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A Modem Approadi to
Classical Mechanic
V Harald Iro

V |SS World Scientific

AModernApproafhto
Classical Mechanics
Second Edition
This page intentionally left blank
 A Modem Approach to
Classical Mechanics Second Edition

Harald Iro
retired from
Institute for Theoretical Physics, Johannes Kepler University Linz, Austria

World Scientific
NEW JERSEY • LONDON • SINGAPORE • BEIJING • SHANGHAI • HONG KONG • TAIPEI • CHENNAI
Published by
World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd.
5 Toh Tuck Link, Singapore 596224
USA office: 27 Warren Street, Suite 401-402, Hackensack, NJ 07601
UK office: 57 Shelton Street, Covent Garden, London WC2H 9HE

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Iro, Harald, author.
[Mechanik. English]
A modem approach to classical mechanics / Harald Iro, Johannes Kepler
University Linz, Austria. -- Second edition,
pages cm
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-9814696289 (hardcover : alk. paper) - ISBN 978-9814704113 (pbk : alk. paper)
I. Mechanics. 2. Statistical mechanics. I. Title.
QA805.17613 2015
531—dc23
2015011461

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

Copyright © 2016 by World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd.

All rights reserved. This book, or parts thereof, may not be reproduced in any form or by any means,
electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or any information storage and retrieval
system now known or to be invented, without written permission from the publisher.

For photocopying of material in this volume, please pay a copying fee through the Copyright Clearance
Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, USA. In this case permission to photocopy
is not required from the publisher.

In-house Editor: Christopher Teo

Printed in Singapore
 From the Preface of the first edition
The discovery of chaotic behavior in nonlinear dynamical systems
is the third great revolution in physics in the twentieth century - after
the theory of relativity and quantum mechanics. Even though, as early
as the turn of the 20th century, H. Poincare had written papers on the
predictability of natural phenomena - and even of the universe at large
- it wasn’t until the 1960s, with the onset of easily available computing
resources, that clear evidence of nonpredictability appeared. After that,
the theory of chaotic behavior leaped forward, became a part of every
branch of science where dynamical systems are studied mathematically.
The evidence of nonpredictability also stimulated a great change in the
field of classical mechanics itself. ...
Chaotic motion should not be banished as a mere curiosity to some
small part of the book. The reader or student ought to be acquainted
with chaotic behavior at an early stage of their study of classical mechan­
ics. She or he should be able to understand when and why a physical
system may behave chaotically. ...
Of course, the ideas and methods of classical mechanics are devel­
oped in this book also largely within conventional, integrable systems;
but the concepts of phase space, first integral and conserved quantity
are stressed right from the beginning. Linear stability analysis is intro­
duced as a first tool to investigate the stability of orbits. With these
concepts at hand, chaotic behavior in nonlinear systems is discussed
early on in the treatment. Moreover, topics that are relatively uncom­
mon in presentations of classical dynamical systems - such as a particle
in a homogeneous magnetic field; various cases of the spinning top; the
problem of two centers of force; and the restricted three-body problem -
are considered. The general conditions for integrability of a dynamical
system are presented in the framework of Hamilton-Jacobi theory, and
we touch on the stability of planetary motion. Canonical perturbation
theory leads finally to the KAM theorem on motion in a system that is
nearly integrable....

Linz, June 2002

v
Vl

Preface to the second edition

When asked by World Scientific Publishers to prepare a second edi­
tion I checked my book for the first time after several years. And I
found it worthwhile to remove errors, make changes and polish the text
and the structure. Since, in the meantime I became more and more
interested in the history of mechanics, I also took the opportunity to
improve and amplify the presentation of the historical background. But
the main goal remains the same: To stress the possibility of chaotic
behavior in nonlinear systems by investigating the integrability or non-
integrability of the systems discussed. Concerning the last point in the
book, the stability of the solar system, the question still is: How long
will the solar system maintain its familiar configuration?
Problems and examples are included at the end of each chapter; in
the text, the symbol (E) denotes that a related exercise appears at the
end of the chapter. Often references to books listed in the Bibliography
are also denoted [author/s]. When proper names of people appear in
the index, the page number given refers to the biographical data. The
mathematical appendices are not intended to give an introduction to
the respective topics, but serve merely as compilations and references.
I thank Christopher Teo from World Scientific for his assistance
in preparing this second edition. And still I remember gratefully the
support and help of Prof. Bernhard Schnizer, Yurij Holovatch, and
John Wojdylo in editing the first edition and thus also contributing to
this one.

Linz, Summer 2015 Harald IRO

Contents

1 Basic considerations and concepts I

1.1 Why classical mechanics is still ch allengin g .................. I
1.2 The birth of classical mechanics...................................... 3
1.3 Observations and the resulting pictures ........................ 5
1.4 Time, space and m o tio n .................................................. 9
1.4.1 Newton’s c o n ce p ts............................................... 9
1.4.2 The mathematical pictures of space and time . . 11
1.4.3 K inem atics........................................................... 12

2 Foundations of classical mechanics 15

2.1 Mass, quantity of motion, and force .............................. 15
2.2 Newton’s law s.................................................................... 17
2.3 Analytical mechanics........................................................ 19
2.3.1 The basic equations of mechanics........................ 20
2.3.2 Point masses and fo rc e s ...................................... 22
2.4 Constants of m o tio n ........................................................ 23
2.4.1 Constants of motion and conserved quantities . . 23
2.4.2 Conservation of energy......................................... 27
2.4.3 Angular momentum and its conservation............ 31

3 One-dimensional motion of a particle 35

3.1 Examples of one-dimensional m o tio n .............................. 35
3.2 General features .............................................................. 37
3.3 Back to the examples........................................................ 42
3.3.1 The inclined t r a c k ............................................... 42
3.3.2 The plane pendulum ............................................ 43
3.3.3 The harmonic o scillato r...................................... 46

vii
viii CONTENTS

3.4 The driven, damped oscillator......................................... 49

3.4.1 The driven oscillator with linear damping . . . . 50
3.4.2 The periodically driven, damped oscillator . . . . 52
3.5 Stability of m o tio n ........................................................... 55
3.5.1 Two examples ..................................................... 55
3.5.2 Linear stability a n aly sis............................. 57
3.6 Anharmonic one-dimensional m o tio n .............................. 63

4 Peculiar motion in two dimensions 71

4.1 The two-dimensional harmonic oscillator........................ 71
4.2 The Henon-Heiles s y s te m ............................................... 79
4.3 A ‘useless’ conserved q u an tity ......................................... 86
4.4 Chaotic b eh av io r.............................................................. 89
4.5 Laplace’s clock mechanism doesnot e x i s t ...................... 97

5 M otion in a central force 101

5.1 General features of the motion .................................... 102
5.1.1 Conserved quantities................................... 102
5.1.2 The effective p o te n tia l................................ 105
5.1.3 Properties of the orbits ...................................... 108
5.2 Motion in a 1/r p o te n tia l............................................... HO
5.2.1 The case 0 ..................................................... HO
5.2.2 Bounded motion for L = 0 .......................... 117
5.3 Motion in the potential V(r) ocXjro t ............................... 118
5.3.1 Mechanical similarity ......................................... 120
5.4 The Runge-Lenz vector .................................................. 121
5.5 Integrability vanishes........................................................ 125
5.5.1 The homogeneous magnetic fieldas the sole force 126
5.5.2 Addition of a central force.......................... 133
5.5.3 Motion in the symmetry p l a n e ................. 134

6 Gravitational force between two bodies 139

6.1 Two-body s y ste m s........................................................... 139
6.1.1 Center of mass and relative co o rd in ates.. 143
6.1.2 Conserved quantities................................... 145
6.2 The gravitational in te ra c tio n ......................................... 147
6.3 Kepler’s l a w s .................................................................... 151
6.3.1 Beyond Kepler’s laws ........................................... 159
CONTENTS ix

6.4 Gravitational potential of large b o d ie s ........................... 160

6.4.1 The potential of a homogeneous sphere ............ 161
6.4.2 The potential of an inhomogeneous body . . . . 164
6.5 On the validity of the gravitational law ........................... 166

7 Collisions of particles. Scattering 171

7.1 Unbounded motion in a central fo rc e .............................. 171
7.2 Kinematics of two-particle-collisions.............................. 176
7.2.1 Elastic collisions of two p a rtic le s ........................ 177
7.2.2 Kinematics of elastic co llisio n s........................... 179
7.3 Potential scattering........................................................... 185
7.3.1 The scattering cross sectio n ................................. 186
7.3.2 Scattering in the I /r p o te n tia l........................... 189

