Theory of Elasticity

• What is elasticity?
• The tendency of a material to return to its
original shape and size when forces causing
deformation are removed.

• A material is perfectly elastic if its loading and

unloading paths are the same.
• There is no dissipation of energy.
• Examples: Linear Elastic and Non-linear Elastic
(Hyper-elastic)
• In perfect elasticity the state of stress at any
time is independent of previous history of
stresses. Hence the stress is a unique function
of strain.
• In a nonlinear-elastic material the stress is a
non-linear function of the strain.
• In both linear and non-linear elasticity stress is
obtained from a energy potential (strain energy)
which is a function of strain.
 ( )
 ,  is a function of strain energy

• Though in a Visco-elastic material, there are no
residual strains. There is a dissipation of
energy. Different loading and unloading paths.
• This happens because the stress not only
depends on the strain but also on the rate of
strain.
 .
  f  ,  ,
.

t
• Because the stress is not a unique function of a
strain energy function cannot be derived in
general.
• In an inelastic material there are permanent (or
residual) strains when the body is completely
unloaded. There is a dissipation of energy most
of which is converted into heat.
• In inelasticity one has to work with increments
of strains instead of total accumulated strain as
the stress is not a unique function of strain.
• The total strain at any time can be obtained by
integrating the strain increments.
Theory of Elasticity versus Strength
of materials
• In Strength of Materials we make many
assuptions to simplify the problem and to arrive
at a closed form solution
• Flexural formula M  E 
I R y
• Assumptions:
• Pure bending
• Plane section before bending remain plane
after bending (slender member)
• But in undergraduate studies we use this
formula for all types of problems. Even for the
bending of a cantilever beam where plane
section do not remain plane.
• Another example in which the assumption of
planarity is made is the torsion of a member.
• This assumption is correct only for circular
sections. Any other section will warp as seen
for the rectangular section.
• To solve such problems theory of elasticity has
to be used where the governing differential
equation will be solved satisfying boundary
conditions without any simplifying assumptions.
• Strength of materials methods (classical
methods)
• The mechanics of materials method is available for
simple structural members subject to specific
loadings such as axially loaded bars, prismatic
beam, beams in a state of pure bending and circular
shafts subject to torsion. The solutions can under
certain conditions be superimposed using the
superposition principle to analyze a member
undergoing combined loading. Solutions for special
cases exist for common structures such as thin-
walled pressure vessels.
• Elasticity methods
• Elasticity methods are available generally for an
elastic solid of any shape. Individual members such
as beams, columns, shafts, plates and shells may be
modeled. The solutions are derived from the
equations of linear elasticity. The equations of
elasticity are a system of 15 partial differential
equations. Due to the nature of the mathematics
involved, analytical solutions may only be produced
for relatively simple geometries. For complex
geometries, a numerical solution method such as the
finite element method is necessary.
 The state of Stress at a Point
• The concept of stress originated from the study of strength and
failure of solids. The stress field is the distribution of internal
“tractions” that balance a given set of external tractions and body
forces.
• First we look at the external traction ‘T’ that represents the force per
unit area acting at a given location on the body surface.
 Contd…
• Since an infinite number of planes can be drawn through a point, we
get an infinite number of stress vectors acting at a given point, each
stress vector characterized by the corresponding plane on which it
is acting. The totality of all stress vectors acting on every possible
plane passing through the point is defined to be the state of stress
at the point. It is the knowledge of the state of stress which is of
importance to a designer in determining the critical planes and the
respective critical stresses. If the stress vectors acting on three
mutually perpendicular planes are known, we can determine the
stress vector acting on any other arbitrary plane.
• Components of stress: The Stress Tensor (or Stress
Matrix)
• Surface tractions, or stresses acting on an internal plane, are typically
decomposed into three mutually orthogonal components. One component is
normal to the surface and represents direct stress. The other two components
are tangential to the surface and represent shear stresses
• What is the distinction between normal and
tangential tractions, or equivalently, direct and
shear stresses?
• Direct stresses tend to change the volume of the material (e.g. hydrostatic
pressure) and are resisted by the body’s bulk modulus (which depends on the
Young’s modulus and Poisson ratio). Shear stresses tend to deform the
material without changing its volume, and are resisted by the body’s shear
modulus.
• Defining a set of internal datum planes aligned with a Cartesian coordinate
system allows the stress state at an internal point ‘P’ to be described relative to
x-y-and z-coordinate directions as shown in Fig.
• For example, the stress state at point ‘P’ can be represented by an infinitesimal
cube with three stress components on each of its six sides (one direct and two
shear components).

