Bioavailability, Leachability, Chemical Speciation, and Bioremediation of Heavy Metals in The Process of Composting Jiwan Singh

Bioavailability, Leachability, Chemical
Speciation, and Bioremediation of

Heavy Metals in the Process of
Composting Jiwan Singh
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Bioavailability, Leachability,
Chemical Speciation, and
Bioremediation of Heavy
Metals in the Process of
Composting
Bioavailability, Leachability,
Chemical Speciation, and
Bioremediation of Heavy
Metals in the Process of
Composting
Jiwan Singh and Ajay Kalamdhad

CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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© 2019 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Singh, Jiwan (Professor of environmental science), author. |

Kalamdhad, Ajay, author.
Title: Bioavailability, leachability, chemical speciation, and bioremediation
of heavy metals in the process of composting / Jiwan Singh, Ajay Kalamdhad.
Description: Boca Raton: CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, 2019. | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2018014317 | ISBN 9781138598331 (hardback) |
ISBN 9780429486395 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Compost. | Heavy metals. | Bioremediation. | Speciation
(Chemistry)
Classification: LCC TD796.5 .S56 2019 | DDC 631.8/75--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018014317
Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at

http://www.taylorandfrancis.com
and the CRC Press Web site at

http://www.crcpress.com
Contents
List of Figures............................................................................................................xi
List of Tables........................................................................................................... xiii
Preface...................................................................................................................... xv
Acronyms and Abbreviations.................................................................................xvii
Authors.....................................................................................................................xix
Chapter 1 Introduction...........................................................................................1
1.1 verview....................................................................................1
O
1.2 Effects of Heavy Metals on the Environment............................4
1.2.1 Effects of Metals on Soil...............................................4
1.2.2 Effects of Metals on Plants...........................................5
1.3 Conclusion..................................................................................6
References.............................................................................................7
Chapter 2 Composting Process............................................................................ 11

2.1 Composting Process................................................................. 11
2.2 actors Affecting the Composting Process.............................. 11
F
2.2.1 Carbon-to-Nitrogen (C/N) Ratio................................. 11
2.2.2 Particle Size................................................................. 12
2.2.3 Moisture Content......................................................... 12
2.2.4 Porosity........................................................................ 13
2.2.5 Oxygen Requirement................................................... 13
2.2.6 Temperature................................................................. 13
2.2.7 pH Value...................................................................... 14
2.3 Types of Composting Process.................................................. 14
2.3.1 Agitated Pile/Windrow............................................... 15
2.3.2 Aerated Static Pile....................................................... 16
2.3.3 Vertical Flow Reactor.................................................. 16
2.3.4 Horizontal Flow Reactor (Rotary Drum Reactor).........17
2.4 Phases of the Composting Process........................................... 18
2.5 Microorganisms Involved during Composting......................... 19
2.5.1 Bacteria........................................................................20
2.5.2 Fungi............................................................................ 22
2.6 Degradation of Lignocellulosic Biomass by Fungi-Bacteria........ 23
2.7 Fourier-Transformed Infrared (FTIR) Spectra Compost
Samples��24
2.8 Advantages of Composting......................................................25
2.9 Disadvantages of Composting..................................................26
2.10 Conclusion................................................................................26
References........................................................................................... 27
v
vi Contents
Chapter 3 Analysis of Compost Samples............................................................. 33

3.1 Physical Analysis...................................................................... 33
3.1.1 Moisture...................................................................... 33
3.1.2 Water-Holding Capacity (WHC)................................. 33
3.1.3 Water-Absorption Capacity (WAC)............................. 33
3.1.4 Bulk Density (BD)....................................................... 33
3.1.5 Compost Porosity........................................................34
3.1.6 Free Air Space (FAS)..................................................34
3.1.7 Temperature.................................................................34
3.2 Chemical Analysis....................................................................34
3.2.1 Volatile Solid (VS) and Ash Content..........................34
3.2.2 Analysis of Na, K, Mg, and Ca................................... 36
3.2.3 The pH......................................................................... 36
3.2.4 Electrical Conductivity (EC)....................................... 36
3.2.5 Total Nitrogen.............................................................. 37
3.2.6 Nitrate (NO3-N)........................................................... 38
3.2.7 Ammonical Nitrogen (NH4-N).................................... 38
3.2.8 Total Phosphorus......................................................... 39
3.2.9 Available Phosphorus..................................................40
3.2.10 Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)..............................40
3.2.11 Total Heavy Metal Content......................................... 41
3.2.12 Extraction of Water-Soluble Heavy Metals................. 42
3.2.13 Extraction of Heavy Metals with Diethylene
Triamine Penta-Acetic Acid (DTPA)�� 42
3.2.14 Leachability of Heavy Metals..................................... 42
3.2.15 Chemical Speciation of Heavy Metals........................ 42
3.3 Biological Analysis................................................................... 43
3.3.1 CO2 Evaluation by Soda-lime Method........................ 43
3.3.2 Oxygen Uptake Rate (OUR)........................................44
3.3.3 Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)......................... 45
3.3.4 Coliform Analysis....................................................... 45
3.3.4.1 Total Coliform............................................. 45
3.3.4.2 Fecal Coliform............................................. 45
3.3.5 Protein Determination by Lowry Procedure............... 45
3.3.6 Microbial Diversity during Composting.....................46
3.3.6.1 Total Heterotrophic Bacteria.......................46
3.3.6.2 Spore Forming Bacteria...............................46
3.3.6.3 Total Fungus................................................46
3.3.6.4 Streptomycetes............................................. 47
3.3.6.5 Actinomycetes............................................. 47
3.3.6.6 Escherichia coli........................................... 47
References........................................................................................... 47
Contents vii
Chapter 4 Composting and Heavy Metals........................................................... 49

4.1 eavy Metals in Composting................................................... 49
H
4.2 Effects of Heavy Metals on the Composting Process.............. 50
4.3 Reduction of Total Heavy Metals and Their
Bioavailability during the Composting Process�� 52
4.3.1 Physicochemical Methods........................................... 52
4.3.2 Reduction of Metals by Addition of Chemicals.......... 53
4.3.2.1 Lime/Waste Lime and Sodium Sulfide
Treatment�� 53
4.3.2.2 Natural Zeolite Treatment........................... 55
4.3.2.3 BC and Bamboo Vinegar (BV)
Treatments��55
4.3.2.4 Red Mud Treatment..................................... 56
4.3.3 Biological Method....................................................... 56
4.3.3.1 Application of Fungi.................................... 57
4.3.3.2 Using Bacteria............................................. 58
4.3.3.3 Using Earthworms....................................... 58
4.4 Risk Assessment of Heavy Metals during the Composting........ 64
4.4.1 RAC.............................................................................64
4.4.2 IR.................................................................................66
4.4.3 Potential Eecological RI..............................................66
4.5 Conclusion................................................................................ 67
References........................................................................................... 68
Chapter 5 Bioavailability of Heavy Metals during Composting......................... 75

5.1 ioavailability of Heavy Metals............................................... 75
B
5.1.1 Effects of Physicochemical Parameters on the
Bioavailability of Heavy Metals�� 76
5.1.2 Water-Soluble Metals during the Composting
Process�� 77
5.1.3 Diethylene Triamine Pentracetic Acid (DTPA)-
Extractable Heavy Metals��80
5.2 Conclusion................................................................................ 83
References........................................................................................... 83
Chapter 6 Chemical Speciation of Heavy Metals during the

Composting Process............................................................................ 87
6.1 peciation of Heavy Metals...................................................... 87
S
6.1.1 Zinc (Zn).....................................................................94
6.1.2 Copper (Cu).................................................................96
viii Contents
6.1.3 Manganese (Mn)......................................................... 98

6.1.4 Iron (Fe).......................................................................99
6.1.5 Nickel (Ni)...................................................................99
6.1.6 Lead (Pb)................................................................... 100
6.1.7 Cadmium (Cd)........................................................... 101
6.1.8 Chromium (Cr).......................................................... 102
6.2 Conclusion.............................................................................. 103
References......................................................................................... 103
Chapter 7 Effects of Chemical Amendments on Bioavailability and

Fractionation of Heavy Metals in Composting................................. 107
7.1 ffects of Chemical Amendments......................................... 107
E
7.2 Effect of Lime on the Bioavailability and Speciation of
Heavy Metals�� 108
7.2.1 Effects of Lime on Water Solubility.......................... 108
7.2.2 Effects of Lime on DTPA Extractability.................. 109
7.2.3 Effects of Lime of Speciation of Heavy Metals........ 111
7.3 Effects of Natural Zeolite on Bioavailability and
Speciation of Heavy Metals�� 115
7.3.1 Effects of Natural Zeolite on Water Solubility of
7.3.2 Effects of Natural Zeolite on DTPA Extractability......116
7.3.3 Effect of Natural Zeolite on Speciation of Heavy
Metals�� 117
7.4 Other Amendments................................................................ 121
7.5 Conclusion.............................................................................. 124
References......................................................................................... 124
Chapter 8 Reduction of Bioavailability of Heavy Metals by Microorganisms..... 129

8.1 omposting Microorganisms................................................. 129
C
8.2 Reduction of Heavy-Metal Bioavailability by
Microorganisms�� 131
8.2.1 Immobilization of Heavy Metals by Fungi............... 131
8.2.2 Immobilization of Heavy Metals by Bacteria........... 134
8.3 Mechanism of Immobilization of Heavy Metals Using
Microorganisms�� 134
8.4 Conclusion.............................................................................. 136
References......................................................................................... 136
Chapter 9 Leachability of Heavy Metals during the Composting Process........ 141

9.1 eachability of Heavy Metals................................................ 141
L
9.2 Effects of Chemical Addition on Leachability of Heavy
Metals in Composting�� 144
Contents ix
9.2.1 ffects of Waste Lime on Leaching of Heavy