8 Changing the frame of reference 195

8.1 Inertial frames ................................................................. 197
8.2 Changing the inertial fr a m e ............................................ 198
8.3 Linear transformations of the co o rd in ates..................... 200
8.3.1 Translation of the coordinate sy stem .................. 200
8.3.2 Rotation of the coordinate s y s te m ..................... 201
8.4 The Galilean group........................................................... 205
8.4.1 Transformation of forces...................................... 207
8.5 Transformations to non-inertial fram es........................... 209
8.5.1 Accelerated frames of reference........................... 209
8.5.2 Rotating frames of reference................................. 211
8.5.3 Motion in a rotating f r a m e ................................. 216

9 Lagrangian mechanics 223

9.1 Constrained motion ........................................................ 223
9.2 Calculus of variations ..................................................... 231
9.2.1 The Euler-Lagrange e q u atio n .............................. 233
9.2.2 Transforming the variables ................................. 238
9.2.3 C onstraints........................................................... 240
9.3 The Lagrangian................................................................. 243
9.3.1 Inverse problem in the calculus of variations . . . 243
9.3.2 Inverse problem for Newton’s equation of motion 244
9.3.3 The Lagrangian for a single p a r tic le .................. 247
9.3.4 Hamilton’s p rin c ip le ............................................ 249
X CONTENTS

9.3.5 The Lagrangian in generalized coordinates . . . . 250

9.3.6 Further applications of the Lagrangian............... 255
9.3.7 Nonuniformly moving frames of reference . . . . 256

10 Conservation laws and symmetries 261

10.1 Equations of motion for N point m a sse s........................ 261
10.2 The conservation l a w s ..................................................... 265
10.2.1 The motion of the center of m a s s ........................ 265
10.2.2 Conservation of angular m o m e n tu m .................. 267
10.2.3 Conservation of energy......................................... 271
10.3 The Lagrangian of a system of N particles..................... 275
10.4 Infinitesimal transformations ......................................... 278
10.4.1 Infinitesimal translations of t i m e ........................ 278
10.4.2 Infinitesimal coordinate transform ations............ 279
10.4.3 Galilean transformations and constants of motion 282

11 The rigid body 287

11.1 Degrees of freedom of a rigid b o d y ................................. 288
11.2 Some basics of statics ..................................................... 289
11.2.1 Historical s u rv e y .................................................. 289
11.2.2 The basic physical p rin c ip le s.............................. 290
11.2.3 Simple m ach in es.................................................. 292
11.3 Dynamics of the rigid b o d y ............................................ 296
11.3.1 Historical landm arks............................................ 296
11.3.2 The motion of a rigid b o d y ................................. 298
11.3.3 The inertia t e n s o r ............................................... 303
11.3.4 Euler’s equations of m o tio n ................................. 309
11.3.5 T h e m o tio n o fa sp in n in g to p .............................. 317
11.3.6 The symmetric spinning to p ................................. 324

12 Small oscillations 337

12.1 T h ed o u b lep en d u lu m ..................................................... 337
12.2 The harmonic approxim ation......................................... 341
12.2.1 The general th e o ry ............................................... 341
12.2.2 The double pendulum (again).............................. 346
12.2.3 Vibrations of a triatomic m olecule..................... 349
12.3 From linear chain to vibrating s tr in g .............................. 357
12.3.1 The vibrating s tr in g ............................................ 361
CONTENTS xi

13 Hamiltonian mechanics 365

13.1 Hamilton’s equations of m o tio n ...................................... 365
13.1.1 A p a rtic le in a c e n tra lfo rc e fie ld ................... 368
13.1.2 The rigid b o d y ................................................ 369
13.1.3 Central force and homogeneous magneticfield . . 371
13.2 Poisson b ra c k e ts .............................................................. 377
13.3 Canonical transformations............................................... 380
13.3.1 The generating function of a transformation . . . 381
13.3.2 Canonical invariants............................................ 386
13.3.3 Infinitesimal canonicaltransformations................ 387
13.4 Symmetries and conservation l a w s .................................. 390
13.5 The flow in phase s p a c e .................................................. 392

14 Hamilton-Jacobi theory 397

14.1 Integrability....................................................................... 397
14.1.1 Liouville’s theorem on integrability................ 398
14.1.2 Sketchedproofofthetheorem ........................... 400
14.2 Time-independent Hamilton-Jacobi theory ..................... 403
14.2.1 The Hamilton-Jacobi e q u a tio n ........................... 403
14.2.2 Separation of variables......................................... 405
14.3 The problem of two centers of g r a v ity ........................... 411

15 Three-body systems 419

15.1 The restricted three-body p ro b le m ................................. 420
15.2 Solutions of the problem .................................................. 426
15.3 Is our planetary system also chaotic?.............................. 434

16 Approximating non-integrable systems 439

16.1 Action-angle v a ria b les..................................................... 439
16.1.1 Definition and general p roperties................... 439
16.1.2 Transforming to action and angle variables . . . 443
16.2 Dynamics on the to r u s ..................................................... 452
16.3 Canonical perturbation theory ...................................... 455
16.3.1 The one-dimensional anharmonic oscillator . . . 459
16.3.2 First order corrections......................................... 462
16.4 The KAM theorem ........................................................ 463
16.5 Is the solar system stab le?............................................... 467
16.5.1 A few historical landmarks ................................ 467
xii CONTENTS

16.5.2 On the stability of planetary o rb its................... 469

In retrospect 475

Appendix 477

A Coordinates; vector analysis 477

A. I The Euclidean space E3 ................................................. 477
A.2 Cartesian coordinates .................................................... 479
A. 3 Orthogonal, curvilinear coordinates............................... 481
A.3.1 General relations................................................. 481
A.3.2 Spherical coordinates........................................... 483
A.3.3 Cylindrical coordinates ..................................... 485

B Rotations and tensors 487

B. l R o ta tio n s ......................................................................... 487
B. 2 T e n s o rs ............................................................................ 490

C Green’s functions 493

C. l The Dirac 5-function....................................................... 493
C.1.1 D istributions....................................................... 493
C.1.2 The 5-function.................................................... 494
C.2 Fourier tran sfo rm s.......................................................... 495
C.3 Linear differential equations............................................ 497
C.3.1 The Green’s function........................................... 497
C.3.2 The equation of the damped oscillator............. 498

Bibliography 503

Index 509
I

Basic considerations and

concepts

1.1 Why classical mechanics is still challenging

In the latter half of the 19th century, physics was widely considered
to be complete. The basic pillar of the physics was Newtonian Me­
chanics, and this was augmented by the theories of Lagrange, Hamilton
and Jacobi. So at this time, increased focus was directed at the epis­
temology of physics, particularly mechanics. E. MACH1, to mention
just one prominent thinker, thoroughly expounded epistemological as­
pects of mechanics, in his book, uThe Science of Mechanics - a Critical
Account of its Development” (see Bibliography).
At the beginning of the 20th century two epistemological issues
proved to be very fruitful for the future of physics: The existence of the
ether and the existence of atoms. The former was settled by Einstein’s
theory of relativity, partly motivated by Mach’s criticism of Newton’s
absolute space, and the second found its resolution in quantum mechan­
ics.
But there was also a further issue at the turn of the century, one
that was to have a major impact on physics only much later. The ques­
tion of the stability of planetary motion was studied in particular by H.
POINCARE2. In 1889 he submitted to the Swedish Academy a prize-
1Ernst Mach (1838-1916), Austrian physicist and epistemologist.
2Henri Poincare (1854-1912), French mathematician, physicist, and philosopher.

