MAGNET & ITS PROPERTIES

Prepared By:

Krupal Gajjar
Asst. Professor
Electrical (AS&H) Dept.

ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION (3152001)

SAL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING (113)

OPP. SCIENCE CITY, BHADAJ
AHMEDABAD
 CONTENTS
⚫ Introduction
⚫ Definition of Magnetic Quantities
⚫ Magnetic Circuit
⚫ Laws of magnetic circuit
⚫ Comparison between magnetic and electric circuit
⚫ Electromagnetic Induction
⚫ Faraday’s Laws of electromagnetic induction
⚫ Lenz’s Law
⚫ Types of Induced emf
⚫ Statically Induced emf
⚫ Dynamically Induced emf
⚫ Energy stored in inductor
⚫ Magnetic Hysteresis
 Introduction
⚫ Magnet Is a solid piece of substance which exhibits
property of attracting certain material i.e. iron, alloy, etc.
⚫ In other word Magnet is a material or object that
produces a magnetic field. This magnetic field is invisible.
 Property of Magnet
⚫ Magnet has pushing and pulling (Repulsion and
Attraction) property.
⚫ Magnet has two pole: North and South
⚫ A freely suspended magnet align itself in North-South
Direction.
⚫ Magnetic Induction: When a magnet placed near any
magnetic material, than without any physical connection
magnetism gets transferred on material.
 Definition of Magnetic Quantities
⚫ Magnetic Flux: The total number of magnetic lines of
force in a magnetic field.
⚫ It is denoted by φ.
⚫ Unit : Weber (Wb)
Characteristic of Magnetic Flux Line
1. They have no physical existence.
2. They form closed paths
3. They never intersect each other.
4. Lines of magnetic flux closer to each other & having
same direction repel each other.
5. Line of magnetic flux closer to each other & having
opposite direction attract each other.
 ⚫ Form closed Path

⚫ Repulsion ⚫ Attraction
⚫ Magnetic Flux Density: The magnetic flux per unit area
of a surface at right angle to the magnetic field.
⚫ It is denoted by B.
2
⚫ Unit: Wb/m

∅
𝐵=
𝐴
⚫ Magnetomotive Force (m.m.f): The force that tends to
establish the flux through a magnetic circuit. It is equal to
the product of the current (I) flowing through the coil and
the number of turns (N) of the coil.
m.m.f = NI
⚫ Unit: Amp-turn (AT)

⚫ Magnetic field Intensity: The magneto motive force per

unit length of the magnetic flux path. It is also known as
Magnetic field strength.
⚫ Denoted by H.
⚫ Unit: AT/m. 𝑁𝐼
𝐻=
𝑙
⚫ Relation Between Magnetic flux density & Magnetic
field intensity
B=μH
B = μ0 μr H

Where μ = μ0 μr
= absolute permeability of the medium
μr = relative permeability
(for non-magnetic material μr = 1)
μ0 = permeability of free space
= 4 π x 10-07 H/m
⚫ Reluctance: The opposition offered by a magnetic circuit
to the establishment of magnetic flux.
⚫ It is directly proportional to the length and inversely
proportional to the area of cross-section of the magnetic
path.
⚫ Denoted By S.
𝑙
𝑆 ∝
𝐴
𝑙
∴𝑆=
𝜇𝐴
𝑙
∴𝑆=
𝜇0𝜇𝑟𝐴

⚫ Thus, the reluctance is dependent on the physical

dimensions and the nature of material of magnetic circuit.
⚫ We know that
𝑁𝐼
𝐻=
𝑙
∴ 𝑁𝐼 = 𝐻 × 𝑙

∴ 𝑁𝐼 = 𝐵ൗ𝜇 × 𝑙 ∵ 𝐵 = 𝜇𝐻
∅
∴ 𝑁𝐼 = ∅ൗ𝜇𝐴 × 𝑙 ∵ 𝐵=
𝐴

∴ 𝑁𝐼 = 𝑙ൗ𝜇𝐴 × ∅
𝑙
∴ 𝑁𝐼 = 𝑆 × ∅ ∵𝑆=
𝜇𝐴
𝑁𝐼
∴𝑆=
∅

⚫ Unit of Reluctance: AT/Wb

⚫ Permeance: It is the reciprocal of reluctance.
Permeance = (1 / S)
⚫ Unit : Wb/AT

⚫ Reluctivity: The reluctance offered by a magnetic

circuit of a unit length and unit cross-sectional area.
S = l / μA
⚫ When l = 1 m and A = 1 m2
S=1/μ
⚫ Which is known as Reluctivity (Specific Reluctance)
 Coulomb’s laws for magnet
First Law: Like pole repel each other and unlike pole
attract each other.
⚫ Second Law: The force between two magnetic poles is
directly proportional to the product of their pole strength
and inversely proportional to square of the distance
between them.