Elements 3-dimensional stress. All stresses have positive sense.

• We choose a coordinate axis and with respect to that
coordinate axis stresses are measured and stresses
are represented. Consider a point. At this point we can
have infinite number of orthogonal coordinate axis.
• For instance, if we take any arbitrary coordinate,
suppose o xyz prime coordinate, the stresses are
represented with respect to prime coordinate system
are sigma prime. Now, these 2 representation can be
related to each other through a transformation matrix
and these transformation matrix is Q. Q is an
orthogonal matrix. It is an orthogonal transform by
orthogonal transformation.
• If we know the stress at a point with respect to
any coordinate axis and we can have infinte
number of coordinate axis at the point then for
any coordinate axis, we obtain the stresss
components by transformation.
• If in a waterbody we take some object. If we
consider hydrostatic pressure, this pressure
does not have any specific direction. This
pressure do not vary with coordinate system.
So, this is called invariant.
 Stress Invariants
I1  x   y   z
I 2  x y   y z   z x   xy   yz   zx
2 2 2

 x  xy  y  yz  x  xz
  
 xy  y  yz  z  xz  z
I 3  x y z  2 xy yz zx   x yz   y zz   z xy
2 2 2

 x  xy  xz
 xy  y  yz
 xz  yz  z
• An invariant is one whose value does not
change when the frame of reference is
changed. In other words if x/ , y/ and z/ is
another frame of reference the rectangular
stress components are  ,  ,  ,  , and  .
x/ y/ z/ x/ y/ y/ z/ z/ x/

• Then the values of I / , I / and I / calculated as

1 2 3
above will show that
 x   y   z  x   y   x
/ / /

i.e. I1 I1/

I 2 I 2 and I 3 I 3
/ /
• The reason for this can be explained as follows. The
principal stresses at a point depend only on the state
of stress at that point and not on the frame of
reference describing the rectangular stress
components. Hence, if xyz and x/y/z/ are two
orthogonal frames of reference at the point, then the
following cubic equations
  I1  I 2  I 3 0
3 2

  I1   I 2   I 3 0
3 / 2 / /

• Must give the same solutions for σ. Since the two

system of axes were arbitrary, the coefficient of σ2 and
σ and the constant terms in the two equations must be
equal, i.e.
I1 I1 , I 2 I 2 and I 3 I 3 .
/ / /
 Principal stresses
• The planes on which the stress vector is wholly normal
is called the principal plane and the corresponding
stress the principal stress. Since the resultant stress is
along the normal, the tangential stress component on
a principal plane is zero and consequently the
principal plane is known as the shearless plane. The
normal to a principal plane is called the principal
stress axis.
• In every state of stress there exist at least three
mutually perpendicular principal axes and at least
three distinct principal stresses. The principal stresses
•  1 ,  2 and  3 are the roots of the cubic equation
  I1  I 2  I 3 0
3 2
• Let us assume that there is a plane n with direction
cosines nx , ny and nz on which the stress is wholly
normal. Let σ be the magnitude of this stress vector.
Then we have
n
T n
• The components of this along the x, y and z axes are
n n n
Tx nx , Ty n y and Tz nz ........................( a )

• Also, from Cauchy’s formula

n
Tx  x nx   xy n y   xz nz
n
Ty  xy nx   y n y   yz nz
n
Tx  xz nx   yz n y   z nz .......... .......... .......... .......... ..(b)
Subtracting (a) from (b) we get
( x   )nx   xy n y   xz nz 0
 xy nx  ( y   )n y   yz nz 0
 xz nx   yz ny  ( z   )nz 0
We can view the above set of equations as three
simultaneous equations involving the unknowns n x ,
ny and nz . These direction cosines define the plane
on which the resultant stress is wholly normal. Above
set of equation is a set of homogeneous equations.
The trivial solution is nx =ny =nz =0. For the existence
of a non-trivial solution, the determinant of the
coefficients of nx , ny and nz must be equal to zero,
x    xy  xz
 xy y    yz 0
 xz  yz z  