I
2 I. BASIC CONSIDERATIONS AND CONCEPTS

winning paper on the stability of the motion of three gravitationally

interacting bodies. In later work, he concluded that the stability ques­
tion is of a fundamental nature. In “Science and Method” he anticipated
an essential characteristic of chaotic behavior: ‘small differences in the
initial conditions' may ‘produce very great ones in the phenomena\
Half a century passed before the conception of classical mechanics
changed fundamentally in the eyes of the majority of physicists3. This
occurred with the appearance of chaotic behavior in deterministic equa­
tions such as those of Newton. It all started with E. Lorenz’s observation
in 1963 that a simplified atmospheric model - derived from hydrody­
namic equations and consisting of three coupled nonlinear first-order or­
dinary differential equations - turned out to show quite different numer­
ical solutions for extremely tiny changes in the initial conditions. This
discovery precipitated a tremendous amount of research into dynamical
systems worldwide. We mention only two research fields directly re­
lated to classical mechanics: chaotic behavior in a particular nonlinear
two-dimensional Hamiltonian system and chaos in the restricted three-
body systems with gravitational interactions. We discuss both these
systems in detail later. At the same time the celebrated Kolmogorov-
Arnold-Moser (KAM) theorem (1954-63) solved Poincare’s convergence
problem in the power series treatment of dynamical systems that are
not exactly solvable.
As a result of this discovery, the generally accepted presumption
of p redictability of m echanical system s was overturned. At least
since P. S. LAPLACE4 expressed that predictability5 in 1814, it had
been universally believed that given all the initial conditions, and given
sufficiently powerful calculational tools, one could predict the future
state of any classical system. This is still true in principle, but the
fact remains that due to extreme sensitivity to changes in the initial
conditions, it is practically not possible to predict the future for many
systems, since the initial values are always only known to a certain
accuracy.
The new picture also has implications for other fields of physics.
For example, in statistical physics, it sheds new light on ergodic theory,
3Starting with Poincare mainly mathematicians were aware that the solutions of
the fundamental equations may show a new behavior.
4Pierre Simon Laplace (1749-1827), French mathematician and physicist.
5For Laplace’s statement see Chapter4, Section 4.5.
1.2. THE BIRTH OF CLASSICAL MECHANICS 3

and allows a new understanding of the arrow of time - that is, the
apparent irreversible direction of time in the macroscopic world, despite
the microscopic time reversibility of the fundamental laws.
Chaotic behavior is ubiquitous even in rather simple mechanical sys­
tems. Most textbooks on classical mechanics only consider the small
minority of so-called integrable systems. In the light of the ‘chaos rev­
olution’, this cannot be considered adequate in a modern approach.
Therefore, we introduce concepts and tools necessary to understand in-
tegrability and chaotic behavior quite early in the treatment, along with
examples of chaotic systems. Presenting this modern view of classical
mechanics is our chief goal.

1.2 The birth of classical mechanics

It was an outstanding genius who gave rise not only to mechanics but to
physics as the science where starting from basic laws the observed phe­
nomena are derived: I. NEWTON6. Newton’s uPhilosophiae naturalis
principia mathematica” (Mathematical principles of natural philosophy,
London 1687; “Principia” for short) terminated a period of about two
millennia7. Newton’s ‘Magnum Opus’8 replaced the dicta of antiquity
and the subsequent suppositions about the nature of motion, its prop­
erties and causes, by a few axioms, exploited their consequences and
compared these successfully with physical reality. Classical mechanics
is based on the central axioms (or laws) of the “Principia”.
6Isaac Newton (1642-1727), English physicist and mathematician. Newton is one
of the most important and influential scientists of all time.
An often-quoted biography of Newton is R. Westfall’s “Never at Rest”. Also
recommendable is the perspective on his life and work presented in “Let Newton
be!” (see the Bibliography for both).
7Of course there is a series of preceding achievements in the field we call today
classical mechanics (see e.g. the comprehensive work of R. Dugas “A history of
mechanics”). The situation is properly described by Newton’s dictum in a letter to
R. Hooke: ‘If I have seen further it is by standing on the shoulders of Giants.
8Newton’s main works are the “Principia” and the “Opticks”. Also famous is
his mathematical contribution to the field of analysis. Actually he, together with
Leibniz, laid its foundation stone (see the end of this chapter). But during his life
time he published only small accounts of his theories of fluxions and of the quadrature
of curves.
Little known, but nevertheless a part of his personality, are his activities in alchemy
and chronology.
4 I. BASIC CONSIDERATIONS AND CONCEPTS

There were three editions of the “Principia” (1687, 1713, 1726) fol­
lowed by translations into English (1727 by Andrew Motte), French
(1759 by the Marquise Emilie du Chatelet), German (1871 by Jakob
Ph. Wolfers), and Russian (1915/16 by Aleksei N. Krylov). The lat­
ter three include also instructive commentaries and additions. Another
remarkable Latin edition is the so-called ‘Jesuit’ edition by Francois
Jaquier and Thomas Le Seur (Geneva 1739-42) which provides a huge
amount of valuable annotations doubling the volume of the “Principia”.
The “Principia” starts with two sections followed by three books.
The first section entitled “Definitions” deals with the concepts of mass,
motion, force, time, and space. In the second section “Axioms, or Laws
of Motion” the famous, three basic laws are presented.
Then follows the first book “Of the Motion of Bodies” dedicated
to the motion of a body subject to central forces. In its first section
Newton introduces eleven important Lemmata needed for his proofs9.
Afterwards he starts discussing various aspects of the motion of a body
subject to a ‘centripetal force’ (i.e. central force, see Eq. 2.31). Subse­
quently he considers bodies mutually attracting each other with central
forces, switching then to forces between solid bodies10.
The second book, also entitled “Of the Motion of Bodies”, treats the
motion in resisting media. Fluids and the motion of bodies in a fluid
are discussed. In particular the circular motion of a fluid is examined,
thereby disproving R. DESCARTES’11 vortex theory.
9These Lemmata serve to introduce, in disguise, the calculus in Newton’s deduc­
tions. They present the notions of vanishing small quantities and their convergence
to a limit. Curves are approximated by sequences of polygons tending in the limit
of increasingly small steps to the curves (like Archimedes’s calculation of the area
of a parabolic section nearly two thousand years ago). Then the main part of the
Lemmata treats the relationship between an arc a, its chord c, and the tangent t (cf.
the Figure below). In the limit of vanishing size these three become equal.

10Apparently so far Newton has point-like bodies in mind without stating it ex­
plicitly.
11Rene Descartes (1596-1650) advocated in his book “Principia Philosophiae” that
the planets are carried around the sun by the vortex motion of a subtle celestial
1.3. OBSERVATIONS AND THE RESULTING PICTURES 5

The third book uOn the System of the World”, i.e. the planetary
system, contains the law of the gravitational force and is devoted to ce­
lestial mechanics. Topics are: The shape of the earth and the weight of
bodies in different regions of the earth, moon’s motion and its inequal­
ities, the tides, and comets12. The motion of the moon is considered as
a three body system (sun, earth, and moon) and observed time depen­
dencies of the parameters of the lunar orbit are calculated.
Before we proceed, following and extending Newton’s ideas, we con­
sider some general premises.

1.3 Observations and the resulting pictures

The laws of physics inevitably have a mathematical form, since physics
aims to be quantitative, and even precise. But behind the mathematical
form stands concepts and reasoning. A (theoretical) physicist’s everyday
routine is mainly concerned with mathematics. But particularly when
new theories are formed or old ones are scrutinized, it is the concepts
and their understanding that is important. What is the relation between
physical reality and its mathematical image?
Everyone who observes, conceptualizes or even changes the sur­
rounding nature develops an imagination that goes beyond simple cog­
nition of the environment. They construct pictures of nature - for exam­
ple, suppositions are made about connections between processes; con­
clusions are drawn about influences between processes. A picture of the
world emerges that often also includes metaphysical currents, perhaps
even religious ones. Physics is restricted to the rational part of the world
view. We quote below views held by outstanding physicists on the re­
lation between the exterior world and the individual’s knowledge of the
world. Presumably, most physicists share these views. The selection is
far from complete: it can only touch on the epistemology of mechanics
matter. In Descartes’ view there is no void; space is the presence of this subtle
matter.
At least in this respect Newton’s “Principia” are a reaction to Descartes’ work.
In the full title of Newton’s “Principia” the words Principia and Philosophiae were
printed in red.
12Newton published this part in a separate version not depending on the first two
books. Its English translation “A fIVeatise on the System of the World” appeared
1728 in London.
6 I. BASIC CONSIDERATIONS AND CONCEPTS

(and physics). Our selection attempts to illustrate the philosophy basic

to this book.
In the following, we refer to introductions of two important books on
the principles of mechanics - written by H. HERTZ13 and L. BOLTZ­
MANN14 at around the turn of the 20th century (see Bibliography).
Both these physicists are certainly among the most prominent physicists
of that era.
In his book on the principles of mechanics, Hertz starts with a model
of the epistemological process in physics15:
As a basis ... we make use of ... preceding experiences,
obtained by an accidental observation or by an intentional
experiment. The method, however, that we constantly use to
deduce the future from the past, thereby obtaining the desired
foresight, is this: we attribute inner images or symbols to the
exterior objects; and this we do in such a manner that the
consequences of the images necessary by thought are just the
images of the consequences necessary by nature of the objects
represented. In order that this demand can be fulfilled, cer­
tain reconciliations (accords) between nature and our mind
have to exist. Experience teaches us that this demand can be
fulfilled and that hence such accords exist.