E
Metals�� 144
9.2.2 Effects of Natural Zeolite on the Leachability of
9.3 Conclusion.............................................................................. 146
References......................................................................................... 146
Index....................................................................................................................... 149
List of Figures
Figure 1.1 Fate and transport of heavy metals in the environment........................2
Figure 2.1 Outline of the composting process...................................................... 12
Figure 2.2 Different types of compositing processes........................................... 15
Figure 2.3 Pictorial view of agitated pile composting.......................................... 15
Figure 2.4 Schematic view of aerated static pile composting.............................. 16
Figure 2.5 Pictorial view of a rotary drum composter......................................... 17
Figure 2.6 F
ormation of natural humus soil from the debris of plants
and animals......................................................................................... 18
Figure 2.7 Various phases of the composting process.......................................... 19
Figure 2.8 D
ifferent stages of lignocellulosic waste conversion through
bacteria and fungi................................................................................ 23
Figure 3.1 Physicochemical analysis of compost samples.................................... 35
Figure 5.1 orrelation among pH, bioavailability, and solubility of
C
heavy metals........................................................................................ 76
Figure 8.1 I nteraction of (a) aerobic bacteria (CFU g−1) and (b)
actenomycetes (CFU g−1) with composting mixture during the
composting process of Vallisneria spiralis inside the composter.........130
Figure 8.2 echanisms of biosorption/immobilization of heavy metals by
M
microorganisms................................................................................. 135
xi
List of Tables
Table 2.1 K
ey Microorganisms Involved in Aerobic Composting of
Different Waste Materials..................................................................... 21
Table 2.2 Infrared Spectra of the Composts of Different Waste Materials..........25
Table 3.1 he Extractants and Extraction Environmental of Heavy-Metal
T
Forms with Sequential Extraction......................................................... 43
Table 4.1 hysicochemical Properties of Sewage Sludges, Tannery Sludge,
P
MSW, Swine Manure, and Water Hyacinth.......................................... 50
Table 4.2 etup of Heavy Metal Limits for Compost to be Applied in
S
Agriculture in Different Countries........................................................ 51
Table 4.3 P
hysicochemical and Biological Methods, Reducing Agents, and
Target Metals........................................................................................ 54
Table 4.4 valuation of Risk Assessment Code (RAC) in Compost/Soil/
E
Sediment................................................................................................ 65
Table 5.1 hanges in Water Solubility of Heavy Metals during Water
C
Hyacinth Composting............................................................................ 78
Table 5.2 Changes in DTPA Extractability of Heavy Metals during Water
Hyacinth Composting............................................................................ 81
Table 6.1 C
hemical Speciation of Heavy Metals (Cd, Cu, Co, and Cr) in
Different Wastes Used for Composting Process...................................90
Table 6.2 hemical Speciation of Heavy Metals (Ni, Pb, Zn, Fe, and Mn)
C
in Different Wastes Used for the Composting Process.........................92
Table 6.3 S
peciation of Zn, Cu, Mn, and Fe in the Agitated Pile and Rotary
Drum Composting of Water Hyacinth.................................................. 95
Table 6.4 peciation of Cr, Ni, Cd, and Pb in the Agitated Pile and Rotary
S
Drum Composting of Water Hyacinth.................................................. 95
Table 7.1 E
ffects of Waste Lime on Water Solubility of Heavy Metals
during the Agitated Pile Composting and Rotary Drum
Composting Water Hyacinth............................................................... 109
Table 7.2 ffects of Waste Lime on DTPA Extractability of Heavy
E
Metals during the Agitated Pile Composting and Rotary Drum
Composting Water Hyacinth............................................................... 110
Table 7.3 S
peciation of Zn, Cu, Mn, and Fe in Lime Treatment during
Agitated Pile Composting and Rotary Drum of Composting of
Water Hyacinth.................................................................................... 111
xiii
xiv List of Tables
Table 7.4 peciation of Ni, Pb, Cd, and Cr in Lime Treatment during
S
Agitated Pile Composting and Rotary Drum Composting of
Water Hyacinth.................................................................................... 113
Table 7.5 I nfluence of Natural Zeolite on Water Extractability of Heavy
Metals in the Pile Composting and Horizontal Rotary Drum
Reactor Composting of Water Hyacinth.............................................. 116
Table 7.6 E
ffects of Natural Zeolite on DTPA Extractability of Heavy
Metals in the Agitated Pile Composting and Horizontal Rotary
Drum Reactor Composting Water Hyacinth....................................... 117
Table 7.7 peciation of Zn, Cu, Mn, and Fe in Pile and Horizontal
S
Rotary Drum Reactor Composting of Water Hyacinth with
Natural Zeolite.............................................................................117
Table 7.8 peciation of Ni, Pb, Cd, and Cr in Pile Composting and
S
Horizontal Rotary Drum Reactor Composting of Water Hyacinth
with Natural Zeolite............................................................................ 120
Table 8.1 M
icroorganisms Involved in the Immobilization of Heavy Metals
during the Composting of Different Types of Solid Wastes............... 133
Table 9.1 hreshold Limits for Leachable Heavy Metals
T
for Compost/Biosolid.......................................................................... 142
Table 9.2 hanges in Leaching Concentration of Heavy Metals during the
C
Water Hyacinth Composting............................................................... 143
Table 9.3 E
ffects of Waste Lime on Leaching Concentration of Heavy
Metals in Agitated Pile and Rotary Drum Composting of Water
Hyacinth.............................................................................................. 144
Table 9.4 ffects of Natural Zeolite on Heavy-Metal Extraction through
E
TCLP Experiment during Agitated Pile Composting and Rotary
Drum Composting of Water Hyacinth................................................ 145
Preface
The treatment and disposal of biodegradable solid wastes, predominantly wastes
generated in small, medium, and large urban cities, have become a serious prob-
lem mainly in developing countries. In the developing countries, the composting of
organic waste and applied compost to land signifies one of the best methods to treat/
dispose of biodegradable solid waste since it solves two problems: one is material
recycling and the other is to manage the solid waste disposal problem. Composting
is the best-known process for the stabilization of waste by converting it into more
stabilized and pathogen-free material (compost) which can be applied in agricultural
fields. If high contents of toxic heavy metals are present in the final compost to be
applied for agricultural lands, the absorption of these toxic heavy metals by growing
plants and the succeeding accumulation in the food chain may cause a potential risk
to animal and human health.
The book is organized into eight chapters. These chapters cover different types
of composting processes and physicochemical changes occurring during the com-
posting process. A further chapter is devoted to the method of sampling and analysis
of compost samples that can be used for both quantitative and qualitative analyses.
Chapter 1 consists of a brief discussion of different types of waste materials;
treatment through different composting techniques; heavy metals occurring in the
final composting; effects of heavy metals on the environment; bioavailability, leach-
ability, and speciation of heavy metals; and metal reduction approaches during the
different composting process. This chapter explains the impact of heavy metals on
soil quality, aquatic life, plants, and human beings. This chapter also discusses the
effects of metals on the environment.
Chapter 2 deals with the composting process, factors affecting the composting
process, types of composting processes, heavy metals in the composting biomass,
and the effects of metals on composting process.
Chapter 3 provides a detailed analysis of compost samples and heavy-metal bio-
availability such as water solubility, DTPA extractability, and chemical speciation.
This chapter also deals with the application of the physicochemical and biological
parameters.
Chapter 4 discusses the effect of heavy metals on the composting process.
Chapter 5 evaluates the effect of the bioavailability of heavy metals during the
composting process. The bioavailability of metals includes water solubility and
extractability of metals using diethylene diamine penta-acetic acid (DTPA).
Chapter 6 explains the different forms of heavy metals such the exchangeable,
carbonate, reducible, oxidized, and residual fractions. This chapter also deals with
a detailed speciation study of Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb, and Zn in the composting
of various wastes.
Chapter 7 evaluates the effects of chemical addition (lime, sodium sulfide, red
mud, and natural zeolite) on the bioavailability and speciation of heavy metals
during the composting of different wastes. This chapter also explains the role of
alkaline chemicals for the reduction of the bioavailability.
xv
xvi Preface
Chapter 8 explains the role of microorganisms for the reduction of bioavailability

of heavy metals in the composting process.
Chapter 9 explains the leachability of heavy metals in the composting process of
different wastes. This chapter also evaluates the effects of different chemicals, such
as lime, natural zeolite, sodium sulfide, etc., on the leachability of heavy metals.
This publication has been prepared primarily to serve two audiences: (i) research-
ers working in the field of composting of different types of solid wastes including
industrial wastes and (ii) professionals involved in the management of solid wastes.
The information presented in this book would also be useful for students of environ-
mental science and engineering.
AIM AND SCOPE OF BOOK