exp anding the above det er min ant ,

one gets a cubic equation in  as
• The three roots of the above cubic equation can be designated
as σ1 , σ2 and σ3 . It will be shown subsequently that all these
three roots are real. Substituting any one of these three
solutions in the above simultaneous eqn. we can solve the
corresponding nx ,ny and nz . In order to avoid the trivial
solution, the condition

n  n  n 1
2
x
2
y
2
z

• Is used along with any two equations from set of above

equations. Hence, with each σ, there will be an associated
plane. These planes on which the stress vector is wholly normal
is called the principal plane and the corresponding stress, the
principal stress. Since the resultant stress is along the normal,
the tangential stress component on a principal plane is zero
and consequently, the principal plane is also known as the
shearless plane. The normal to a principal plane is called the
principal stress axis.
 The state of stress referred to principal axes
• In expressing the state of stress at a point by the six
rectangular stress components, we can choose the
principal axes as the coordinate axes and refer the
rectangular stress components accordingly. We then
have for the stress matrix.
 1 0 0 
 ij   0  2 0 
 0 0  3 
• On any plane with normal n, the components of the
stress vector are:
n n n
Tx  1nx ; Ty  2 n y ; Tz  3nz ;
• The resultant stress has a magnitude
n 2

T  1 nx   2 ny   3 nz2
2 2 2 2 2

If σ is the normal and  the shear stress on this

plane, then   n   n   n 1
2
x 2
2
y 3
2
z
n 2
and  T  
2 2

nx ny ( 1   2 )  ny nz ( 2   3 )  nz nx ( 3   1 )
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

The stress invariants assume the form

I1  1   2   3
I 2  1 2   2 3   3 1
I 3  1 2 3
With respect to the frame of reference Oxyz, the
following state of stress exist. Determine the
principal stresses and their associated directions.

 1 2 1

2 1 1 
 
 1 1 1
• For this state I1 1  1  1 3
I 2 (1  4)  (1  1)  (1  1)  3
I 3 1(1  1)  2(2  1)  1(2  1)  1
f ( )   3  I1 2  I 2  I 3 0
or    3  3  1 0
3 2

or  3  1  3 (  1) 0
or (  1)( 2    1)  3  1 0
or (  1)  4  1 0
2

Hence, one solution is σ=-1. The other two solutions are obtained
from the solution of the quadratic equation, which are

 2  3
 1  1,  2 2  3 and  3 2  3
• Check on the invariance:
• With a set of axes chosen along the principal axes, the stress
matrix will have the form
 1 0 0 
 ij   0 2  3 0 
 
 0 0 2  3 
• Hence, I1 =-1+2+√3+2-√3=3
• I2 =(-2-√3)+(4-3)+(-2+√3)=-3
• I3 =-1(4-3)=-1
• Directions of principal axes:
• (i) For σ1 =-1,
• (1+1)nx +2ny +nz =0
• 2nx +(1+1)ny +nz =0
•
• Together with, nx2  n y2  nz2 1
• From the second and third equations above, nz =0. Using this in
the third and fourth equations and solving nx =+/-1/√2; ny =+/-
1/√2
• Hence σ1 =-1 is in the direction (+1/√2, -1/ √2, 0).
• It should be noted that the plus and minus signs associated
with nx , ny and nz represent the same line.
• (ii) For σ2 =2+√3
• (-1-√3)nx +2ny +nz =0
• 2nx +(-1-√3)ny +nz =0
• nx +ny +(-1-√3)n =0
nx2  nzy2  nz2 1
Together with 1/ 2 1/ 2

• Solving, we get nx 1  1  1  ; ny 1  1  1  ;
2 3 2 3
1
nz 
3  3  1/ 2
• We can solve for nx , ny and nz in a manner similar to the
preceding one or, get the solution from the condition that n1 , n2
and n3 form a right angled triangle, i.e.n3 =n1 ×n2 .
• The solution is
1/ 2
1 1 
nx   1   n y and
2 3
1/ 2
1  1 
nz   1  
2 3
 Octahedral Stresses
• Let the frame of reference be again chosen along
 1 ,  2 and  3 axes. A plane that
is equally inclined to these three axes is called an
octahedral plane. Such a plane will nx =ny =nz . Since
nx2 +ny2 +nz 2 =±1/√3. There are eight such planes as
shown in fig.
• The normal and shearing stresses on these planes are
called the octahedral normal stress and octahedral
shearing stress respectively. Substituting nx =ny =nz =
1/√3
 1 2 1
 oct   1   2   3   I1
2 2