accidental observation, consequences

nature:
intentional experiment necessary by nature

t
inner images, consequences
mind:
symbols necessary by thought

Hertz’s scheme of the process of gaining knowledge

In his lectures on the principles of mechanics, Boltzmann refers to

Hertz’s view, and presents his own:
13Heinrich Hertz (1857-1894), German physicist.
14Ludwig Boltzmann (1844-1906), Austrian physicist.
15In the following, all citations that do not refer to an English edition were trans­
lated by the present author.
1.3. OBSERVATIONS AND THE RESULTING PICTURES 7

It has hardly ever been doubted ..., that our thoughts are
mere images of the objects (rather symbols for these) having
at most a certain kinship to them, but can never coincide
with them and can be related only to them like the letters to
the sound or the note to the tone. Because of the limitedness
of our intellect, they can only reflect a small part of the
objects.
We may now proceed in two ways: I. We may leave the
images more general. Then there is less risk that they later
turn out to be false, since they are more adaptable to the
newly discovered facts; yet because of their generality the
images become indeterminate and pale and their further de­
velopment will be connected with a certain uncertainty and
ambiguity. 2. We particularize the images and finish them
in detail to a certain degree. Then we have to add much
more arbitrariness (hypothetical), thus perhaps not fitting to
new experiences; however, we have the advantage, that the
images are as clear and distinct as possible and we can de­
duce from them all consequences with complete certainty and
uniqueness.

Furthermore, Boltzmann points out that the requirement (to register

only the directly given phenomena and not to add something arbitrary \
to omit all hypothetical, does not lead beyond iSimply marking every
phenomenon\
So, when constructing images, symbols, and models, a certain free­
dom in the choice of hypotheses exists. If the results of distinct hypothe­
ses do not differ, then criteria from outside physical reasoning are used
for the selection. Something like aesthetics of explanations, models, and
theories also exists. A very important criterion, according to Mach, is
the ‘economy of thought’ in theories, in particular, that the number of
suppositions should be minimal. Already Newton advocated simplicity
of explanation in two rules of reasoning in the beginning of Book III of
the “Principia”16:
16In the present book, all the citations from Newton’s “Principia” are taken from
the English translation “The Principia” by A. Motte (cf. Bibliography). When
stressing that we refer explicitly to that translation we simply write: The Principia.
Occasionally we use more modern words here.
8 I. BASIC CONSIDERATIONS AND CONCEPTS

Rule I:

We are to admit no more causes of natural things than such

as are both true and sufficient to explain their appearances.

Rule II:

Therefore to the same natural effects we must, as far as

possible, assign the same causes.

The hypotheses and postulates resulting from creation of the images

of nature are refined and made more precise in a dialectic way. Progress
in physics results from an interplay between gaining experience with
the process considered (increasingly detailed experience in the sense of
Hertz) and improving the model (image) of the process accordingly by
comparing the consequences with the increasing experience of physical
reality. Thus, although originally imprecise, ordinary concepts are re­
fined, their meaning becomes more exact. For example, the concepts
momentum, force and energy of a body are easily distinguished by a
physicist - but in common usage, these three concepts are almost al­
ways confounded.
With regards to observations and experiments, it was G. GALILEI17
who analyzed the data of his measurements mathematically according
to his believe that 4the book of nature is written in the language of
mathematics’18. In Galileo’s time, systematic observation was already
established in astronomy, as was the use of mathematics to represent and
summarize the results; but observation of the motion of bodies under
controlled and controllable conditions, and the mathematical represen­
tation of physical process such as those in Galileo’s experiments (cf.
Section 3.3.1), was completely new.
The mathematical symbols and images of classical mechanics were
formulated by Isaac Newton. In this book, we will start from his laws
and dwell mainly on the elaboration of the (mathematical) consequences
that, according to the philosophical sketch just presented, should fit the
experimental observation - the consequences in nature. But still we have
to clarify the stage on which Newton’s laws act.
17Galileo Galilei (1564-1642), Italian physicist and astronomer.
18 “II Saggiatore”, Rome 1623. The quotation is taken from Stilman Drake’s trans­
lation “The Assayer”.
1.4. TIME, SPACE AND MOTION 9

1.4 Time, space and motion

The meaning of the basic concepts time, space and motion is hard to
outline exactly. Philosophers, as well as physicists, have devoted stud­
ies to these concepts19. In physics, these concepts have a more precise
usage - and are also more restricted in content (see Boltzmann’s view
above) - than in everyday life. So the physical concepts of time and
space have different and fewer characteristics. There are no ‘good’ or
‘bad’ times. And physical space is not attributed with ‘wideness’, as in
common speech20. The central properties of time and space in physics
are to be measurable and mappable onto mathematical entities. Al­
though these quantities are prerequisites to describe physical processes,
their conceptualization may change as physics progresses. At the end
of the 19th century, concepts of both time and space seemed to be well
established - and were revised by Einstein’s theories of relativity.

1.4.1 N e w to n ’s concep ts
Below, we present Newton’s concepts - essentially, the underlying con­
cepts of classical mechanics - expounded in his “Principia”, and confront
them with Mach’s critique in “The Science of Mechanics”.
Newton on tim e (The Principia, Definitions, Scholium):

Absolute, true, and mathematical time, of itself and from

its own nature, flows equably without relation to anything
external, and by another name is called duration; relative,
apparent, and common time is some sensible and external
(whether accurate or unequable) measure of duration by the
means of motion, which is commonly used instead of true
time, such as an hour, a day, a month, a year.

These sentences may make sense intuitively; however, they seem to be

inconsequential if one takes into account Newton’s intention (to inves­
tigate only actual facts’. Presumably, the statements reflect Newton’s

19An extensive treatment of the history of theories of space is given in M. Jammer’s

recommendable book “Concepts of Space” (cf. Bibliography).
20Unfortunately, physicists, too, keep talking about ‘empty’ space.
10 I. BASIC CONSIDERATIONS AND CONCEPTS

contemporary philosophical and ideological background. Mach21 argues,

that Newton’s concept of time is an abstract (useless) concept:

This absolute time can be measured by comparison with no

motion; it has therefore neither a practical nor a scientific
value; and no one is justified in saying that he knows aught
about it. It is an idle metaphysical conception.

Newton on space (ibid.):

Absolute space in its own nature, without relation to any­

thing external, remains always similar and immovable. Rel­
ative space is some movable dimension or measure of the
absolute spaces; which our senses determine by its position
to bodies; and which is vulgarly taken for immovable space;

And on motion, which connects space and time, Newton wrote

(ibid.):

Absolute motion is the translation of a body from one ab­

solute place into another; and relative motion, the transla­
tion from one relative place into another.

The objections raised by Mach to absolute space:

No one can say anything about absolute space and absolute

motion, they are just objects in thoughts that cannot be demon­
strated in practice. As has been pointed out in detail, all our
principles of mechanics are experiences about relative posi­
tions and motions of bodies.

And as to uniform motion:

Motion can be uniform with respect to other motion. The

question of whether a motion as such is uniform has no
meaning at all...
21Mach took the view that science should not ask ‘why?’ but ‘how?’ (R. Carnap,
An Introduction to the Philosophy of Science, Dover Publications, New York 1995).
1.4. TIME , SPACE AND MOTION 11

Also, Mach did not consider N ew ton’s pail experim ent as com­
pelling proof of absolute space: a bucket filled with water is spun, then
suddenly stopped; before being spun, the water surface is flat, but as be­
ing spun, the surface forms a concave shape that remains for some time
after stopping. According to Mach, the curvature of the surface of the
rotating water only indicates motion relative to the fixed stars, and not
relative to a fictitious absolute space22. The a priori existence of space
and time is a feature of Newtonian mechanics; in the general theory of
relativity, space and time are ‘produced’ by the masses. Although an
absolute conception of space and time is certainly the background for
Newton’s laws, these laws can be applied to physical situations without
referring to that background23.
In classical physics, one describes the behavior of (the images of
the) objects in a ‘space’, and the change of their positions in that space
with ‘time’: Space and tim e or, to be more precise, their images are
the very basic concepts of physics. M otion connects space and time.
The epistemological background of the concepts of space and time is
certainly interesting; nevertheless, it is the mapping of space and time
onto mathematical entities that is essential for theoretical mechanics.