The aim of this book is to support all those involved in research and teaching related
to composting and heavy-metal study in the leading academic and research organi-
zations around the world. This book will be of great value to postgraduate students,
research scientists, and professionals in environmental science and engineering, soil
science, environmental health, and authorities responsible for the management of
metal-contaminated wastes.
Acronyms and Abbreviations
F1 exchangeable fraction
F2 carbonate fraction
F3 reducible fraction
F4 fraction bound to organic matter
F5 residual fraction
APC agitated pile composting
BV bamboo vinegar
C/N carbon/nitrogen
EC electrical conductivity
GW green waste
MC moisture content
MSW municipal solid waste management
OM organic matter
PM pig manure
RDC rotary drum composting
SS sewage sludge
TKN total Kjeldahl nitrogen
TN total nitrogen
TP total phosphorus
xvii
Authors
Dr. Jiwan Singh is working as an assistant professor in the Department of
Environmental Science, Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University (A Central
University), Lucknow, India since 2016. He received MS in Environmental Science
from the Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, and a Master of Technology
degree in Environmental Engineering from National Institute of Foundry and Forge
Technology, Ranchi, India and a PhD in Civil Engineering from the Indian Institute
of Technology Guwahati (IITG), India. He worked as a post-doctoral research
fellow at the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of
Ulsan, South Korea, from 2013 to 2015. He also worked as an assistant professor at
Department of Environmental Engineering, Kwangwoon University, Seoul, South
Korea, from March, 2015 to June 24, 2016. He qualified Graduate Aptitude Test of
Engineering (GATE) in 2008 and University Grant Commission (UGC) National
Eligibility Test (NET) in 2013. He received UGC-BSR research start up grant proj-
ect from UGC, New Delhi and early career research award from the Department of
Science and Technology, Govt. of India. He published more than 55 research papers
and book chapters. His research and teaching interest are in Environmental Science
and Engineering including solid waste management, water and wastewater treatment,
recovery of resources from the solid wastes and Environmental Nanotechnology.
Dr. Ajay Kalamdhad is working as associate professor in the Department of Civil
Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Guwahati obtained his Bachelor
(2001), Masters (2003), and Doctorate (2008) degrees in Civil and Environmental
Engineering from GEC Jabalpur, VNIT Nagpur, and IIT Roorkee, respectively.
Prior to joining IIT Guwahati in 2009, He worked as assistant professor at VNIT
Nagpur (2008–2009) and worked in various projects at RRL, Bhopal (Now AMPRI,
Bhopal), and NEERI, Nagpur. He has published more than 110 international papers
in peer-reviewed journals and presented his work in more than 200 national and
international conferences/workshops. He has also associated with Indian Public
Health Engineers, India, International Solid Waste Association Italy, National Solid
Waste Association of India, and with reviewers of 50 international journals. He is a
recipient of ISTE- GSITS national award for best research by young teachers (below
35 years) of engineering colleges for the year 2012 and IEI Young Engineers Award
2011–2012 in Environmental Engineering discipline from Institute of Engineers
India. He had worked on many major research projects with MoEF, DST, MDW&S,
and CSIR, Govt. of India.
xix
1 Introduction
1.1 OVERVIEW
The rapid rate of urbanization and industrialization has led to an increase in
municipal solid waste (MSW) worldwide. Sewage sludge (SS), which is generally
produced from wastewater treatment plants, plays a vital role in generating MSW. SS
mainly comprises organic materials, macro/micronutrients, nonessential trace ele-
ments, microorganisms, and eggs of parasitic microorganisms (Wang et al., 2008).
Nonessential trace elements decrease crop production and threaten soil safety and
human health. A disposal and environmental management of nonessential trace ele-
ments are a worldwide concern (Wang et al., 2013). Water hyacinth (Eichhornia
crassipes) is considered a green waste (GW) for its removal of organic and inorganic
pollutants from water and soil. Water hyacinth is one of the most commonly used
aquatic plants in constructed wetlands due to its fast growth rate and ability to absorb
nutrients and contaminants (Singh and Kalamdhad, 2012). Composted residuals
derived from MSW and GW have a high affinity to form organic complex of metals.
There is a consensus in scientific literature that composting processes increase the
complexation of heavy metals in organic waste residuals. Heavy metals are strongly
bound to the organic fraction of organic matter (OM) and metal complexes, thus
limiting their solubility and potential bioavailability in the soil (Smith, 2009).
Composting is the biological decomposition and stabilization of organic sub-
strates (SS, GW, etc.), under conditions that allow the development of thermophilic
temperatures as a result of biologically produced heat, to produce a final product
that is stable, free of pathogens and plant seeds, and can be successfully applied to
agricultural land (Singh and Kalamdhad, 2013a).
Aerobic microorganisms play a significant role in the decomposition of organic
wastes in the composting process. Composting proceeds under three major phases:
(1) mesophilic stage, (2) thermophilic stage, and (3) cooling (Neklyudov et al., 2008).
Composting is a well-established technique for the treatment and disposal of MSW
and GW due to material recycling (Villasenor et al., 2011). The process of compost-
ing involves the decomposition and degradation of organic waste by converting it
into a more stabilized, humus-like material which is called compost. When applied
on agricultural lands, it can significantly improve the physical properties and agri-
cultural productivity of soils (Deka et al., 2011; Gabhane et al., 2012). Substances
that are not biodegradable and have high concentrations of heavy metals do not
decompose in the solid and hence cannot be used to improve the soil fertility of
agricultural lands.
Heavy metals can accumulate in plants, which are then transferred into the food
chain, and thus may cause a possible risk to animals and human beings (Iwegbue
et al., 2007; Singh and Kalamdhad, 2012). The presence of heavy metals in compost
can affect the growth, morphology, and metabolism of the soil microorganisms, thus
1
2 Heavy Metals in the Process of Composting
Heavy metals
uptake by plants
Sludge + Heavy Surface water

compost + metals in soil pollution
heavy metals by run off
Leaching of heavy
metals with infiltrate
water
Ground water
pollution by leaching
FIGURE 1.1 Fate and transport of heavy metals in the environment.
decreasing the activity of microorganisms, and soil fertility (Bragato et al., 1998).
The absorption of heavy metals by plants and the corresponding accumulation in
human tissue and biomagnifications through the food chain not only causes envi-
ronmental concerns but also human health concerns (Wong and Selvam, 2006).
Figure 1.1 represents the fate and transference of heavy metals from compost to soil,
plants, and the water system.
Thus, heavy metals are considered one of the major sources of soil pollution.
Though, presence in various fractions of metals and their association with ecotoxic-
ity is the major problem. Heavy metals are natural components of the environment
and have high atomic weight with a density of >4 g/cm3 (Tchounwou et al., 2012).
These metals are referred to as trace elements at a concentration level of <10 ppm
in the environment (Tchounwou et al., 2012). Some heavy metals (such as Cu, Co,
Fe, Mn, and Zn), are required for physiochemical and biochemical functions of both
plants and animals. On the other hand, excessive additions of these heavy metals to
the environment may have an adverse effect on both the animals and humans. Other
nonessential metals (such as, Cd, Pb, Hg, and Ni), which are involved in biologi-
cal functions and are serious to metal-sensitive enzymes, can initiate the cell death
(Tchounwou et al., 2012; Swati and Hait, 2017). Determination of total concentra-
tion of heavy metal in compost/soil is indicator of pollution in soil but providing
information about bioavailable fractions of metals. (Singh and Kalamdhad, 2012,
2013a). The bioavailability and speciation of heavy metals during the composting
process suggested that toxicity of heavy metals depends on their different bioavail-
able fractions rather than total metal concentration detected in the digested solution
(Kang et al., 2011).
The bioavailability of metals is used to indicate that part of the concentration of
the metals are easily soluble in water and considered effortlessly accessible to plants
Introduction 3
and soil microorganisms. The bioavailability of metals in soil is a self-motivated pro-

cess that depends on the explicit physicochemical parameters of soil. These parame-
ters, such as pH, OM content, redox potential, cation exchange capacity of soil, and
hydroxides, are present in soil, soil texture, and clay content (Guala et al., 2010). The
pH and OM contents are the most important parameters involved in the absorption
of heavy-metal by living organisms (Li et al., 2010).
The addition of soluble organo-metal complexes occurring in the final compost
in the soil increases the potential risk of metals, since soluble metals will be more
available to receptors (plants, microorganisms, etc.) (Zheng et al., 2007).
The water soluble fraction of metal is most readily bioavailable in compost when
applied to soils. Hsu and Lo (2001) reported that water-soluble metals play a criti-
cal role in maximizing the potential for contamination of the food chain and water
system (surface water as well as ground water).
It has been considered that the metals extracted with diethylene triamine pen-
taacetic acid (DTPA) solution may play a significant role in checking the bioavail-
ability of heavy metals in soil and compost-added soil available for plant uptake
(Fuentes et al., 2006; Singh and Kalamdhad, 2013b).
The toxicity characteristic leaching procedure (TCLP) test has been applied to
assess the mobility of hazardous metals that are present in the compost/waste mate-
rials. If heavy metals contaminated compost is applied to soil, metals can be leached
out in soil and may pollute ground water (Singh and Kalamdhad, 2013b). Leaching
of metals is defined as the ratio of the amount of a heavy-metal discharge from the
TCLP test to its total concentration; it is usually applied to evaluate the potential
leaching ability of heavy metals occurring in the compost and amended soil (Chiang
et al., 2007).
An estimation of the fractionation of heavy metals in the final compost helps to
assess their bioavailability and the aptness of compost to be applied for land appli-
cation (Wong and Selvam, 2006). The sequential extraction method affords a useful
technique for determining the different chemical forms of heavy metals in sludge/
compost. This technique has been applied to organic soils, which are very similar
to composts, for studying metal mobility and bioavailability (Yuan et al., 2011). The
mobility of the heavy metals is decreased roughly in the order of extraction cate-
gorization (Nair et al., 2008). Tessier et al. (1979) reported a sequential extraction
method of heavy metals that are present in the compost. These metals involve the fol-
lowing five fractions: (i) exchangeable fraction (F1): this fraction can be transformed
by changing ionic composition of water in addition to sorption–desorption process,
(ii) carbonate fraction (F2): this fraction is depend on pH and have ability to convert
into soluble and mobilized fractions under acidic condition, (iii) reducible fraction
(F3): this fraction is thermally disturbed under anoxic conditions, (iv) o xidizable
fraction (F4): this fraction will be released and solubilize after getting oxidizing
conditions, and (v) residual fraction (F5): this fraction is perpetually bound with the
mineral components of the compost and soil. This fraction will never be accessible
for plants or soil microorganisms in standard natural conditions. In the sequential
extraction procedure various chemical reagents are applied to extract various form
of metals from the compost sample, chemical reagents are elaborate in dissolving the
different constituents of the sample medium in order sequentially. On the contrary, a
reagent should have the ability to liberate all fractions of the metals from a specific
constituent of matrix (i.e., F1 and F2 fractions) without touching other constituents
(Li et al., 2001). The sequential extraction technique provide important information
about different fractions of metals and allows the forecast of metal leaching rates
(He et al., 2009).
Some of the major sources to decrease metal noxiousness for the environment
including human health are reduction of heavy-metal bioavailability, leachability,
and their various fractions by the addition of a few chemicals while composting
different waste materials. Lime is an alkaline material and can lead to a decrease
in the mobility of heavy metals in the final compost (Chiang et al., 2007). Adding
lime in composting biomass increases its pH level, thus resulting in a decrease in
the accumulation of metals in soil (Wong and Fang, 2000). Lime can be used as
a stabilizer for heavy metals that will increase the rate of degradation of organic
materials in the composting process by offering a buffering to composting biomass
during acid formation after degradation of organic materials resulting decrease in
pH. Lime addition in appropriate supply sufficient amount of Ca to the composting
microbes that enhanced the metabolic activity of microbes resulting in an increase
in temperature and CO2 progress without any negative impact on microbial commu-
nity present in the composting mass (Fang and Wong, 1999; Gabhane et al., 2012).
The addition of lime was very efficient in reducing bioavailability of heavy metals
in the mature compost of SS. It might form less-soluble carbonate salts with metals
ions (Fang and Wong, 1999). Zeolite is a naturally hydrated aluminosilicate mineral
and can be classified as “tectosilicate” (Singh and Klamdhad, 2014). Zeolites can
be used extensively in the composting process to improve physical and chemical
characteristics of the compost and then immobilize metals in the SS composting
(Sprynskyy et al., 2007; Villasenor et al., 2011). It improves the composting process
by increasing the porosity of the substrate of the composting mixture (Zorpas et al.,
2000). It has the ability to readily absorb almost all heavy metals that are bound to
exchangeable and carbonate fractions (Zorpas et al., 2000). It can increase sodium
and potassium in the compost through exchange with toxic metals.
1.2 EFFECTS OF HEAVY METALS ON THE ENVIRONMENT