3 3
1
and  oct   1   2    2   3    3   1  
2 2 2 2

9
or 9 oct 2 1   2   3   6 1 2   2 3   3 1 
2 2

2 2
or  oct  I1  3I 2 
1/ 2

3
It is important to remember that the octahedral planes
are defined with respect to the principal axes and not
with reference to an arbitrary frame of reference. Since
 oct and  oct
have been expressed in terms of the stress
invariants, one can express
 x ,  y ,  z ,  xy ,  yz and  zx these in terms of
• also.
 1 2
 oct   x   y2   z2 
3
and 9 oct  x   y    y   z    z   x  
2 2 2 2

 6 xy2   yz2   zx2 

The octahedral normal stress being equal to (1/3)I 1 , it

may be interpreted as the mean normal stress at a given
point in a body. If in a state of stress, the first invariant
1  2  3 is zero, then the normal stresses on the
octahedral planes will be zero and only the shear
stresses will act. This is important from the point of view
of strength and failure of some material.
 Differential equations of Equilibrium
• So far, attention has been focussed on the state of
stress at a point. In general, the state of stress in a
body varies from point to point. One of the
fundamental problems in a book of this kind is the
determination of the stress at every point or at any
desired point in a body. One of the important sets of
equations used in the analysis of such problems deals
with the conditions to be satisfied by the stress
components when they vary from point to point. These
conditions will be established when the body (and
therefore every part of it is in equlibrium. We isolate a
small element of the body and derive the equations of
equlibrium from its free-body diagram.
• Consider a small rectangular element with sides ∆x, ∆y
and ∆z, isolated from its parent body. Since in the limit,
we are going to make ∆x, ∆y and ∆z tend to zero, we
shall deal with the average values of the stress
components on each face. These stress components
are shown in fig.
• The faces are marked as 1, 2, 3 etc. On the left hand
face, i.e. Face no 1, the average stress components are
 x ,  xy and  xz

• On the right hand face, i.e. face no. 2, the average

 x
stress components are  xy  xz
x  x ;  xy  x ; and  xz  x
x x x
• This is because the right hand face is ∆x distance
away from the left hand face. Following a similar
procedure, the stress components on the six faces of
the elemen are as follows:
• Face 1:  x ,  xy and  xz

  xy 
• Face 2:  x  x
x ;  xy  x ; and  xz  xz x
x x x

• Face 3:  ,  and 
y yx yz

• Face 4:    y ;    y ; and    y
y yx yz

y y y
y yx yz
Face 5:  ,  and 
z zx zy

Face 6:    z ;    z ; and    z
z zx zy

z z z
z zx zy

Let the body force components per unit volume in

the x, y and z directions be
x , y and z . For equlibrium in x direction ,
    x x  yz   yz      yx y  zx
 x   yx 
x y
x
   
  zx 
  yx zx    zx  z  xy   zx zx
 z 
 x xyz 0
• Cancelling terms, dividing by ∆x∆y∆z and going to the
limit, we get  x  yx  zx
   x 0
x y z
• Similarly, equating forces in the y and z directions
respectively to zero, we get two more equations. On
the basis of the fact that the cross shears are equal,
i.e.  xy  yx ,  yz  zy ,  xz  zx , we obtain the three
differential equations of equlibrium as
 x  xy  xz
   x 0
• x y z
 y  xy  yz
   y 0
y x z
 z  xz  yz
   z 0
z x y
• Equation must be satisfied at all points throughout the
volume of the body. It must be recalled that the
moment equlibrium conditions established the quality
of cross shears.
• The plane stress state has already been defined. If
there exist a plane stress state in the xy plane, then
 z  xz  yzand
z 0  x ,  y ,  xy , only
x
and y
exist. The differential equations of
equlibrium become:
 x  xy
  x 0
x y

 y  xy
  y 0
y x
 The state of pure shear
• The state of stress at a point P can be characterized by the six
rectangular stress components referred to a coordinate frame
of reference. The magnitudes of these components depend on
the choice of the coordinate system. If for at least one
perpendicular choice of the frame of reference we find that σx
=σy =σz =0, then a state of pure shear is said to exist at point P.
For such a state, with that particular choice of coordinate
system, the stress matrix will be