1.4.2 T he m ath em atical pictures of space and tim e

To describe the position as a mathematical object we proceed in the
common way: We choose some point of reference in space, the origin
O, and a system of three orthogonal axes intersecting each other in
the origin. This is our fram e of reference24. In our experience, we
know, that then every point r in space is uniquely labelled by three real
numbers, the projections of r onto the chosen axes. All these points in
space form now a vector space M3 = {r = (x, ?/, z) \ x , y , z real} , where
usually one sets O = (0,0,0). In similar reasoning the instances in time
are simply represented by the real axis (R1 = {t \ t real}) with to = 0
as the reference instance of time
Two more characteristics of physical space that are to be reflected
in the mathematical picture are: the distance between two points, and
22This controversy was resolved in favor of Mach by the general theory of relativity.
23The situation is somewhat similar to quantum mechanics, where the interpreta­
tions seem to be not important in practice.
24On the influence of the choice of the frame of reference see chapter 8.
12 I. BASIC CONSIDERATIONS AND CONCEPTS

the angle between two straight lines25. A mathematical object suitable

for representing physical space in classical mechanics is

E3, the Euclidean vector space in th re e dimensions.

The mathematical properties of E3 are summarized in Appendix A. A

point r G R3 is represented in the Euclidean space E3 by the radius vector
r, whose components are the Cartesian coordinates of that point. This
Euclidean space is the mathematical image of the physical configuration
space. If the motion of a body is restricted, a one or two dimensional
space (motion along a line or on a surface) may suffice. On the other
hand, it will turn out to be advantageous to extend the set of coordinates
(to obtain, say, a ‘phase space’), and hence to use a higher dimensional
space.

1.4.3 K in em atics
In this book mechanics is presented as the science of the motion of bodies
under the influence of forces. Bodies are taken to be characterized by
their masses, their appearances, and their constitution, e.g. whether
they are rigid or soft. For a complete representation of the motion of
a body in classical mechanics, one needs to know its position for any
time. The consideration of motion itself (without referring to a cause)
is called kinem atics. If we also take into account forces as the origin of
the motion we deal with dynam ics26. This book is devoted mainly to
the dynamics of (rigid) bodies. Only a short part is concerned with their
statics, the theory of equilibrium of bodies and forces (see chapterll).
To measure the time dependence, one compares the motion at var­
ious stages with a time standard, which is usually - by definition - a
periodic motion (e.g. the motion of a pendulum or the oscillations of
an atomic clock). The mathematical picture of particle or body mo­
tion is the function r (t) for object’s position with respect to the origin
O. For an extended object, in many cases it is sufficient to consider a
representative (mathematical) point of the body.
25We do not want to discuss the mathematical meaning of ‘Straight’. In physical
reality, in the context of classical mechanics, light rays between the objects may serve
to define straight lines in space (‘in vacuo’).
26The distinction between dynamics and kinematics is historical.
1.4. TIME , SPACE AND MOTION 13

Of particular importance in classical mechanics are the first and

second time derivatives of the radius vector: the rate of change of the
radius vector r (t) with time,
i 7 • dr
the velocity v = — = r,
and the rate of change of the velocity vector with time,
dh
the acceleration v = = r.
dt2
Here we used the calculus of infinitesimals invented independently by G.
W. LEIBNIZ27 and Isaac Newton28-The notation of derivatives is due to
Leibniz; Newton denoted the time derivative - fluxion as he called it - by
a dot on top of the fluctuating quantity. For short we will use very often
Newton’s dot-notation, but without having his different background in
mind. The fundamental laws of classical mechanics are formulated in
terms of the variables r (t), r (t), and r (£).
The stage is now set with space and time; let us introduce the actors
in the next chapter.

27Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646 -1716), German polymath and philosopher.

28The invention priority of the Calculus - as it is now is called - was the issue of a
famous controversy between Leibniz and Newton.
This page intentionally left blank
2

Foundations of classical
mechanics

Before establishing the laws, Newton introduces the definitions of mass,

force, and quantity of motion. We shall take these as our starting point.
Again we also mention Mach’s criticisms of Newton’s formulation, from
his book, “The Science of Mechanics” (see Bibliography). Then we
present the Newton’s laws in the form used usually in classical mechanics
and derive rather general consequences.

2.1 Mass, quantity of motion, and force

N ew ton’s definitions (The Principia, Definitions)

Definition I:

The quantity of matter is the measure of the same arising

from its density and bulk conjointly.

... It is this quantity that I mean hereafter everywhere under

the name of body or mass. And the same is known by the
weight of each body, for it is proportional to the weight, as
I have found by experiments on pendulums, very accurately
made, which shall be shown hereafter.

15
16 2. FOUNDATIONS OF CLASSICAL MECHANICS

D efinition II:

The quantity of motion is the measure of the same, arising

from the velocity and quantity of matter conjointly.

The motion of the whole is the sum of motions of all parts;

D efinition III:

The vis insita, or innate force of matter, is a power of re­

sisting, by which every body, as much as in it lies, continues
in its present state, whether it be of rest, or of moving uni­
formly forward in a right line.

D efinition IV:

An impressed force is an action exerted upon a body, in order

to change its state, either of rest, or of moving uniformly
forward in a right line.