1.2.1 EFFeCTS OF MeTALS ON SOIL
In recent years, natural anthropogenic activities can cause elevated concentrations of
heavy metals in the soil. Consequently, the environment is deteriorating because of
the negative impact of heavy metals (Su et al., 2014; Zojaji et al., 2014). The quality
of the soil may be represented by the microbial and enzymatic activity of the soil.
Microorganisms present in soil are an important sign of the level of pollution in the
soil. Microbial activity can be prevented in the soil that has been polluted by heavy
metals (Su et al., 2014). Soil pollution by heavy metals is one of most significant
concerns for the whole industrialized world (Hinojosa et al., 2004).
Metals present in soil not only causes an adverse effect on different properties of
soil related to plant life but also can cause deviations in composition, size, and activ-
ity of the microbial community (Yao et al., 2003). Thus, heavy metals are considered
Introduction 5
to be a main factor responsible for soil contamination. There are several metals,
such as Cu, Ni, Cd, Zn, Cr, and Pb, which are responsible for soil contamination
(Hinojosa et al., 2004). The soil’s biological and biochemical properties are affected
by heavy metals. According to Speira et al. (1999), the soil parameters, such as OM,
clay contents, and pH value, have key effects on biochemical properties.
Soil enzymatic activities were affected by toxic metals indirectly through shifts in
the microbial community (Shun-hong et al., 2009). A key microbial process can also
be affected by heavy metals in soil by decreasing the number of soil m icroorganisms
and their activities. If the long-term exposure of heavy metals affects the tolerance of
the bacterial community and fungi (arbuscularmycorrhizal fungi), then these micro-
organisms can play a vital role in the restoration of metal-polluted ecosystems (Mora
et al., 2005). Heavy metals can decrease the productivity of many bacterial species,
can increase actinomycetes in soil, and can affect both the biomass and diversity of the
bacterial communities in polluted soils (Chen et al., 2010).
Enzymatic activities of soil are affected in different ways by different metals due
to the different chemical binding properties of the enzymes in the soil environment.
It has been considered that Cd is highly toxic to enzymes due to its better mobil-
ity and low-binding properties when compared with soil colloids. Cd contamination
had a negative effect on the activities of protease, urease, alkaline phosphatase, and
arylsulfatase, whereas it did not show any significant effect on the invertase (Karaca
et al., 2010). Cu toxicity inhibited the β-glucosidase activity, whereas it did not affect
the cellulose activity. The Pb contamination had a negative effect on the activities
of urease, catalase, invertase, and acid phosphatase (Karaca et al., 2010; Singh and
Kalamdhad, 2011). Soil microbes have important roles in recycling nutrients for plant,
conservation of soil structure, decontamination of harmful chemicals, plant pest con-
trol, and control of plant growth communities that represent directories of soil q uality.
Repeating contamination of soil by heavy metals is an important study about the
functioning of soil microorganisms (Wang et al., 2007).
Chromium is commonly present in soils as Cr (III) and Cr (VI). Cr (III) is a micro-
nutrient and a nonhazardous species, whereas Cr (VI) is a strong oxidizing agent and is
10–100 times more toxic than Cr (III) (Garnier et al., 2006). With higher concentrations,
Cr (VI) could cause shifts in the composition of soil microbial populations, and is also
known to cause harmful effects on microbial cell metabolism at higher level (Shun-hong
et al., 2009). Ashraf and Ali (2007) reported that the toxic effect of heavy metals on soil
microorganisms prompts a change in the diversity, population size, and overall activity
of the soil microbial communities. Generally, an increase of metal content shows an
adverse effect on soil microbial metabolic activities, such as respiration rate and enzyme
activity. These activities are very valuable indicators of soil contamination. The soil
microbial profile was changed with the toxicity of lead (Pb) in the soil system.
1.2.2 EFFeCTS OF MeTALS ON PLANTS