m1 r m2
F α m1m2
F α (1/r2)
F α (m1m2 / r2)
F= k (m1m2 / r2) (where k = Constant)
1
k=
4𝜋𝜇0𝜇𝑟
𝑚1𝑚2
𝐹=
4𝜋𝜇0𝜇𝑟𝑟2
 Magnetic Circuit
⚫ Magnetic Circuit is a closed path followed by magnetic
flux.
⚫ In other word, a coil having number of turns is wound
over the iron ring/bar. When this coil carries a current, a
magnetic field is produced inside the ring/bar.
 Laws of Magnetic Circuit
⚫ In Series Magnetic circuit, the total reluctance is equal to
the sum of the individual reluctances.
S = S1 + S2 +S3 +…..+ Sn

⚫ In magnetic circuit total mmf required to produced flux is

equal to sum of mmf required to produced flux in different
part of circuit.
Fm = Fm1 +Fm2 + Fm3 +…..+Fmn
Similarities of Magnetic & Electric Circuit
Electric Circuit
Electric current flows through an
electric circuit.
Unit of current is ampere.
Electromotive force (emf) is required
to cause the flow of current.
Unit of emf is volt.
Resistance opposes the current flow
in the circuit.
Conductance = 1/ Resistance
Conductivity = 1 / Resistivity
Magnetic Circuit
Magnetic flux is produced in the
material of the magnetic circuit.
Unit of flux is weber.
Magnetmotive force (mmf) is required
to produce the magnetic flux.
Unit of mmf is AT.
Reluctance opposes the production of
magnetic flux in the circuit.
Permeance = 1 / Reluctance
Permeability = 1 / Reluctivity
Dissimilarities of Magnetic & Electric Circuit
Magnetic Circuit
Magnetic flux does not flow in the
magnetic circuit.
There are no magnetic insulators, e.g.
flux can be setup even through air.
In a magnetic circuit, energy is needed
only in creating the magnetic flux.
There is no further expenditure of
energy.
It is very difficult to confine the flux to
a desired path. A certain amount of
leakage of flux is always associated
with the magnetic materials.
Electric Circuit
Current actually flows in an electric
circuit.
There are many electric insulators, e.g.
air. Current cannot flow through air.
In electric circuit, energy is needed as
long as the current flows. The
expended energy is dissipated in the
form of heat.
Current can easily be confined to a
desired path by just providing a
conducting path for it.
 Electromagnetic Induction
⚫ Faraday found that whenever the flux linking with a
circuit changes, there is a current generated in the circuit.
⚫ A magnet is bought near the solenoid and is rapidly
inserted into the hollow cylinder. The galvanometer which
till now was showing null, will suddenly show a deflection
in one direction.
⚫ When the magnet comes to rest, the galvanometer again
shows null.
⚫ If the magnet pulled out of the cylinder the galvanometer
once again shows a deflection but this time in a opposite
direction.
⚫ Conclusion:
⚫ There is an electric current induced in the circuit when
magnetic flux in it changes. This current is called the
induced current.
⚫ The emf responsible for the production of the induced
current is called the induced emf.
 Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction
⚫ Faraday gave two laws of electromagnetic induction. They are
1. The flux linking with a coil or a circuit changes there is an emf induced in that coil
or circuit.
2. The magnitude of the emf that is induced is proportional to the rate of change of
flux linkages.
𝑑∅
𝑒∝𝑁
𝑑𝑡

𝑑∅
Lenz’s Law
⚫ We know 𝑒∝𝑁
𝑑𝑡
⚫ Faraday’s law does not give any idea about the direction of the induced emf. This
information given by Lenz’s law
⚫ Statement: The direction of the induced emf (or current) is such that opposes the very
cause of its production.
e = – N(dφ/dt)
 Types of Induced Emf
Induced Emf

Dynamically Statically
Induced Emf Induced Emf

Self Induced Mutual

Emf Induced Emf
 Statically Induced Emf
⚫ Conductor : Stationary
⚫ Magnetic Field: Changing/Variable

⚫ Statically induced emf is of two two types.