Mach criticized Definition I as being a sham, and Definition III as

being superfluous in view of Definition IV. Mach was not alone in dislik­
ing Newton’s concept of mass: Hertz, too, in his “Principles of Mecha­
nics” , is of the opinion that Newton must have been embarrassed about
his enforced definition of mass as a product of volume times density.
Newton did not distinguish between the mass appearing in Definition
I and the mass referred to in Definition II. The equivalence of this two
masses is not evident; we will discuss this later (Section 6.2). The mod­
ern terms for these masses are gravitational mass and inertial mass
respectively.
Nowadays, the ‘quantity of motion’ is called m om entum . Also, all
three concepts - ‘mass’, ‘momentum’, and ‘force’ - are more precisely
defined in physics than in popular usage, not least because they are
related by mathematical equations. As to the history of these concepts,
we refer to the books by M. Jammer, “Concepts of mass” and “Concepts
of force” (see Bibliography).
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Here is some of the ancient city, vii. 255.
Here lies Father Clarges, etc., xii. 150.
Here lies a she-Sun, and a he-Moon there, etc., viii. 53; xii. 28.
Here will I set up my everlasting bed, etc., viii. 210.
Here’s a health to ane I lo’e dear, etc., v. 140.
here’s the rub, xii. 234.
hermit poor, xii. 126.
heroic sentiment of, etc., iii. 61.
Hesperus, among the lesser lights, shines like, etc., viii. 164.
hewers of wood, etc., x. 124.
hew you as a carcase, etc., xii. 181.
Hey for Doctor’s Commons, viii. 159.
hiatus in manuscriptis, vii. 8, 198; xii. 305.
Hic jacet, x. 221.
hid from ages, i. 49.
High as our heart, v. 271 n.
High-born Hoel’s harp, etc., xii. 260.
high endeavour and the glad success, the, vi. 28; vii. 125; ix. 318,
373.
high leaves, the, etc., iii. 232; iv. 268.
high grass, the, that by the light of the departing sun, etc., v. 363.
high holiday, of once a year, on some, iii. 172; vii. 75.
High Legitimates the Holy Band, the, xi. 423.
High over hill and over dale he flies, v. 43.
High-way, since you my chief Parnassus be, etc., v. 326.
higher and the lower orders, the, xi. 370.
highest and mightiest, vi. 439.
hill of ages, ix. 69.
himself and the universe, x. 166.
Hinc illæ lachrymæ, xii. 187.
hinder parts are ruinous, its, iv. 201.
his bear dances, vi. 412; viii. 507; ix. 351.
His garment neither was of silk nor say, etc., xi. 437.
His generous ardour no cold medium knows, etc., iv. 263; vi. 253.
his little bark, v. 74.
His locked, lettered, braw brass collar, etc., v. 132.
His lot, though small, He sees that little lot, the lot of all, v. 119.
His plays were works, while others’ works were plays, v. 262.
His principiis nascuntur tyranni, etc., vii. 347.
his ruin meets, v. 301.
his spirits gave him raptures with his cook-maid, xii. 155 n.
his soul was like a star, and dwelt apart, v. 180.
his yoke is not easy, etc., iii. 85.
hitch into a rhyme, viii. 50.
hitch it, iii. 64.
Hitherto shalt thou come and no further, vi. 268; viii. 425; x. 344.
Hoc erat in votis, xii. 126.
Hoisting the bloody flag, x. 374, 376.
hold our hands and check our pride, x. 378.
holds his crown in contempt of the choice of the people, i. 394.
See also contempt.
Holds us a while misdoubting his intent, etc., xi. 123.
holiest of holies, x. 336.
hollow and rueful rumble, with, xi. 374.
holy water sprinkle, dipped in dew, a, iv. 246.
Homer, have not the poems of, i. 23; ix. 28.
Homer, the children of, ix. 429.
honest as this world goes, To be, etc., iii. 259; xii. 218.
honest man’s the noblest work of God, an, iii. 345; viii. 458 n.
honest, sonsie, bawsont face, viii. 450; ix. 184.
Honi soit qui mal y pense, vi. 65; ix. 202, 338.
honour consists in the word honour and nothing else, xi. 125.
honour dishonourable, etc., xii. 247.
Honour of Ireland, and as they were curiosities of the human kind,
for the, i. 54.
honourable vigilance, v. 264.
Hood an ass with reverend purple, etc., viii. 44.
Hoop, do me no harm, iii. 212.
Hope and fantastic expectations spend much of our lives, etc., i. 2.
Hope, thou nurse of young Desire, vi. 293.
Hope told a flattering tale, viii. 298.
Hope travels through, nor quits us till we die, vii. 302.
Hope! with eyes so fair, But thou, oh, etc., vi. 255.
Horace still charms with graceful negligence, etc., v. 75.
Horas non numero nisi serenas, x. 387; xii. 51, 52, 53.
horizon, at the, vi. 150.
horned feet, And with their, etc., xii. 258.
horse-whipping woman, that, viii. 468.
hortus siccus of dissent, the, iii. 264; x. 370.
host of human life, xi. 497.
hour when I escap’d the wrangling crew, The, etc., iii. 225.
house of brother Van I spy, The, etc., xii. 449.
house on the wild sea, with wild usages, v. 153.
housing with wild men, etc., x. 279.
How am I glutted with conceit of this? v. 203.
How apparel makes a man respected, etc., v. 290.
How blest art thou, canst love the country, Wroth, v. 307.
How do you, noble cousin? etc., v. 258.
How happy could I be with either, etc., xi. 426.
How is it, General? i. 209.
how it grew, and it grew, etc., vii. 93; xi. 517.
How little knew’st thou of Calista, iii. 180.
How lov’d, how honour’d once, avails them not, v. 176.
How near am I to happiness, etc., ii. 330; v. 216.
How oft, O Dart! what time the faithful pair, iv. 305 n.
How profound the gulf, etc., xi. 424.
How shall our great discoverers obtain, etc., i. 115.
How shall we part and wander down, etc., xii. 428.
how tall his person is, etc., vii. 211.
howled through the vacant guardrooms, etc., ix. 229.
Hudibras, who used to ponder, and, etc., viii. 66.
huge, dumb heap, vi. 28; ix. 56.
human face divine, x. 77.
human form is the most perfect, the, etc., x. 346.
human reason is like a drunken man, etc., vi. 147.
human understanding resembles a drunken clown, etc., xi. 216.
humanity, a discipline of, i. 123; vii. 78, 184; xii. 122.
Hundred Tales of Love, him of the, xi. 424.
hung armour of the invincible knights of old, is, i. 273; viii. 442.
hung like a cloud upon the mountain; now, etc., vii. 13.
Hunt half a day for a forgotten dream, iv. 323; ix. 64.
hunt the wind, I worship a statue, etc., vi. 97, 236; xii. 435.
hunter of shadows, himself a shade, a, vi. 168.
huntsmen are up in America, the, v. 340 n.
hurt by the archers, iii. 456; iv. 104.
Hussey, hussey, you will be as much ill-used and as much
neglected, etc., v. 108; viii. 194.
Hyde Park, all is a desert, Beyond, vi. 187; vii. 67; viii. 36.
Hymns its good God, and carols sweet of love, xi. 427, 501.
Hypocritical pretensions to virtue, i. 392.