The availability of both essential and nonessential heavy metals at certain concen-
tration levels in the soil can inhibit the growth of most plants. However, if the high
concentration of metals is supplied to the plant that is exceeding threshold limit,
resulting death of the plant (Su et al., 2014). Some heavy metals, such as As, Cd, Hg,
Pb, and Se, are not necessary elements for plant growth due to their absence in the
physiological metabolism of plants, whereas some trace metals, such as Zn, Cu, Mn,
Fe, Co, Mo, and Ni, are essential elements for the usual growth and metabolism of
plants. However, these elements can be toxic to plants if their concentration within
the soil is too high (Garrido et al., 2002; Rascio and Izzo, 2011). An application of
compost to agricultural field to increase productivity of crops without concerning
potential negative impact on crops, however the compost prepared from metal con-
taminated waste is applied to soil for growing vegetables, metals may transfer of
from soil to vegetable plants, and plant to humans through edible part of plant should
be considerable issue (Jordao et al., 2006). Qin et al. (1994) reported that the Cd
concentration of 30 μmol/L in soils affects the growth of cabbage and bean seedling.
Cd can disrupt the metabolic activities such as photosynthesis, protein synthesis of
plants, membrane damage, etc. (Su et al., 2014).
The transfer of metals from soil to plants followed by their accumulation in the food
chain is a potential threat to the environment and humans (Sprynskyy et al., 2007). The
absorption of metals by plant roots is the main way toxic metals enter the food chain
(Jordao et al., 2006). Sharma et al. (2007) reported that there are many factors that
are involved in the absorption and accumulation of heavy metals in plant tissue, such
as temperature, moisture, organic fraction, pH, and the nutrient level of the soil. The
uptake and accumulation of Cd, Zn, Cr, and Mn in Beta vulgaris (Spinach) were higher
during the summer season, whereas Cu, Ni, and Pb accumulated more during the winter
season (Sharma et al., 2007). The higher accumulation of Cd, Zn, Cr, and Mn during
the summer season may be due to the high decomposition rate of OM, which is likely to
release these heavy metals in soil, in addition to high transpiration rates during the sum-
mer season (Sharma et al., 2007). Khan et al. (2008) reported that the absorption and
accumulation of heavy metals in plants depend on the plant species and the efficiency
of different plants in absorbing metals (Khan et al., 2008).
Bhattacharyya et al. (2008) reported that elevated concentration of Pb in soils may
decrease soil productivity, and a very low concentration of Pb may inhibit some vital
plant processes, such as photosynthesis, mitosis, water absorption, etc. Guala et al.
(2010) reported that heavy metals are possibly toxic to plants and may cause phytotoxic-
ity leading to many plant diseases such as chlorosis, weak plant growth, reduced nutrient
uptake, and reduction in the fixation of molecular nitrogen in leguminous plants. Ashraf
and Ali (2007) reported that elevated concentration of Pb in soils can cause delayed
seed germination. Cu (2015) reported that Cu, Pb, and Zn have an incredible impact on
the growth and yield of Brassica juncea, in which Pb showed the most adverse effect
on growth, followed by Cu and Zn. The plant growth and yield of B. juncea decrease
with elevated concentrations of heavy metals. Pb decreases the yield by 51% and Cu by
29%, whereas Zn does not show any effect at a concentration of 100 ppm. The yield of
B. juncea decreases by 38% at a very high concentration of Zn (500 ppm).
1.3 CONCLUSION
This chapter gives a brief introduction for this book. Composting of solid wastes is
a good technique to manage solid wastes in a hygienic way and to recycle nutrients.
This technique is inexpensive in relation to other waste management techniques.
Introduction 7
We can obtain compost from various solid wastes through composting process.
However, the presence of the bioavailability of heavy metals in the final compost is
a critical issue of composting. Hence, the main focus of this book is to give an over-
view on the reduction of the bioavailability and leachability of heavy metals during
the composting of different waste materials. Composts with elevated concentrations
of heavy metals may affect the quality of soil by changing the physicochemical and
biological properties of soil. Accumulation of metals by plants from the soil not
only decreases the crop productivity but also hinders the physiological metabolism.
Transfer of heavy metals in human tissues through the food chain may create prob-
lems for human being. Consequently, compost should be free from pathogens and
heavy metals before being used in agriculture.
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Take of—Carbonate of Magnesia,
Milk of sulphur, of each, three drachms;
Mix.—To make nine powders. One to be taken early every, or every other
morning, mixed in half a teaspoonful of new milk.
315. Remember, in these cases, it is necessary to keep the motions
in a softened state, as hard lumps of stool would, in passing, give
intense pain.
316. If the confection of senna and the other remedies do not act
sufficiently, it may be well to give, once or twice a week, a
teaspoonful or a dessertspoonful of castor oil.
317. In piles, if they are not much inflamed, and provided there be
constipation, a pint of tepid water, administered early every morning
as an enema, will be found serviceable. Care and gentleness ought, of
course, to be observed in introducing the enema pipe (but which only
requires ordinary care), in order not to press unduly on the
surrounding piles.
318. The patient ought to lie down frequently in the day. She will
derive great comfort from sitting either on an air-cushion or on a
water-cushion about half filled with water, placed on the chair; for
sometimes she is unable to sit on an ordinary seat.
319. In piles, the patient ought to live on a plain, nourishing,
simple diet, but should avoid all stimulants; any food or beverage
that will inflame the blood will likewise inflame the piles.
320. Piles in pregnancy are frequently troublesome, and
sometimes resist all treatment until the patient is confined, when
they generally get well of themselves; but still the remedies
recommended above will usually afford great relief, even if they do
not effect a cure.
321. Swollen legs from enlarged veins (varicose veins).—The veins
are frequently much enlarged and distended, causing the legs to be
greatly swollen and very painful, preventing the patient from taking
proper walking exercise. Swollen legs are owing to the pressure of the
womb upon the blood-vessels above. Women who have had large
families are more liable to varicose veins than others. If a lady marry
late in life, or if she be very heavy in her pregnancy—carrying the
child low down—she is more likely to have the veins to distend.
322. The best plan will be for her to wear an elastic silk stocking,[65]
which ought to be made on purpose for her, in order that it may
properly fit the leg and foot. It will draw on like a common stocking.
She ought to wear a gauze stocking next the skin, and the elastic
stocking over it, as the gauze stocking can then, from time to time, be
washed, as can likewise the foot and leg. Moreover, the gauze
stocking will be more comfortable next the skin than the elastic
stocking.
323. If the varicose veins should be very painful, she had better
apply to a medical man, as it may be necessary, in such a case, to
have them enveloped in mild plasters, and then rolled.
324. If the feet and legs be cold as well as swollen, a domette[66]
bandage, two inches and a half wide and eight yards long, nicely
applied to each leg, from the toes to the knee, will be found a great
comfort. One great advantage that domette has over calico is that it
will keep in its place for days, while calico will be loose in an hour or
two.
325. Stretching of the skin of the belly is frequently, especially in a
first pregnancy, distressing, from the soreness it causes. The best
remedy is to rub the bowels, every night and morning, with warm
camphorated oil, and to apply a broad flannel belt, which should be
put on moderately but comfortably tight. The belt ought to be
secured in its situation by means of properly adjusted tapes.
326. If the skin of the belly, from the violent stretching, be
cracked, the patient had better dress the part affected, every night
and morning, with equal parts of simple cerate and of lard—lard
without salt—well mixed together, spread on lint; which ought to be
kept in its place by means of a broad bandage, similar to the one used
in confinements, and which is described in a subsequent paragraph
(Bandage after Confinements).
321. Pendulous belly.—A lady sometimes, from being at these
times unusually large, suffers severely; so much so, that she cannot,
without experiencing great inconvenience, move about. This, where a
patient is stout, and where she has had a large family of children, is
more likely to occur, and especially if she has neglected proper
bandaging after her previous confinements.
328. She ought in such a case to procure, from a surgical-
instrument-maker, an elastic abdominal belt, made purposely for
pendulous bellies, which will, without unduly pressing on the belly,
be a support. It is a good plan to have the belt made either to lace
behind or with straps and buckles, in order to accommodate the belly
to its gradually increasing size.
329. If the patient be delicate, and if she has a languid circulation,
she ought, instead of the elastic belt, to apply a broad flannel belly-
band, which should go twice around the bowels, and must be put on
moderately and comfortably tight.
330. The patient, before the approach of labor, ought to take
particular care to have the bowels gently opened, as during that time
a costive state of them greatly increases her sufferings, and lengthens
the period of her labor. I say a gentle action is all that is necessary; a
violent one would do more harm than good.
331. Toothache is a frequent complaint of pregnancy; and I wish to
caution my gentle reader not to have, during the time she is enceinte,
a tooth extracted; miscarriage or premature labor has frequently
followed the extraction of a tooth.
332. If the tooth be decayed, the hollow ought to be filled with
cotton wool, soaked either in oil of cloves, or in equal parts of oil of
cloves and of chloroform, and which should be frequently renewed;
or with what I have found an excellent remedy, a little alum dissolved
in chloroform.[67] A bit of cotton wool placed in the ear of the affected
side will oftentimes relieve the toothache arising from a decayed
tooth. This simple remedy ought always to be tried before resorting
to more active treatment. If the above remedies do not relieve, soak a
small ball of cotton wool in chloroform, and insert it inside the ear,
and let it remain there until the pain be relieved; let it be from time
to time renewed. I have frequently found in toothache the above plan
most efficacious, and to afford relief when other means have failed.
333. Creasote (spirits of tar) is sometimes applied, but of all
remedies it is the worst for the purpose. I have known it, when thus
used, severely injure and decay the whole of the remaining teeth: one
case in particular I remember, of a gentleman who, by the frequent
use of creasote, for the relief of toothache, lost the whole of his teeth!
334. If the teeth be not decayed, especially if the stomach be
disordered, let an aperient be taken. The state of the bowels ought
always to be attended to, as toothache is frequently relieved, and
when the tooth is not decayed, cured by a dose of opening medicine.
Let the sides of the face be well fomented with hot chamomile and
poppy-head tea, and let a piece of crumb of bread (but not crumbed
bread) be soaked for five minutes in boiling milk, and be frequently
placed inside the mouth, between the cheek and gum; and let a large
hot bread poultice be applied at bedtime to the outside of the face.
335. If the above does not have the desired effect, a piece of brown
paper, the size of the palm of the hand, soaked in brandy, and then
well peppered with black pepper, should be applied outside the
cheek, over the part affected, and kept on for several hours. It ought
from time to time to be renewed. This simple and old-fashioned
remedy will sometimes afford great relief. It is in these cases
preferable to a mustard poultice, as it is less painful, and neither
blisters nor injures the skin.
336. If the pepper plaster does not afford relief, a ginger plaster
should be tried:
Take of—Powdered Ginger,
Flour, of each one tablespoonful;
Water, a sufficient quantity:
To be well mixed together, adding the water drop by drop (stirring it the while)
until it be of the consistence of paste. Let it be applied at bedtime, on linen
rag, outside the cheek, and let it remain on all night, or until the pain be
relieved.
337. If the tooth be not decayed, and if the pain of the face be more
of a neuralgic (tic-douloureux) character, the following pills will
frequently afford great relief:
Take of—Sulphate of Quinine, twenty-four grains;
Powdered Extract of Liquorice, six grains;
Treacle, a sufficient quantity:
To make twelve pills. One to be taken three times a day.

338. The teeth, in pregnancy, are very apt to decay: I have known
several patients, each of whom has lost a tooth with every child!
339. Morning sickness.—It is said to be “morning,” as in these
cases, unless the stomach be disordered, it seldom occurs during any
other part of the day. Morning sickness may be distinguished from
the sickness of a disordered stomach by the former occurring only
early in the morning, on the first sitting up in bed, the patient during
the remainder of the day feeling quite free from sickness, and
generally being able to eat and relish her food as though nothing
ailed her.
340. Morning sickness begins with a sensation of nausea early in
the morning, and as soon as she rises from bed she feels sick and
retches; and sometimes, but not always, vomits a little sour, watery,
glairy fluid; and occasionally, if she has eaten heartily at supper the
night previously, the contents of the stomach are ejected. She then
feels all right again, and is usually ready for her breakfast, which she
eats with her usual relish. Many ladies have better appetites during
pregnancy than at any other period of their lives.
341. The sickness of a disordered stomach unaccompanied with
pregnancy may be distinguished from morning sickness by the
former continuing during the whole day, by the appetite remaining
bad after the morning has passed, by a disagreeable taste in the
mouth, and by the tongue being generally furred. Moreover, in such
a case there is usually much flatulence. The patient not only feels but
looks bilious.
342. If the stomach be disordered during pregnancy, there will, of
course, be a complication of the symptoms, and the morning
sickness may become both day and night sickness. Proper means
ought then to be employed to rectify the disordered stomach, and the
patient will soon have only the morning sickness to contend against;
which latter, after she has quickened, will generally leave of its own
accord.
343. Morning sickness is frequently a distressing, although not a
dangerous complaint. It is only distressing while it lasts, for after the
stomach is unloaded, the appetite generally returns, and the patient
usually feels, until the next morning, quite well again, when she has
to go through the same process as before.
344. It occurs both in the early and in the latter months of
pregnancy; more especially during the former, up to the period of
quickening, at which time it usually ceases. Morning sickness is
frequently the first harbinger of pregnancy, and is looked upon by
many ladies who have had children as a sure and certain sign.
Morning sickness does not always occur in pregnancy; some women,
at such times, are neither sick nor sorry.
345. A good way to relieve it is by taking, before rising in the
morning, a cup of strong coffee. If this should not have the desired
effect, she ought to try an effervescing draught:
Take of—Bicarbonate of Potash, one drachm and a half;
Water, eight ounces:
Two Tablespoonfuls of this mixture to be taken with one of lemon-juice every