⚫ Self induced emf
⚫ Mutually induced emf
 Self Induced Emf

⚫ The emf induced in a coil due to the change of flux linking

with itself is called the self induced emf.
t=0 s=open i=0 φ=0 Nφ=0 No emf is induced

t=t s=close i=Im φ=φm Nφ=Varies emf is induced

From above, we can conclude that, ∅ ∝ 𝑖

∴ 𝑁∅ ∝ 𝑖
∴ 𝑁∅ = 𝐿 𝑖
𝑁∅ L = Self inductance
∴𝐿=
𝑖 Unit: Henry (H)
⚫ As we know that,
∴ 𝑁∅ ∝ 𝑖
∴ 𝑁∅ = 𝐿 𝑖
Take derivation with respect to time
𝑑 𝑑
∴ 𝑁∅ = 𝐿𝑖
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑∅ 𝑑𝑁 𝑑𝑖 𝑑L
∴𝑁 + ∅ =𝐿 +𝑖
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑∅ 𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑁 𝑑L
∴𝑁 =𝐿 ∵∅ = 0,𝑖 = 0 (𝑁&𝐿 − 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑∅ 𝑑𝑖
∴ −𝑁 = −𝐿 (∵ Multiply ‘-’ both the side)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖
∴ 𝑒 = −𝐿 Which is self induced emf
𝑑𝑡
 Mutual Induced Emf

⚫ The phenomenon of the emf induced in one coil due to the

change of current in a nearby coil is called mutual
induction and emf is called as mutul induced emf.
t=0 s=open i1=0 φ=0 N2φ=0 No emf is induced

t=t s=close i1=Im φ=φm N2φ=Varies emf is induced

From above, we can conclude that,
𝑁2∅ ∝ 𝑖1
∴ 𝑁2∅ = 𝑀 𝑖1
𝑁1∅
𝑁2∅ M = Mutual inductance Similarly ∴ 𝑀 =
∴𝑀= 𝑖2
𝑖1 Unit: Henry (H)
⚫ As we know that,
∴ 𝑁2∅ ∝ 𝑖1
∴ 𝑁2∅ = 𝑀𝑖1
Take derivation with respect to time
𝑑 𝑑
∴ (𝑁2∅) = (𝑀 𝑖1)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑∅ 𝑑𝑁2 𝑑𝑖1 𝑑M
∴ 𝑁2 +∅ =𝑀 + 𝑖1
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑∅ 𝑑𝑖1 𝑑𝑁2 𝑑M
∴ 𝑁2 =𝑀 ∵∅ = 0, 𝑖1 = 0 (𝑁2&𝑀 − 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑∅ = −𝑀 𝑑𝑖1
∴ −𝑁2 (∵ Multiply ‘-’ both the side)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖1 𝑑𝑖2
∴ 𝑒2 = −𝑀 Which is Mutual induced emf Similarly 𝑒1 = −𝑀
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡
 Dynamically Induced EMF
⚫ Conductor : Movable
⚫ Magnetic Field: Stationary N

v
⚫ Consider uniform magnetic field having flux density B wb/m2. X
⚫ Consider conductor X having length ‘l’m which is moving right angle
S
to magnetic field. Velocity is ‘v’ m/s.
⚫ Conductor be moved through small distance ‘dx’ m in ‘dt’ sec. N
⚫ Area swept(covered) by conductor = l dx m2
∅
⚫ Flux cut by conductor d∅ = B x A = B l dx wb ∵𝐵= dX

⚫ Emf induced e = Rate of change of flux linkages, S

𝑑∅ 𝐵𝑙𝑑𝑥
∴𝑒= = = 𝐵𝑙𝑣 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠 ∵ 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
 N
⚫ Now the conductor having moved not perpendicular to the magnetic
sin𝜃
field but at angle ‘Ѳ’ to the direction of magnetic field.
cos𝜃 𝜃
⚫ The component velocity that is perpendicular to the lines of flux will
S
be v sinѲ.

⚫ Area swept (covered) by conductor (A) = l dx sinѲ m2

⚫ Flux cut by conductor d∅ =B x A = B l dx sinѲ wb

⚫ Emf induced e = Rate of change of flux linkages,

𝑑∅ 𝐵𝑙𝑑𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
∴𝑒= = = 𝐵𝑙𝑣𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠 ∵ 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
 Energy Stored in Inductor
⚫ Consider a coil wound over an iron bar and current is passed through the coil.
⚫ As per faraday’s law emf is induced in coil. Which is given by,
𝑑𝑖
𝑒=𝐿
𝑑𝑡
⚫ To overcome the opposition provided by the self induced emf, some energy is required. The
energy consumed in time dt,
𝑑𝑖
𝑑𝑊 = 𝑒. 𝑖 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐿 𝑖 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐿 𝑖 𝑑𝑖
𝑑𝑡
⚫ The total work done to enable the final current I to flow will be,
𝑊 𝑖