 0  xy  xz 

 ij  xy 0  yz  
 xz  yz 0 
• For this coordinate system I1=σx +σy +σz =0. Since I1 is
an invariant, this must be true for any choice of
coordinate system selected at P. Hence, the
necessary condition for a state of pure shear to exist
is that I1 =0. It can be shown that this is also a
sufficient condition.
• It was remarked in the previous section that when I 1
=0, an octahedral plane is subjected to pure shear
with no normal stress. Hence, for a pure shear stress
state, the octahedral plane (remember that this plane
is defined with respect to the principal axes and not
with respect to an arbitrary set of axes) is free from
normal stress.
 Decomposition into Hydrostatic and Pure Shear
States
• It will be shown in the present section that an
arbitrary state of stress can be resolved into a
hydrostatic state and a state of pure shear. Let
the given state referred to a coordinate syatem

  x  xy  xz 

 ij   xy  y  yz  
  xz  yz  z 
Let P 1 / 3( x   y   z ) 1 / 3I1
• The given state can be resolved into two different
states, as shown:
  x  xy  xz   p 0 0
      0 p 0
 xy y yz
  
  xz  yz  z   0 0 p 
 x  p  xy  xz 

  xy y  p  yz 
 
  xz  yz z  p 
• The first state on the right hand side of the above
equation is a hydrostatic state. The second state is a
state of pure shear since the first invariant for this
state is:
 I1/  x  p    y  p   z  p 
 x   y   z  3 p
0 from above equation.

If the given state is referred to the principal axes, the

decomposition into a hydrostatic state and pure shear
state can once again be done as above, i.e.

 1 0 0   p 0 0   1  p 0 0 
0  0   0 p 0   0 2  p 0 
 2
    
 0 0  3   0 0 p   0 0  3  p 
• Where as before p 1 / 3(     ) (1 / 3) I
1 2 3 1
• The pure shear state of stress is also known as the
deviatoric state of stress or simply as stress deviator.
 Two dimensional Problem
• Three-dimensional elasticity problems are very difficult to solve.
Thus we will first develop governing equations for two
dimensional problems, and will explore two theories:
• Plane Stress
• Plane Strain
• Since all real elastic structures are three-dimensional, theories set
forth here will be approximate models. The nature and accuracy of
the approximation will depend on problem and loading geometry.
• The Plane State of Stress
• If in a given state of stress, there exists a coordinate system Oxyz
such that for this system
 z 0, xz 0, and  yz 0

• Then the state is said to have a ‘plane state of stress’ parallel to the xy
plane. This state is also generally known as a two dimensional state of
stress.
• The Plane State of Strain
• If, in a given state of strain, there exists a coordinate system Oxyz,
such that for this system
 zz 0,xz 0, and yz 0
• Then the state is said to have a plane state of strain parallel to the xy
plane. The non-vanishing strain components are
 xx , yy and xy
 The plane State of Stress
• If in a given state of stress, there exists a coordinate
system Oxyz such that for this system
 z 0, xz 0, and  yz 0
Then the state is said to have a ‘plane state of stress’
parallel to the xy plane. This state is also generally
known as two dimensional state of stress. All the
foregoing discussions can be applied and the equations
reduce ti simpler forms as a result of above equation.
Fig. (a) Plane state of stress (b)
conventional representation
• Consider a plane with the normal lying in the xy plane.
If nx , ny and nz are the direction cosines of the normal,
we have nxn =cos θ, ny =sin θ and nz =0.
Tx  x cos   xy sin 
n

Ty  y sin    xy cos
n

Tz 0
• The normal and shear stress components on this
plane are
  x cos 2    y sin 2   2 xy sin  cos
 x  y  x   y
  cos 2   xy sin 2
2 2
n n

and  Tx  Ty  
2 2 2 2
• Or x  y
  sin 2   xy cos 2
2
The principal stresses are given by
2 1/ 2
 x  y   x   y  
1,  2       xy 
2