hour, while effervescing, until relief be obtained.
346. A glass of champagne, taken the overnight, I have sometimes
found to be the best remedy, and, if it has the desired effect, it
certainly is the most agreeable.
347. I have known, too, cider, where other things have failed, to
succeed in abating morning sickness.
348. Sometimes, until the whole contents of the stomach be
brought up, she does not obtain relief from her sickness. She had
better, when such is the case, drink plentifully of warm water, in
order to encourage free vomiting. Such a plan, of course, is only
advisable when the morning sickness is obstinate, and when the
treatment recommended above has failed to afford relief.
349. The morning sickness, during the early months, is caused by
sympathy between the stomach and the womb; and during the latter
months by pressure of the upper part of the womb against the
stomach. As we cannot remove the sympathy and the pressure, we
cannot always relieve the sickness; the patient, therefore, is
sometimes obliged to bear with the annoyance.
350. The bowels ought to be kept gently opened, either by a
Seidlitz powder taken early in the morning, or by one or two
compound rhubarb pills at bedtime, or by the following mixture:
Take of—Carbonate of Magnesia, two drachms;
Sulphate of Magnesia, one ounce;
Peppermint water, seven ounces:
A wineglassful of this mixture to be taken early in the morning, occasionally,
first shaking the bottle.
351. Great attention ought in such a case to be paid to the diet; it
should be moderate in quantity, and simple in quality. Rich dishes,
highly-seasoned soups and melted butter must be avoided. Hearty
meat suppers ought not on any account to be allowed. There is
nothing better, if anything be taken at night, than either a teacupful
of nicely-made and well-boiled oatmeal gruel, or of arrow-root, or of
Arabica Revalenta. Any of the above may be made either with water,
or with new milk, or with cream and water.
352. It is an old saying, and, I believe as a rule, a true one, “that
sick pregnancies are safe,” more especially if the sickness leaves,
which it generally does, after she has quickened. The above remarks,
of course, do not include obstinate, inveterate vomiting, occasionally
occurring in the latter period of pregnancy, and which not only takes
place in the morning, but during the whole of the day and of the
night, and for weeks together, sometimes bringing a patient to the
brink of the grave. Such a case, fortunately, is extremely rare.
Another old and generally true saying is, “that females who have sick
pregnancies seldom miscarry.”
353. Means to harden the nipples.—A mother, especially with her
first child, sometimes suffers severely from sore nipples. Such
suffering may frequently be prevented, if for six weeks or two months
before her confinement, she were to bathe her nipples, every night
and morning, for five minutes each time, either with eau de Cologne,
or with brandy and water, equal parts of each. The better plan will be
to have the brandy and water in a small bottle ready for use, and
putting a little each time into a teacup, using it fresh and fresh. A soft
piece of fine old linen rag should be used for the purpose of bathing.
All pressure ought to be taken from the nipples; if the stays,
therefore, unduly press them, either let them be enlarged or let them
be entirely removed. The nipples themselves ought to be covered
with a soft linen rag, as the friction of a flannel vest would be apt to
irritate them. Let me recommend every pregnant lady, more
especially in her first pregnancy, to adopt either the one or the other
of the above plans to harden the nipples; it might avert much misery,
as sore nipples are painful and distressing; and prevention at all
times is better than cure.
354. The breasts are, at times, during pregnancy, much swollen
and very painful; and, now and then, they cause the patient great
uneasiness, as she fancies that she is going to have either some
dreadful tumor or a gathering of the bosom. There need, in such a
case, be no apprehension. The swelling and the pain are the
consequences of the pregnancy, and will in due time subside without
any unpleasant result. The fact is, great changes are taking place in
the breasts; they are developing themselves, and are preparing for
the important functions they will have to perform the moment the
labor is completed.
355. Treatment.—She cannot do better than, every night and
morning, to well rub them with equal parts of eau de Cologne and of
olive oil, and to wear a piece of new flannel over them; taking care to
cover the nipples with soft linen, as the friction of the flannel may
irritate them. The liniment encourages a little milky fluid to ooze out
of the nipple, which will afford relief.
356. If stays be worn, the patient should wear them slack, in order
to allow the bosoms plenty of room to develop themselves. The bones
of the stays ought all to be removed, or serious consequences might
ensue.
357. Bowel complaints, during pregnancy, are not unfrequent. A
dose either of rhubarb and magnesia, or of castor oil, are the best
remedies, and are generally, in the way of medicine, all that is
necessary.
358. The diet at such times ought to be simple, small in quantity,
and nourishing. Farinaceous food, such as rice, tapioca, sago, Du
Barry’s Arabica Revalenta, and arrow-root, are particularly
beneficial. Green vegetables and fruits, especially stone fruits and
uncooked fruits, ought to be avoided.
359. The surface of the body—the bowels and feet particularly—
ought to be kept warm. If a lady suffer habitually from relaxation of
the bowels, let her, by all means, wear a flannel vest next the skin.
360. The bladder.—The patient during pregnancy is liable to
various affections of the bladder. There is sometimes a sluggishness
of that organ, and she has little or no inclination to make water.
There is, at another time, a great irritability of the bladder, and she
is constantly wanting to pass urine; while, in a third case, more
especially toward the latter period of the time, she can scarcely hold
her water at all,—the slightest bodily exertion, such as walking,
stooping, coughing, sneezing, etc., causing it to come away
involuntarily; and even in some cases, where she is perfectly still, it
dribbles away without her having any power to prevent its doing so.
361. A sluggish state of the bladder is best remedied by gentle
exercise, and by the patient attempting, whether she want or not, to
make water at least every four hours.
362. Irritability of the bladder.—The patient ought, during the
day, to drink freely of the following beverage:
Take of—Best Gum Arabic, one ounce;
Pearl Barley, one ounce;
Water, one pint and a half:
Boil for a quarter of an hour, then strain, and sweeten either with sugar candy or
lump sugar.
363. The bowels ought to be gently opened with small doses of
castor oil. The patient must abstain from beer, wine, or spirits, and
should live on a mild, bland, nourishing diet.
364. Where the patient cannot hold her water there is not a great
deal to be done, as the pregnant womb by pressing on the bladder
prevents much present relief. The comfort is, as soon as the labor is
over, it will cure itself. She ought frequently in the day to lie down
either on a horse-hair mattress or on a couch. She should drink but a
moderate quantity of liquid, and if she has a cough (for a cough
greatly increases this inability to hold the water), she ought to take
the following mixture:
Take of—Compound Tincture of Camphor, half an ounce;
Compound Spirits of Lavender, half a drachm;
Oxymel of Squills, six drachms;
Water, six ounces and a half:
Two tablespoonfuls of this mixture to be taken three times a day.

365. Fainting.—A delicate woman, when she is enceinte, is apt
either to feel faint or to actually faint away. When it is considered the
enormous changes that, during pregnancy, take place, and the great
pressure there is upon the nerves and the blood-vessels, it is not at
all surprising that she should do so. There is one consolation, that
although fainting at such times is disagreeable, it is not at all
dangerous, unless the patient be really laboring under a disease of
the heart.
366. Treatment.—If the patient feel faint, she ought immediately
to lie down flat upon her back, without a pillow under her head; that
is to say, her head should be on a level with her body. The stays and
any tight articles of dress—if she has been foolish enough to wear
either tight stays or tight clothes—ought to be loosened; the windows
should be thrown wide open; water ought to be sprinkled on her face;
and sal-volatile—a teaspoonful in a wineglassful of water, or a glass
of wine ought to be administered. Smelling-salts must be applied to
the nostrils. The attendants—there should only be one or two present
—should not crowd around her, as she ought to have plenty of room
to breathe.
367. She must, in the intervals, live on a good, light, generous diet.
She should keep early hours, and ought to sleep in a well-ventilated
apartment. The following strengthening medicine will be found
serviceable:
Take of—Sulphate of Quinine, twelve grains;
Diluted Sulphuric Acid, half a drachm;
Syrup of Orange-peel, half an ounce;
Water, seven ounces and a half:
Two tablespoonfuls of the mixture to be taken three times a day.

If she be delicate, a change either to the country, or, if the railway
journey be not very long, to the coast, will be desirable.
368. A nervous patient during this period is subject to palpitation
of the heart. This palpitation, provided it occur only during
pregnancy, is not dangerous; it need therefore cause no alarm. It is
occasioned by the pressure of the pregnant womb upon the large
blood-vessels, which induces a temporary derangement of the heart’s
action. This palpitation is generally worse at night, when the patient
is lying down. There is, at these times, from the position, greater
pressure on the blood-vessels. Moreover, when she is lying down, the
midriff, in consequence of the increased size of the belly, is pressed
upward, and hence the heart has not its accustomed room to work in,
and palpitation is in consequence the result.
369. The best remedies will be either half a teaspoonful of
compound spirits of lavender or a teaspoonful of sal-volatile in a
wineglassful of camphor julep,[68] or a combination of lavender and
of sal-volatile:
Take of—Compound Spirits of Lavender, one drachm;
Sal-Volatile, eleven drachms:
Mix.—A teaspoonful of the drops to be taken occasionally in a wineglassful of