න𝑑𝑊 = 𝐿 න𝑖 𝑑𝑖
0 0
𝑖2𝑖 1
∴𝑊=𝐿 = 𝐿 𝑖2 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒
0 2
⚫ The work done is nothing but energy absorbed by the inductance of coil. So, the energy stored in
the inductor = 1 𝐿 𝑖2 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒
2
 Magnetic Hysteresis B
2 1
𝑁𝐼
𝐻= 𝐵=∅ BR
𝑙 𝐴
3 6
∅ ∝𝑖
-H 0 H
𝐵 ∝𝐻
HC
BR – Resudual Magnetism 5
4
HC – Coercive Force -B
0. H=0 B=0
B=μH 1. H-Increases(Hm) B-Increases(Bm)
∴ B = μ0 μr H 2. H=0 B=BR
3. H=HC B=0
4. H-Increases(Hm) B-Increases(Bm)
The closed loop 1-2-3-4-5-6-1 is
called Hysteresis Loop. 5. H=0 B=BR
6. H=HC B=0
1. H-Increases(Hm) B-Increases(Bm)
⚫ Factors affecting the hysteresis
⚫ Frequency of magnetization
⚫ Volume of material
⚫ Area enclosed by the hysteresis loop
⚫ The hysteresis loss is directly proportional to the area under the hysteresis loop. For
the low loss materials the hysteresis loop is narrow.
⚫ The area and the shape of magnetic material are the important parameters which
decide the suitability of a material for a particular application.
⚫ Material with a large hysteresis loop are used for producing the permanent magnets.
Such a hysteresis loop represent a large residual flux & hence large coercive force.
⚫ Hence materials such as the hard steel with some tungsten, cobalt or chromium is
used for such application.
 (d)
(a) For Hard Steel
(b) For Wrought iron and cast steel
(c) For iron, low carbon steel, silicon alloys, permalloy
(d) For non magnetic material
 Leakage Flux
⚫ The magnetic flux which does not follow the desired path in a magnetic circuit is
known as leakage flux.
⚫ When a current is passed through a solenoid, the magnetic flux is set up by it.
⚫ Most of the flux is set up in the magnetic core & passes through the air gap. This
flux is known as useful flux (Øu).
⚫ Some of the flux is just set-up around the coil. This flux is not utilised for any
work. So it is called as leakage flux (Øl).
∅ = ∅𝑢 + ∅𝑙
 Leakage Co-efficient
⚫ The ratio of the total flux (Ø) produced by the solenoid to the useful flux (Øu) set
up in the air gap is known as hopkinson’s leakage co-efficient.
⚫ Denoted by 𝜆

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑥 Ø Ø𝑢 + Ø𝑙
𝜆= = =
𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑙 𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑥 Ø𝑢 Ø𝑢

⚫ The value of leakage co-efficient varies between 1.1 & 1.25.

⚫ It is also known as leakage factor.
 Fringing
⚫ When the magnetic flux crosses the air gap, it passes through the air gap. There
exists a repulsive force between the magnetic lines of force which are parallel &
having the same direction.
⚫ Due to this repulsive force, there is a tendency of the magnetic flux to bulge out
(spread out) across the edges of the air gap.
⚫ This tendency of flux to bulge out at the edges of the air gap is called fringing.
⚫ The effect of fringing is to increase the effective air gap area which is then reduce
the flux density in the air gap.
⚫ Fringing depends upon the length of air gap, that is higher the air gap, grater is
the fringing.
⚫ If the air gap length is very small as compared with the gap area, then the effect
of fringing can be neglected.
 Eddy Current Loss
⚫ When conductor cuts magnetic flux of field, emf induced in it, according to
farday’s law. These emf set-up corresponding induced currents, These current
circulate in large no. of closed path. (Large no of closed small concentric paths).
⚫ These circulating currents are similar to eddies of swirling water. So called as
eddy currents.
⚫ Due to these eddy current conductor becomes hot and heat energy,(I2R)
developed.
⚫ Conductor has large cross section, the magnitude of eddy currents will also be
large causing greater I2R loss called the eddy current loss.
 Methods to reduced Eddy Current Loss
⚫ By splitting the conductor in to thin laminated sheets. During laminating, care
must be taken to ensure that sheets are insulated from each other.
⚫ This arrangement reduces the area of each section and as a result emf induced
also reduces.
⚫ The area through which the eddy currents are flow, also reduces, thus increasing
the resistance offered to these currents.
⚫ 2nd method to reduce these losses is use a magnetic material having high
resistivity e.g. Silicon steel.
⚫ Thus resistance offered to the flow of these currents will be more & the circulating
current flow will be less.
⚫ The eddy current loss as given by steinmentz is,
𝑊𝑒 = 𝐾𝐵𝑚2𝑓2𝑡 2𝑉 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡
⚫ Where
K=Constant
F=Frequency of reversal of magnetism,
T=Thickness of lamination in m
Bm=Maximum flux density
V=Volume of core in m3
Thank You

Prepared By: K. R. Gajjar