2  2  
 3 0
Normal and shear stress components on an oblique
plane
• The principal planes are given by
• (i) the z plane on which σ3 = σz =0 and
• (ii) two planes with normals in the xy plane such that
2 xy
tan 2 
x  y
• The above equation gives two planes at right angles to
each other.
• If the principal stresses σ1 , σ2 and σ3 are arranges
such that σ1 >= σ2 >= σ3, the maximum shear stress at
 
the point will be   1 3
max
2
• In the xy plane, the maximum shear stress will be
1
 max   1   2  and from above equation
2
2 1/ 2
 x   y  
 max      xy 
2

 2  
• A rectangular block of material is subjected to a tensile stress of
10,000 N/mm2 on a plane and a tensile stress of 4000 N/mm2 at
right angles to the former together with a shear stress of
6000N/mm2 on the same planes.
• Find (i) The direction of principal planes.
• (ii) Magnitude of maximum shear stress and the
corresponding plane.
• (iii) Normal stress on the planes of maximum shear stress
• (iv) Stresses on a plane inclined at 300 to the plane
carrying the stress of 10000 N/mm2
A rectangular element in a strained material is
subjected to tensile stresses of 120 N/mm2 and 60
N/mm2 on mutually perpendicular planes together with
a shear stress of 70 N/mm2 . Find the principal
stresses, principal planes and maximum shear stress
in the block. Also find the plane of maximum shear
stress.
• Stresses acting on the rectangular block is shown in fig.
• Given: Tensile stress σx =120 N/mm2
• Tensile stress σy =60 N/mm2 Shear stress xy =70 N/mm2
• Now, major principal stress:
2
 x  y x  y 
1       xy
2

2  2 
2
120  60  120  60 
     70 2

2  2 
166.2 N / mm ( positive sign means tensile stress )
2

2
 x  y x  y 
1       xy
2

2  2 
2
120  60  120  60 
     70 2

2  2 
13.8 N / mm ( positive sign means tensile stress )
2
• If θ be the angle made by the principal planes with the plane AB
then,
   
1  1   xy  1  1  70 
  tan    tan  
2   x   y  2  120  60 
 2   2 
330 24 / and 1230 24 /
• Also, maximum shear stress is given as,

2
x   y 
 max      2

2
xy
 
2
 120  60 
    70 2
76. 2 N / mm 2

 2 
• Now, if ϕ be the angle made by the planes of maximum shear
stress with the plane AB then,

x  y   120  60 
1 1 2  
2

  tan   tan 
1

2   xy   70 
   
1 1 3  1
 tan    1560 48/ and 3360 48/ 
2  7 2
78 24 and 168 24
0 / 0 /
A point in a strained material is subjected to a tensile stress
of 60 N/mm2 and a compressive stress of 40 N/mm2 , acting
on two mutually perpendicular planes and a shear stress of
10N/mm2 are acting on these planes. Find the normal stress,
tangential stress and resultant stress on a plane inclined to
300 with the plane of the compressive stress.
• The stresses acting at the given point are represented by the
stressed element ABCD as shown in fig.
• Given: Tensile stress σx =60 N/mm2
• Compressive stress σy =-40 N/mm2
• Shear stress xy =10 N/mm2
• Let AF be the oblique plane on the element making 300 with the
plane AB. If θ be the angle between planes AF and AD then
• θ=900 –angleBAF=900 -300 =600
• Now, let σ=normal stress acting on the plane AF
• xy =shear stress acting on plane AF acting towards AF.
 x  y  x   y
  cos 2   xy sin 2
2 2
60  ( 40) 60  ( 60)
  cos 2(600 )  10 sin 2(600 )
2 2
60  40 60  40
  cos1200  10 sin 1200
2 2
 6.3 N / mm 2 [ Negative sign indicates compressive stress ]
• Tangential stress on inclined plane
x  y
 sin 2   xy cos 2
2
60  ( 40)
 sin 2(600 )  10 cos 2(600 )
2
48.3 N / mm 2
• Resultant stress on the oblique plane AF

 2  2
 ( 6.3) 2  (48.3) 2
48.7 N / mm 2
• Angle made by this resultants stress with normal to the plane
AF (measured clockwise)
  xy   1  48.3 
tan   tan 
1
 97 0
25 /

    6.3 