water.
370. These medicines ought to lie on a table by the bedside of the
patient, in order that they may, if necessary, be administered at once.
Brandy is in these cases sometimes given, but it is a dangerous
remedy to administer every time there is palpitation; while the
lavender and the sal-volatile are perfectly safe medicines, and can
never do the slightest harm.
371. Mental emotion, fatigue, late hours, and close rooms ought to
be guarded against. Gentle out-door exercise, and cheerful but not
boisterous company are desirable.
372. Cramps of the legs and of the thighs during the latter period,
and especially at night, are apt to attend pregnancy, and are caused
by the womb pressing upon the nerves which extend to the lower
extremities. Treatment.—Tightly tie a handkerchief folded like a
neckerchief round the limb a little above the part affected, and let it
remain on for a few minutes. Friction by means of the hand either
with opodeldoc or with laudanum (taking care not to drink it by
mistake) will also give relief. Cramp sometimes attacks either the
bowels or the back of a pregnant woman; when such is the case, let a
bag of hot salt, or a hot-water bag,[69] or a tin stomach warmer filled
with hot water and covered with flannel, or a stone bottle containing
hot water, wrapped in flannel, be applied over the part affected; and
let either a stone bottle of hot water or a hot brick, which should be
incased in flannel, be placed to the soles of the feet. If the cramp of
the bowels, of the back, or of the thighs be very severe, the following
mixture will be serviceable:
Take of—Compound Tincture of Camphor, one ounce;
Dill Water, five ounces:
A wineglassful of this mixture to be taken at bedtime occasionally, and to be
repeated, if necessary, in four hours.
373. “The whites,” during pregnancy, especially during the latter
months, and particularly if the lady has had many children, are
frequently troublesome, and are, in a measure, owing to the pressure
of the womb on the parts below causing irritation. The best way,
therefore, to obviate such pressure, is for the patient to lie down a
great part of each day either on a bed or on a sofa.
374. She ought to retire early to rest; she should sleep on a horse-
hair mattress and in a well-ventilated apartment, and she must not
overload her bed with clothes. A thick, heavy quilt at these times, and
indeed at all times, is particularly objectionable; the perspiration
cannot pass readily through it as through blankets, and thus she is
weakened. She ought to live on plain, wholesome, nourishing food;
but she must abstain from beer and wine and spirits. The bowels
ought to be gently opened by means of a Seidlitz powder, which
should occasionally be taken early in the morning.
375. The best application will be, to bathe the parts with warm
fuller’s earth and water, in the proportion of a handful of powdered
fuller’s earth to half a wash-hand-basinful of warm water; and the
internal parts ought, night and morning, to be bathed with it. If the
fuller’s earth should not have the desired effect, an alum injection[70]
ought, every night and morning, by means of an india-rubber vaginal
syringe,[71] to be syringed up the parts; or fifteen drops of solution of
diacetate of lead should be added to a quarter of a pint of lukewarm
water, and be used in a similar manner as the alum injection.
376. Cleanliness, in these cases, cannot be too strongly urged.
Indeed, every woman, either married or single, ought, unless special
circumstances forbid, to use either the bidet or a sitz-bath. If she has
not the “whites,” or if she has them only slightly, cold, quite cold
water is preferable to tepid. I should advise, then, every lady, both
married and single, whether she has the “whites” or not, a regular
sitz-bath[72] every morning (except during her “poorly times”)—that
is to say, I should recommend her to sit every morning in the water
(in cold water) for a few seconds, or while she can count a hundred;
throwing the while either a small blanket or shawl over her
shoulders, but having no other clothing on except slippers on her
feet. She should, for the first few mornings, make the water
lukewarm; but the sooner she can use it cold—quite cold—the more
good it will do her.
377. If the above plan were more generally followed, women of all
classes and ages would derive immense benefit from its adoption,
and many serious diseases would be warded off. Besides, the use of
the sitz-bath, after a time, would be a great comfort and enjoyment.
378. Where a lady suffers severely from the “whites,” she ought to
visit the coast. There is nothing in such cases that generally affords
so much relief as the bracing effects of sea-air. Of course, if she be
pregnant, she ought not to bathe in the sea, but should, every night
and morning, bathe the external parts with sea water.
379. When the patient has been much weakened by the “whites,”
she will derive benefit from a quinine mixture[73]—a dose of which
ought to be taken twice or three times a day.
380. Irritation and itching of the external parts.—This is a most
troublesome affection, and may occur at any time, but more
especially during the latter period of the pregnancy; and as it is a
subject that a lady is too delicate and too sensitive to consult a
medical man about, I think it well to lay down a few rules for her
relief. The misery it entails, if not relieved, is almost past endurance.
381. Well, then, in the first place, let her diet be simple and
nourishing; let her avoid stimulants of all kinds. In the next place,
and this is a most important item of treatment, let her use a tepid
salt and water sitz-bath.[74]
382. The way to prepare the bath is to put a large handful of table
salt into the sitz-bath, then to add cold water to the depth of three or
four inches, and sufficient hot water to make the water tepid or
lukewarm. The patient must sit in the bath; her slippered feet being,
of course, out of the water, and on the ground, and either a woolen
shawl or a small blanket being thrown over her shoulders: which
shawl or blanket ought to be the only covering she has on the while.
She should remain only for a few seconds, or while she can count, in
the winter, fifty, or the summer, a hundred, in the bath. Patients
generally derive great comfort and benefit from these salt and water
sitz-baths.
383. If the itching, during the daytime, continue, the following
lotion ought to be used:
Take of—Solution of Diacetate of Lead, one drachm;
Rectified Spirits of Wine, one drachm;
Distilled Water, one pint:
To make a lotion. The parts affected to be bathed three or four times a day with
the lotion. Or the parts may be bathed two or three times a day with equal
parts of vinegar and water.
384. The external parts, and the passage to the womb (the vagina),
in these cases, are not only irritable and itching, but are sometimes
hot and inflamed, and are covered either with small pimples, or
with a whitish exudation of the nature of aphtha (thrush), somewhat
similar to the thrush on the mouth of an infant; then the addition of
glycerin to the lotion is a great improvement, and usually gives
immense relief. Either of the following is a good lotion for the
purpose:
Take of—Biborate of Soda, eight drachms;
Glycerin five ounces;
Distilled Water, ten ounces:
To make a lotion. The part affected to be bathed every four hours with the lotion,
first shaking the bottle.
Or,
Take of—Solution of Diacetate of Lead,
Rectified Spirits of Wine, of each, one drachm;
Glycerin, five ounces;
Rose Water, ten ounces and a half:
To make a lotion. To be used in the same manner as the preceding one.
MISCARRIAGE.
385. If a premature expulsion of the child occur before the end of