I.
I also was an Arcadian. See Arcadian and painter.
I am afraid, my friend, this letter will never, etc., i. 94.
I am not as this poor Hottentot, iv. 44 n.
I am, on the contrary, persuaded, etc., vi. 126.
I apprehend you, viii. 10.
I cannot, seeing she’s woven of such bad stuff, etc., v. 238.
I cannot marry Crout, xii. 122.
I care not, Fortune, what you me deny, etc., vii. 371.
I’d sooner be a dog, xii. 202.
I hate ye, iv. 272.
I have secur’d my brother, viii. 86.
I hope none living, sir, And, viii. 201.
I knew you could not bear it, viii. 228.
I know he is not dead; I know proud death, etc., v. 208.
I know that all beneath the moon decays, etc., v. 299.
I’ll have a frisk with you, viii. 103.
I’ll walk, to get me an appetite, etc., v. 268 n.
I’m feeble; some widow’s curse, etc., viii. 274.
I never saw you look so like your mother, In all my life, viii. 456.
I never valued fortune but as it was subservient to my pleasure, viii.
72.
I observe, as a fundamental ground common to all the arts, etc., vi.
32.
I pr’ythee, look thou giv’st my little boy some syrup for his cold,
etc., v. 245.
I prythee, spare me, gentle boy; press me no more for that slight
toy, etc., viii. 55.
I rode one evening with Count Maddalo, etc., x. 261.
I see before me the gladiator lie, xi. 425.
I see him sweeter than the nosegay in his hand, etc., i. 65; v. 107.
I set out upon this adventurous journey, etc., xi., 249.
I stood in Venice, on the bridge of sighs, xi. 423.
I, that might have married the famous Mr Bickerstoff, etc., i. 7; viii.
96.
I think not so; her infelicity seem’d to have years too many, etc., v.
246; x. 260.
I think poets are Tories by nature, xii. 241.
I thought of Chatterton, the marvellous boy, etc., v. 122.
I too, whose voice no claims but truth’s e’er moved, etc., i. 379 n.
I’ve heard of hearts unkind, etc., iii. 172; xi. 515.
I was invited yesternight to a solemn supper, etc., viii. 41.
I was not train’d in academic bowers, etc., v. 283.
I will touch it, iii. 127.
I wish I was where Anna lies, iv. 305.
I wish my old hobbling mother, etc., viii. 80.
I wish you would follow Dr Cantwell’s precepts, vii. 189 n.
I would borrow a simile from Burke, etc., iii. 419.
I would not wish to have your eyes, vi. 19.
I would take the Ghost’s word, xii. 88 n.
Ici rugit Cain les cheveux hérissés, etc., xi. 234.
Idea can be like nothing but an idea, an, etc., xi. 109.
Idea, It is true we can form a tolerably distinct, etc., xi. 57.
Idea which in itself is particular becomes general, an, etc., xi. 23.
Ideas, If in having our, in the memory ready at hand, etc., xi. 45 n.
Ideas, operations, and faculties of the mind may be traced, all the,
etc., xi. 167.
Ideas seemed to lie like substances in the brain, iii. 397.
ideas seem to elude the senses, moral, etc., xi. 88.
ideas and operations of the mind proceed? Whence do all the, xi.
171.
idiot and embryo, iii. 270.
Idleness, with light-winged toys of feathered, xii. 58.
If a man lies on his back, etc., x. 341.
If a thousand pardons about your necks were tied, etc., v. 276.
If any author deserved the name of an original, etc., i. 171.
If aught of oaten stop or pastoral song May hope, chaste Eve, to
soothe thy modest ear, etc., v. 116.
If ever chance two wandering lovers brings, etc., v. 76.
If Florence be i’ th’ Court he would not kill me, etc., v. 241.
If his hand were full of truths, etc., ii. 393.
If o’er the cruel tyrant love, vi. 293; viii. 248, 320; xi. 304.
if the poor were to cut the throats of the rich, etc., iii. 132.
If these things are done in the green tree, etc., vii. 140.
If they cannot succeed in what is trifling, etc., vii. 168.
If this man Had but a mind allied unto his words, etc., v. 264.
If to her share, viii. 525.
If to their share some splendid virtues fall, etc., vii. 83.
If we fly into the uttermost parts of the earth, etc., v. 16.
If ye kill’d a thousand in an hour’s space, etc., v. 276.
If you cannot find in your heart to tell him you love him, I’ll sigh it
out of you, etc., v. 290.
If you were to write a fable for little fishes, vii. 163.
If you yield, I die To all affection, etc., v. 255.
ignorance was bliss, vii. 222.
Il avoit une grande puissance de raison, etc., i. 88 n.
Il y a aujourd’hui, jour des Paques Fleuris ... Madame Warens, vi.
24.
Il y a des impressions, etc., iii. 152; xii. 261.
Il y a donc des esprits de deux sortes, etc., xi. 287.
Ils ne pouvoient croire qu’un corps de cette beauté, etc., vi. 200 n.
ils se rejouissoient tristement, xii. 16.
Iliad of woes, iii. 10; iv. 41.
Ille igitur qui protrusit cylindrum, etc., xi. 73.
illustrious obscure, x. 143.
illustrious personages were introduced, These three, etc., vi. 209.
Illustrious predecessors, i. 380.
image and superscription, ix. 330.
image of his mind, the, iv. 372.
imagination étoit la première de ses facultés, etc., i. 88 n.
impeachment, We own the soft, x. 142.
impediments, the first of these, etc., x. 258.
impenetrable whiskers have confronted flames, Those, i. 422; xi.
273 n.
imperium in imperio, vi. 265.
implicité, it is without the copula, etc., x. 121, 129.
imposition of names, some of larger, some of stricter signification,
by this, etc., xi. 129.
Imposture, organised into a comprehensive and self-consistent
whole, etc., iii. 147.
imprisoned wranglers free, set the, iii. 390.
in all things a regular and moderate indulgence, etc., xi. 518.
in corpore vili, iv. 3.
in dallying with interdicted subjects; v. 207.
In doleful dumps, etc., xii. 12 n.
in each hard instance tried, oh soul supreme, x. 375.
In green vine leaves he was right fitly clad, v. 35; x. 74.
In happy hour doth he receive, etc., iii. 49.
in his habit as he lived, xii. 27.
in medio tutissimus ibis, viii. 473.
In my former days of bliss, etc., xi. 284.
In one of Mr Locke’s most noted remarks, etc., xi. 286.
In peace, there’s nothing so becomes a man, xii. 71.
In poetry the same effect is produced by a few abrupt and rapid
gleams of description, etc., v. 33.
in Pyrrho’s maze, iii. 226.
In search of wit these lose their common sense, etc., v. 74.
In spite of these swine-eating Christians, etc., v. 210 n.
in their eyes, in their hands, etc., i. 45; xi. 373.
in their untroubled element shall shine when we are laid in dust,
etc., v. 52.
In vain I haunt the cold and silver springs, etc., v. 302.
Incredulous odi, vii. 102.
independently of his conduct or merits, etc., xi. 417.
Indignatio facit versus, iii. 257, 317; v. 112.
Individual nature produces little beauty, xi. 212.
incapable of its own distress, viii. 450.
inconstant stage, the, viii. 383.
indolence is the source of all mischief, iv. 70.
Indus to the Pole, from, xii. 185, 278.
inexpressive she; The fair, the chaste, the, xii. 205.
inexpressive three, viii. 454.
infidels and fugitives, as, etc., xi. 443.
infants’ skulls, Hell was paved with, vii. 243.
infinite agitation of men’s wit, iv. 314; vi. 312; xi. 323; xii. 441.
infirmity, of our, viii. 402.
informed with music, sentiment, and thought, never to die, v. 274.
inhuman rout, the, v. 89.
inimitable on earth, etc., viii. 55.
innocence and simplicity of poor Charity Boys, ix. 18.
inscribed the cross of Christ, etc., iii. 152.
Insipid levelling morality to which the modern stage is tied down,
etc., xi. 298.
insolent piece of paper, an, xii. 168.
Insensés qui vous plaignez, etc., iv. 100.
instance might be painful; The, but the principle would please, viii.
21.
instinct with fire, viii. 423.
insulted the slavery of Europe, etc., iii. 13.
interlocutions between Lucius and Caius, viii. 417.
interminable babble, vii. 198.
Into a lower world, to theirs obscure And wild—To breathe in other
air, etc., v. 262.
intoxicating, whatever is most, in the odour of a Southern spring,
etc., i. 248.
Intus et in cute, vii. 24, 226; viii., 116; x. 34.
invariable principles, xi. 486.
invention of the enemy, A weak, etc., viii. 355.
inventory of all he said, viii. 103.
invincible knights of old, the, etc., i. 273; viii. 442.
invita Minervâ, vii. 8, 56, 119; viii. 379.
Irish People and the Irish Parliament, xi. 472.
Irishman in a row, like an, etc., xi. 494.
Iron has not entered his soul, The, xii. 277.
Iron mask, the Man in the, iv. 93.
iron rod, the torturing hour, the, xii. 215.
irritabile genus vatum, iii. 221.
island in the watery waste, lone, iv. 190.
Islands of the Blest, ix. 253.
It is a very good office, etc., viii. 2.
it is better to marry than burn, iii. 272.
It is by this and this alone, etc., vi. 135.
It is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle, etc., i. 376
n.
It is he who gives the second blow, etc., vi. 396.
It is my father, v. 237.
It is not easy to define in what this great style consists, etc., vi. 123.
It is not with me you are in love ... Sophia Western, etc., i. 44.
It is observable, I know not for what cause, etc., i. 318.
It is the keystone, vi. 36; xi. 581.
It is the same harmless thing that a poor shepherd, etc., v. 343.
it only is when he is out he is acting, vi. 296.
It’s well they’ve got me a husband, viii. 82.
It was even twilight, etc., i. 218.
It was my wish like him to live, etc., v. 362.
It was reserved for Shakespeare to unite purity of heart, i. 253.
it was very good of God, etc., xi. 352.
It will never do, iii. 361; vii. 367.
Italiam, Italiam! ii. 329.
Ithuriel’s spear, ix. 369.

J.
jackdaw just caught in a snare, And looks like a, etc., viii. 238.
Jacobin, Once a, etc., i. 430; iii. 110, 159.
Jacobin who writes in the Chronicle, the true, iii. 175.
Jacques, The melancholy, etc., xii. 285.
Jactet se in aulis, etc., iv. 71 n.
Je suis peintre, non pas teinturier, ix. 435.
jealous God, at sight of human ties, The, etc., xi. 147.
Jew that Shakespeare drew, the, i. 158.
jewels in his crisped hair, Like, xii. 450.
Job’s comforters, vii. 179.
John de Bologna, after he had finished, Thus, etc., vi. 140.
Johnny Keats, vii. 208.
jolly god in triumph comes, etc., the, v. 81.
jovial thigh, the, etc., xii. 196.
joys are lodged beyond the reach of fate, Those, vi. 23.
Joy, joy for ever, my task is done! etc., iv. 357.
judgment, after it has been long passive, the, etc., vi. 128.
judgment is really nothing but a sensation, xi. 86.
Juger est sentir, xi. 87.
Juno’s swans, link’d and inseparable, Like, xi. 472 n.
Jupiter tonans, xi. 308.
Justice is preferable to mercy, xi. 86, 88.
justify before his sovereign, he would not, etc., vi. 100.
justly called the Silent, viii. 13.
justly decried author, a, xi. 167.

K.
Kais is fled, and our tents are forlorn, for, etc., vi. 196.
Kean’s Othello is, we suppose, the finest piece of acting, viii. 414.
keeping his state, viii. 402.
kept in ponderous vases, are, x. 161.
kept like an apple, etc., xii. 171.
kept the even tenor of their way, have, vi. 44; viii. 123; x. 41.
kept under, or himself held up to derision, i. 147, 149.
key-stone that makes up the arch, ’Tis the last, etc., vi. 36; xi. 581.
kill at a blow, the two to, xii. 194.
killing langour, relieve the, etc., iii. 132; v. 357.
Kind and affable to me, etc., xii. 267.
King could live near such a man, no, i. 305.
King is but a king, a, etc., xi. 324.
king of good fellows and wale of old men, the, viii. 103.
kings, As kind as, etc., xii. 140.
Kings are naturally lovers of low company, vi. 159; xi. 442.
kings, if there were no more, etc., i. 387.
King’s Old Courtier, The, etc., iv. 232.
kings, the best of, i. 305; iii. 41.
Kingly Kensington, xii. 275.
Kiuprili, Had’st thou believ’d, etc., xi. 412.
kirk is gude, and the gallows is gude, The, etc., viii. 269.
knaves do work with, called a fool, which, xi. 415.
knavish but keen, iii. 60.
knight had ridden down from Wensley moor, etc., v. 157.
knight himself did after ride, The, etc., viii. 66.
know another well, were to know one’s self, vi. 316.
know my cue without a prompter, vii. 226.
know that I shall become that being, But I, vii. 395.
Know that which made him gracious in your eyes, etc., v. 290.
Know the return of Spring, xi. 317.
know to know no more, v. 67.
Know, virtue were not virtue if the joys, etc., ix. 431.
Know ye that lust of kingdoms hath no law, etc., v. 195.
knoweth whence it cometh, no man, etc., xii. 312.
knowledge, that had I all, etc., vi. 225.
knowledge, Though he should have all, etc., vii. 199; x. 208.
Koran and sugar! the, ix. 56 n.

