F ( s)
 f (t ) dt dt
s s2 s
8    ....  f (t ) (dt ) 
n
F ( s) 1
£  ....  f (t ) (dt ) n 
sn
 s
k 1
n  k 1
k

 
t 0

9  at
£ e f (t )  F (s  a )

10 £ f (t  a) (t  a)  e as F (s)

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Chapter (2) Mathematical Background
11 dF ( s)
£t f (t )  
ds
12 1 

£ f (t )   F ( s) ds
t  s
13  t 
£ f ( )  a F (as)
 a 

2.5.1 Partial Fraction Expansion When F (S)

Contains Only Real and Simple Poles
Consider the form of F (s),
p (s) (s  a1 ) ( s  a2 )..... ( s  an )
F ( s)   (2.45)
Q(s) (s  b1 ) ( s  b2 ( s  bm )

Where m > n and b1 ≠ b2 ……………… ≠ bm. In this case, F(s) may

be written as a partial - fraction expansion as
P( s ) K1 K2 Km
F ( s)     ......................... (2.46)
Q( s ) s  b1 s  b2 s  bm

Where Ki (i = 1,2, …….m) are constants. The coefficients Ki are

called the residues at the poles at s = - bi. The value of Ki can be found
by multiplying both sides of Eq. (2.45) by (s+bi) and letting s = - bi as
 P( s)   K1 K2
 Q( s) ( s  bi )  ( s  bi )  ( s  bi )  .........
  s  bi  ( s  b1 ) ( s  b2 )
Ki Km 
 ..........  ( s  bi )  .......  ( s  bi )
( s  bi ) ( s  bm )  s b
i

It can be seen that all the coefficients K1, K2, ……… Km, except Ki are
vanished thus the residue Ki is found from
 P( s ) 
Ki   ( s  bi ) (2.47)
 Q( s )  s  bi

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Chapter (2) Mathematical Background

Example 2.1
Find the inverse Laplace transform of
s2
F ( s) 
s 2  5s  4
Function F (s) may be expressed as
s2
F ( s) 
( s  4)(s  1)
The partial fraction of F (s) is
( s  2) K K
F ( s)   1  2
( s  4)(s  1) s  1 s  4

The coefficients K1 and K2 can be found as

( s  2 ) ( s  1) 1
K1  
( s  4) ( s  1) s  1
3
( s  2 )( s  4) 2
K2  
( s  1) ( s  4) s  4
3
Thus
1 1 2 
F (s)   
3  s  1 s  4 
Therefore,
1

f (t )  e t  2e 4t
3

2.5.2 Partial Fraction Expansion When F(S) Has
Multiple–Order– Poles
Suppose the function F(s) = P( s) , where Q=(s) = 0 has
Q( s)

multiple roots of multiplicity r, (other roots are assumed to be distinct).

Then,
P( s )
F ( s) 
( s  b1 ) ( s  b2 ) ............( s  bi ) r ....... ( s  bmr )
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Chapter (2) Mathematical Background
The partial fraction of F (s) is
K1 K Kmr
F(s)   2  .......... 
s  b1 s  b2 s  bm  r

m-r terms of simple poles

C1 C2 Cr
   .................  (2.48)
(s  bi ) (s  bi ) 2
(s  bi )

r terms of repeated poles

the coefficient K1, K2 , …………….Km-r which correspond to simple
poles are evaluated as the method described in section 2.5.1 The
coefficients that correspond to the repeated poles of Eq (2.48) can be
determined as :


Cr  ( s  bi ) r F ( s ) 
s   bi

Cr 1 
d
ds

( s  bi ) r F ( s ) s   bi 
Cr  2 
1 d2
2! ds 2

( s  bi ) r F ( s ) s   bi  (2.49)

C1 
1 d r 1
( r  1)! ds r 1

( s  bi ) r F ( s ) s   bi 

Example 2.2
Find f(t) if
s2
F ( s) 
(s  1)3 (s  3)
The partial fraction of F (s) may be expressed as
P( s ) s2 C1 C2 C3 K1
F ( s)      
Q( S ) ( s  1)3 (s  3) (s  1) ( s  1)2 ( s  1)3 s  3

(s  2) (s  3) 1
K1  s  3 
(s  1)3 (s  3) 8

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