the seventh month, it is called either a miscarriage or an abortion; if
between the seventh month and before the full period of nine
months, a premature labor.
386. There is a proneness for a young wife to miscarry, and woe
betide her, if she once establish the habit! for it, unfortunately, often
becomes a habit. A miscarriage is a serious calamity, and should be
considered in that light; not only to the mother herself, whose
constitution frequent miscarriages might seriously injure, and
eventually ruin; but it might rob the wife of one of her greatest
earthly privileges, the inestimable pleasure and delight of being a
mother!
387. Now, as a miscarriage may generally be prevented, it
behooves a wife to look well into the matter, and to study the subject
thoroughly for herself, in order to guard against her first
miscarriage; for the first miscarriage is the one that frequently leads
to a series. How necessary it is that the above important fact should
be borne in mind! How much misery might be averted; as, then,
means would, by avoiding the usual causes, be taken to ward off such
an awful calamity. I am quite convinced that in the majority of cases,
miscarriages may be prevented.
388. Hence the importance of a popular work of this kind, to point
out dangers, to give judicious advice, that a wife may read, ponder
over, and “inwardly digest,” and that she may see the folly of the
present practices that wives—young wives especially—usually
indulge in, and thus, that she may avoid the rocks they split on,
which make a shipwreck of their most cherished hopes and
treasures.
389. Let it then be thoroughly understood,—first, that a
miscarriage is very weakening—more weakening than a labor; and,
secondly, that if a lady has once miscarried, she is more likely to
miscarry again and again; until, at length, her constitution is broken,
and the chances of her having a child become small indeed!
390. Causes.—A slight cause will frequently occasion the
separation of the child from the mother, and the consequent death
and expulsion of the fœtus; hence the readiness with which a lady
sometimes miscarries. The following are the most common causes of
a young wife miscarrying: Taking long walks; riding on horseback; or
over rough roads in a carriage; a long railway journey; overexerting
herself, and sitting up late at night. Her mind, just after marriage, is
frequently too much excited by large parties, by balls, and concerts.
391. The following are, moreover, frequent causes of a miscarriage:
Falls; all violent emotions of the mind, passion, fright, etc.; fatigue;
overreaching; sudden shocks; taking a wrong step either in
ascending or in descending stairs; falling down stairs; lifting heavy
weights; violent drastic purgatives; calomel; obstinate constipation;
debility of constitution; consumptive habit of body; fashionable
amusements; dancing; late hours; tight lacing; indeed, anything and
everything that injuriously affects either the mind or the body.
392. The old maxim that “prevention is better than cure” is well
exemplified in the case of a miscarriage. Let me, then, appeal
strongly to my fair reader to do all that she can, by avoiding the usual
causes of a miscarriage which I have above enumerated, to prevent
such a catastrophe. A miscarriage is no trifling matter; it is one of the
most grievous accidents that can occur to a wife, and is truly a
catastrophe.
393. Threatening or warning symptoms of a miscarriage.—A
lady about to miscarry usually, for one or two days, experiences a
feeling of lassitude, of debility, of malaise, and depression of spirits;
she feels as though she were going to be taken “poorly;” she
complains of weakness and of uneasiness about the loins, the hips,
the thighs, and the lower part of the belly. This is an important stage
of the case, and one in which a judicious medical man may, almost to
a certainty, be able to stave off a miscarriage.
394. More serious, but still only threatening symptoms of a
miscarriage.—If the above symptoms are allowed to proceed,
unchecked and untended, she will, after a day or two, have a slight
show of blood; this show may soon increase to a flooding, which will
shortly become clotted. Then, perhaps, she begins for the first time
to dread a miscarriage! There may at this time be but little pain, and
the miscarriage might, with judicious treatment, be even now
warded off. At all events, if the miscarriage cannot be prevented, the
ill effects to her constitution may, with care, be palliated, and means
may be used to prevent a future miscarriage.
395. Decided symptoms of a miscarriage.—If the miscarriage be
still proceeding, a new train of symptoms develop themselves; pains
begin to come on, at first slight, irregular, and of a “grinding” nature,
but which soon become more severe, regular, and “bearing down.”
Indeed, the case is now a labor in miniature; it becomes le
commencement de la fin; the patient is sure to miscarry, as the child
is now dead, and separated from its connection with the mother.
396. The most usual time for a lady to miscarry is from the eighth
to the twelfth week. It is not, of course, confined to this period, as
during the whole time of pregnancy there is a chance of a premature
expulsion of the contents of the womb. A miscarriage before the
fourth month is at the time attended with little danger; although, if
neglected, it may forever injure the constitution.
397. There is, in every miscarriage, more or less of flooding, which
is the most important symptom. After the fourth month it is
accompanied with more risk; as the further a lady is advanced in her
pregnancy, the greater is the danger of increased flooding;
notwithstanding, under judicious treatment, there is every chance of
her doing well.
398. A medical man ought in such a case always to be sent for.
There is as much care required in a miscarriage as, or more than, in a
labor.
399. If bearing down, expulsive pains—similar to labor pains—
should accompany the flooding; if the flooding increase, and if large
clots come away; if the breasts become smaller and softer; if there be
coldness, and heaviness, and diminution in the size of the belly; if the
motion of the child (the patient having quickened) cannot be felt; if
there be “the impression of a heavy mass rolling about the uterus
[womb], or the falling of the uterine tumor from side to side in the
abdomen [belly] as the patient changes her position;”[75] and if there
be an unpleasant discharge, she may rest assured that the child is
dead, and that it is separated from all connection with her, and that
the miscarriage must proceed, it being only a question of time. Of
course, in such a case—if she has not already done so—she ought
immediately to send for a medical man. A miscarriage sometimes
begins and ends in a few days—five or six; it at other times continues
a fortnight, and even in some cases three weeks.
400. Treatment.—If a patient has the slightest “show,” she ought
immediately to confine herself either to a sofa or she should keep in
bed. A soft feather bed must be avoided; it both enervates the body
and predisposes to a miscarriage. There is nothing better for her to
sleep on than a horse-hair mattress. She either ought to lie flat upon
her back or should lie upon her side, as it is quite absurd for her
merely to rest her legs and feet, as it is the back and the belly, not the
feet and the legs, that require rest.
401. Let her put herself on a low diet, such as on arrow-root,
tapioca, sago, gruel, chicken-broth, tea, toast and water, and
lemonade; and whatever she does drink ought, during the time of the
miscarriage, to be cold. Grapes, at these times, are cooling and
refreshing.
402. The temperature of the bedroom should be kept cool; and, if
it be summer, the window ought to be thrown open; aperient
medicines must be avoided; and if the flooding be violent, cold water
should be applied externally to the parts.
403. Let me strongly urge upon the patient the vast importance of
preserving any and every substance that might come away, in order
that it may be carefully examined by the medical man.
404. It is utterly impossible for a doctor to declare positively that a
lady has miscarried, and that all has properly come away, if he have
not had an opportunity of examining the substances for himself.
How often has a lady declared to her medical man that she has
miscarried, when she has only parted with clots of blood! Clots
sometimes put on strange appearances, and require a practiced and
professional eye to decide at all times upon what they really are.
405. The same care is required after a miscarriage as after a
labor; indeed, a patient requires to be treated much in the same
manner—that is to say, she ought for a few days to keep her bed, and
should live upon the diet I have recommended after a confinement,
avoiding for the first few days stimulants of all kinds. Many women
date their ill state of health to a neglected miscarriage; it therefore
behooves a lady to guard against such a catastrophe.
406. A patient prone to miscarry, ought, before she become
pregnant again, to use every means to brace and strengthen her
system. The best plan that she can adopt will be TO LEAVE HER
HUSBAND FOR SEVERAL MONTHS, and go to some healthy spot; neither to
a fashionable watering-place nor to a friend’s house, where much
company is kept, but to some quiet country place; if to a healthy
farm-house so much the better.
407. Early hours are quite indispensable. She ought to lie on a
horse-hair mattress, and should have but scant clothing on the bed.
She must sleep in a well-ventilated apartment. Her diet should be
light and nourishing. Gentle exercise ought to be taken, which should
alternate with frequent rest.
408. Cold ablutions ought every morning to be used, and the body
should be afterward dried with a coarse cloth. If it be winter, let the
water be made tepid and let its temperature be gradually lowered
until it be used quite cold. A shower-bath is, in these cases,
serviceable; it braces and invigorates the system, and is one of the
best tonics that she can use.
409. If she be already pregnant it would not be admissible, as the
shock of the shower-bath would be too great, and may bring on a
miscarriage; but still she ought to continue the cold ablutions.
410. A lady who is prone to miscarry, ought, as soon as she is
pregnant, to lie down a great part of every day; she must keep her
mind calm and unruffled; she should live on a plain diet; she ought
to avoid wine and spirits and beer; she should retire early to rest,
and she must have a separate sleeping apartment. She ought as
much as possible to abstain from taking opening medicine; and if she
be actually obliged to take an aperient—for the bowels must not be
allowed to be constipated—she should select the mildest (such as
either castor oil or lenitive electuary or syrup of senna), and even of
these she ought not to take a larger dose than is absolutely necessary,
as a free action of the bowels is a frequent cause of a miscarriage.
411. The external application of castor oil as a liniment, and as
recommended at page 144, is a good and safe remedy for a patient
prone to miscarry; and if sufficiently active, is far preferable to the
mildest aperient. Another great advantage of the external application
of castor oil is, it does not afterward produce constipation as the
internal administration of castor oil is apt to do. If the external
application of castor oil in the manner advised at page 144 should
not have the desired effect, then an enema—a clyster of warm water,
a pint—ought, in the morning, two or three times a week to be
administered.
412. Gentle walking exercise daily is desirable: long walks and
horseback exercise ought to be sedulously avoided. A trip to the
coast, provided the railway journey be not very long, would be likely
to prevent a miscarriage; although I would not, on any account,
recommend such a patient either to bathe or to sail on the water, as
the shock of the former would be too great, and the motion of the
vessel and the sea-sickness would be likely to bring on what we are
anxious to avoid.
413. As the usual period for miscarrying approaches (for it
frequently comes on at one particular time), let the patient be more
than usually careful; let her lie down the greatest part of the day; let
her mind be kept calm and unruffled; let all fashionable society and
every exciting amusement be eschewed; let both the sitting and the
sleeping apartments be kept cool and well ventilated; let the bowels
(if they be costive) be opened by an enema (if the external
application of castor oil, as before recommended, be not sufficient);
let the diet be simple and yet be nourishing; let all stimulants, such
as beer, wine, and spirits, be at this time avoided; and if there be the
slightest symptoms of an approaching miscarriage, such as pains in
the loins, in the hips, or in the lower belly, or if there be the slightest
show of blood, let a medical man be instantly sent for, as he may, at
an early period, be able to ward off the threatened mishap.
FALSE LABOR PAINS.
414. A lady, especially in her first pregnancy, is sometimes

troubled with spurious labor pains; these pains usually come on at
night, and are frequently owing to a disordered stomach. They affect
the belly, the back, and the loins; and occasionally they extend down
the hips and the thighs. They attack first one place and then another;
they come on at irregular intervals; at one time they are violent, at
another they are feeble. The pains, instead of being grinding or
bearing down, are more of a colicky nature.
415. Now, as these false pains more frequently occur in a first
pregnancy, and as they are often more violent two or three weeks
toward the completion of the full time, and as they usually come on
either at night or in the night, it behooves both the patient and the
monthly nurse to be cognizant of the fact, in order that they may not
make a false alarm and summon the doctor before he is wanted, and
when he cannot be of the slightest benefit to the patient.
416. It is sometimes stated that a woman has been in labor two or
three weeks before the child was born! Such is not the fact. The case
in question is one probably of false pains ending in true pains.
417. How, then, is the patient to know that the pains are false and
not true labor pains? False labor pains come on three or four weeks

Bioavailability, Leachability, Chemical Speciation, and Bioremediation of Heavy Metals in The Process of Composting Jiwan Singh

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Bioavailability, Leachability, Chemical

Speciation, and Bioremediation of

Biota Grow 2C gather 2C cook Loucas

Heavy Metals in the Environment: Microorganisms and

Commercial Surfactants for Remediation Mobilization of

Water Pollution and Remediation: Heavy Metals Inamuddin

Heavy metals and other pollutants in the environment

Process safety: leadership from the boardroom to the

More incidents that define process safety First Edition

Security Risk Assessment In the Chemical and Process

Jiwan Singh and Ajay Kalamdhad

© 2019 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

No claim to original U.S. Government works

Printed on acid-free paper

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-138-59833-1 (Hardback)

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Singh, Jiwan (Professor of environmental science), author. |

Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at

and the CRC Press Web site at

Chapter 2 Composting Process............................................................................ 11

Chapter 3 Analysis of Compost Samples............................................................. 33

Chapter 4 Composting and Heavy Metals........................................................... 49

Chapter 5 Bioavailability of Heavy Metals during Composting......................... 75

Chapter 6 Chemical Speciation of Heavy Metals during the

6.1.3 Manganese (Mn)......................................................... 98

Chapter 7 Effects of Chemical Amendments on Bioavailability and

Chapter 8 Reduction of Bioavailability of Heavy Metals by Microorganisms..... 129

Chapter 9 Leachability of Heavy Metals during the Composting Process........ 141

9.2.1  ffects of Waste Lime on Leaching of Heavy

Chapter 8 explains the role of microorganisms for the reduction of bioavailability

AIM AND SCOPE OF BOOK

Sludge + Heavy Surface water

FIGURE 1.1 Fate and transport of heavy metals in the environment.

and soil microorganisms. The bioavailability of metals in soil is a self-motivated pro-

1.2 EFFECTS OF HEAVY METALS ON THE ENVIRONMENT

1.2.2 EFFeCTS OF MeTALS ON PLANTS

To make twelve pills. One to be taken three times a day.

Two Tablespoonfuls of this mixture to be taken with one of lemon-juice every

Two tablespoonfuls of this mixture to be taken three times a day.

Two tablespoonfuls of the mixture to be taken three times a day.

Mix.—A teaspoonful of the drops to be taken occasionally in a wineglassful of

To make a lotion. To be used in the same manner as the preceding one.

385. If a premature expulsion of the child occur before the end of

FALSE LABOR PAINS.

414. A lady, especially in her first pregnancy, is sometimes

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6.1.3 Manganese (Mn)......................................................... 98

9.2.1 ffects of Waste Lime on Leaching of Heavy

1.2 EFFECTS OF HEAVY METALS ON THE ENVIRONMENT

1.2.2 EFFeCTS OF MeTALS ON PLANTS