L.
La ci darem, viii. 364.
La nuit envellopait les champs et les ramparts, etc., xi. 236.
la téte me tourne, etc., xi. 125.
laborious foolery, with, iv. 239; ix. 121, 332; xi. 289.
labour of love, ix. 223.
ladder of life, the, xi. 388.
lady of fashion would admire a star, etc., xi. 499.
lady of a manor, A certain, etc., i. 422; xi. 273 n.
laggard age, xii. 208.
Laid waste the borders and o’erthrew the bowers, iv. 282, 334; vi.
50; viii. 36.
Lancelot of the Lake, a bright romance, ’Twas etc., viii. 441.
landlady, the, and Tam grew gracious, etc., v. 129.
languages a man can speak, for the more, etc., vi. 70.
lapped in luxury, ix. 284.
large heart enclosed, in, xii. 303.
last objection, In regard to the, etc., vi. 141.
last of those bright clouds, the, ix. 477.
last of those fair clouds, the, that on the bosom of bright honour,
etc., v. 345. 369.
lasting woe, vii. 429.
latter end of this system of law, the, xi. 89.
laudator temporis acti, iv. 241.
laugh now who never laugh’d before; Let those, etc., viii. 469; xi.
316.
Laugh to-day and cry to-morrow, viii. 536.
laughed with Rabelais, etc., iv. 217.
Launched on the bosom of the silver Thames, xi. 505.
Law by which mankind suffers, etc., iii. 203.
law of laws, the, etc., iv. 203.
Laws are not, like women, the worse for being old, viii. 22; xii. 161
n.
laws of nature which are the laws of God, etc., iv. 295.
lawful monarch’s bleeding head, his, etc., viii. 309.
lay heavy burthens on the poor and needy, They, iv. 150.
lay the flattering unction, etc., xii. 230.
lay waste a country gentleman, viii. 36.
See Laid.
lay’d a body in the sun, Say I had, etc., vi. 315.
La père des humains voit sa nombreuse race, etc., xi. 233.
Le son des cloches, xii. 58 n.
lean pensioners, vii. 401.
Leaping like wanton kids in pleasant spring, vi. 172.
leaps at once to its effect, xii. 185.
learn her manner, To, etc., ix. 326.
learned the trick of imposing, iii. 16.
leave, oh, leave me to my repose! i. 84; vi. 71, 182, 249; viii. 313; xii.
121.
leave others poor indeed, xii. 219.
leave our country and ourselves, etc., xi. 353.
leave stings, vii. 287; ix. 72.
leave the will puzzled, etc., xi. 446.
Leave then the luggage of your fate behind, etc., v. 357.
leaving the things that are behind, etc., x. 195.
leaving the world no copy, viii. 272.
leaves in October, like, viii. 142.
leaves our passions, afloat, etc., iii. 92.
leer malign, with jealous, xii. 43, 287, 387.
left its little life in air, it, xii. 322.
left the sitting part, he, of the man behind him, viii. 17.
leg? Can it set a, etc., i. 6.
lend it both an understanding, etc., xii. 55.
Lend us a knee, etc., v. 257.
Les Francs à chaque instant voient de nouveaux guerriers, xi. 232.
lest it should be hurried over the precipice, etc., vi. 156.
lest the courtiers offended should be, iii. 45; viii. 457.
Let Europe and her pallid sons go weep, etc., v. 115.
Let go thy hold, etc., iii, 192.
Let honour and preferment go, etc., xii. 323.
Let loose the greyhound, and lock up Hoyden, vi. 414; viii. 82.
Let me not like a worm go by the way, v. 30; xi. 506.
let me light my pipe at her eyes, xii. 455.
Let modest Foster if he will, excel, etc., vi. 367.
Let no rude hand deface it, etc., vi. 89; viii. 91.
Let not rage thy bosom firing, viii. 248, 320.
Let the event, that never-erring arbitrator, tell us, v. 258.
let there be light, viii. 298.
Let those laugh now who never laugh’d before, etc., viii. 469; xi.
316.
letting contemplation have its fill, iv. 215.
leurre de dupe, iv. 5; vii. 225.
Leviathan among all the creatures, the, etc., vii. 276; viii. 32.
Leviathan, the, tumbling about his unwieldy bulk, vii. 13.
liar of the first magnitude, v. 279.
liberalism—lovely liberalism, ix. 233.
liberty was merely a custom of England, xii. 215.
Liceat, quæso, populo, etc., iii. 299.
license of the time, viii. 186.
lie is most unfruitful, The, etc., viii. 456.
lies about us in our infancy, that, i. 250; x. 358.
life, a thing of, ix. 177, 225; xi. 504.
life an exact piece would make, Who to the, etc., ix, 326.
life and death in disproportion met, Like, vi. 96; xii. 127.
life, From the last dregs of, etc., xii. 159.
life is best, This, etc., xii. 321.
Life is a pure flame, etc., xii. 150.
Life knows no return of spring, vi. 292.
life of life was flown, when all the, vi. 24; xii. 159.
Life! thou strange thing, etc., xii. 152.
ligament, fine as it was, that, etc., vii. 227; xi. 306.
light as a bird, as, etc., iii. 313.
light, But once put out their, etc., xi. 197.
light, her glorious, ix. 316.
like a surgeon’s skeleton in a glass case, viii. 350.
Like a tall bully, ix. 482.
Like a worm goes by the way, xi. 514.
Like angel’s visits, few, and far between, iv. 346 and n.; v. 150 and
n.; vii. 38.
Like as the sun-burnt Indians do array, etc., xi. 334.
like Cato, gave his little senate laws, iv. 202.
like importunate Guinea fowls, one note day and night, iii. 60; xi.
338.
like it because it is not vulgar, I, vi. 160.
Like kings who lose the conquest gain’d before, etc., viii. 425.
like master like man, xii. 132.
like morning brought by night, v. 150.
Like old importment’s bastard, v. 258.
Like proud seas under him, iv. 260; vii. 274.
Like Samson his green wythes, xii. 128.
Like some celestial sweetness, the treasure of soft love, v. 253.
Like strength reposing on his own right arm, v. 189.
Like the high leaves upon the holly tree, iii. 232; iv. 268.
Like the swift Alpine torrent, etc., x. 73.
Like to the falling of a star, etc., v. 296.
liked a comedy, better than a tragedy, He, etc., viii. 25.
lily on its stalk green, the, v. 296.
limited fertility and a limited earth, iv. 294.
limner’s art may trace the absent feature, Yes, the, viii. 305.
Linden, when the sun was low, On, etc., iv. 347.
line too labours and the thoughts move slow, The, etc., viii. 313,
331.
line upon line, and precept upon precept, x. 314.
lines are equally good, All his, etc., viii. 287.
Linked each to each by natural piety, xi. 520.
link of peaceful commerce ’twixt dividable shores, i. 144.
liquid texture, mortal wound, And in its, etc., iii. 350.
lisped in numbers, iv. 215; v. 79; xii. 29.
little leaven leaveneth the whole lump, iv. 267.
little man and he had a little soul, There was a, iv. 358 n.
little man, but of high fancy, A, etc., vii. 203.
little sneering sophistries of a collegian, the, xi. 123.
little spot of green, i. 18; v. 100.
little things are great to little man, These, etc., vi. 226.
Little think’st thou, poor flower, etc., viii. 51.
Little think’st thou, poor heart, viii. 52.
Little Will, the scourge of France, etc., v. 106.
live and move and have their being, they, vi. 190.
live, if this may life be called, Yea, thus they, etc., viii. 307.
live in his description, iv. 337; vi. 53.
live to please, he must, etc., viii. 433.
live to think, etc., xii. 147.
lively, audible, etc., xii. 130.
lively sense of future favours, a, viii. 17.
lives and fortunes men, vii. 364; xi. 437.
living with them, There is no, etc., vii. 300.
Lo, here be pardons half a dozen, etc., v. 277.
lobster, like the lady in the, viii. 430.
Lochiel, a far cry to, viii. 425.