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ELASTIC
SCATTERING OF
ELECTROMAGNETIC
RADIATION
Analytic Solutions in
Diverse Backgrounds
ELASTIC
SCATTERING OF
ELECTROMAGNETIC
RADIATION
Analytic Solutions in
Diverse Backgrounds

SUBODH KUMAR SHARMA

CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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© 2018 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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Version Date: 20171221

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Dedicated to fond memories of my parents
and to my dear
Shibani, Kunal, Lori, and Aahana
Contents

Preface xi

List of Figures xiii

List of Tables xv

Symbols xvii

1 Introduction 1
1.1 Objective and scope of the book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Electromagnetic wave propagation in homogeneous media . . 5
1.2.1 Dielectric medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.2 Conducting medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2.3 Optically active medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.2.4 Anisotropic medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.3 Classification of electromagnetic scattering problems . . . . . 12
1.3.1 Wave, particle and ray descriptions . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.3.2 Elastic, quasi-elastic and inelastic scattering . . . . . . 13
1.3.3 Static and dynamic scattering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.3.4 Single and multiple scattering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.3.5 Independent and dependent scattering . . . . . . . . . 14
1.3.6 Rayleigh scattering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.3.7 Mie scattering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.4 Single particle scalar scattering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.4.1 Basic definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.4.2 Scalar wave scattering versus potential scattering . . . 18
1.4.3 Applicability of the scalar approximation . . . . . . . 20
1.5 Vector description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.5.1 Stokes parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.5.2 Scattering matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.6 Acoustic wave scattering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

2 Single particle scattering 25

2.1 Analytic solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.2 Rigorous analytic solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.2.1 Homogeneous sphere: Mie scattering . . . . . . . . . . 28

vii
viii Contents

2.2.2 Mie theory in Gegenbauer polynomials . . . . . . . . . 36

2.2.3 Computation of Mie coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.2.4 Basic structures in Mie scattering . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.2.5 Magnetic spheres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.2.6 Spheres in an absorbing host medium . . . . . . . . . 48
2.2.7 Charged spheres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
2.2.8 Chiral spheres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.2.9 Layered spheres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.2.10 Debye series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2.3 Resonances of the Mie coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2.4 Other shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
2.5 Integral equation method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

3 Approximate formulas 65
3.1 The need for approximate formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3.2 Efficiency factors of small particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.2.1 Rayleigh approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
3.2.2 The Tien–Doornink–Rafferty approximation . . . . . . 72
3.2.3 The first-term approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
3.2.4 Wiscombe approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
3.2.5 Penndorf approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.2.6 Caldas–Semião approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
3.2.7 Numerical comparisons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
3.2.8 Videen and Bickel approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
3.3 Angular scattering by small particles: Parameterization . . . 79
3.3.1 Five-parameter phase function . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
3.3.2 Six-parameter phase function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
3.3.3 Series expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
3.4 Angular scattering by small particles: Dependence on particle
characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
3.4.1 Rayleigh phase function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
3.4.2 Phase function for small spherical particles . . . . . . 84
3.4.3 Caldas–Semião approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.5 Rayleigh–Gans approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
3.5.1 Homogeneous spheres: Visible and ultraviolet range . 91
3.5.2 Homogeneous spheres: X-ray energies . . . . . . . . . 95
3.5.3 Nonspherical particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
3.6 The eikonal approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
3.6.1 Homogeneous spheres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
3.6.2 Corrections to the eikonal approximation . . . . . . . 103
3.6.3 Generalized eikonal approximation . . . . . . . . . . . 105
3.6.4 Infinitely long cylinders: Normal incidence . . . . . . . 107
3.6.5 Coated spheres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
3.6.6 Spheroids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
3.6.7 Backscattering in the eikonal approximation . . . . . . 111
 Contents ix

3.7 Anomalous diffraction approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

3.7.1 Homogeneous spheres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
3.7.2 Edge effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
3.7.3 Relationship with the Ramsauer approach . . . . . . . 114
3.7.4 X-ray scattering in the ADA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
3.7.5 Long cylinders: Oblique incidence . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
3.7.6 Long elliptic cylinders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
3.7.7 Spheroids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
3.7.8 Ellipsoids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
3.7.9 Layered particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
3.7.10 Other shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
3.8 WKB approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
3.9 Perelman approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
3.9.1 Homogeneous spheres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
3.9.2 The scalar Perelman approximation . . . . . . . . . . 125
3.9.3 Infinitely long cylinders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
3.10 Hart and Montroll approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
3.10.1 Homogeneous spheres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
3.10.2 Infinitely long cylinders: Normal incidence . . . . . . . 128
3.11 Evans and Fournier approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
3.12 Large particle approximations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
3.12.1 Empirical formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
3.12.2 Fraunhofer diffraction approximation . . . . . . . . . . 131
3.12.3 Geometrical optics approximation . . . . . . . . . . . 131
3.12.4 Bohren and Nevitt approximation . . . . . . . . . . . 132
3.12.5 Nussenzweig and Wiscombe approximation . . . . . . 134
3.13 Other large size parameter approximations . . . . . . . . . . 135
3.14 Composite particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
3.14.1 Effective medium theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
3.14.2 Effective refractive index method . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

4 Scattering by an assembly of particles 141

4.1 Single scattering by N independent particles . . . . . . . . . 143
4.2 Multiple scattering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
4.3 Diffusion approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
4.4 Radiative transfer equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
4.5 Phase function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
4.5.1 The Henyey–Greenstein phase function (HGPF) . . . 149
4.5.2 Improvements over the HGPF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
4.5.3 Sum of two phase functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
4.5.4 Caldas–Semião approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
4.5.5 Biomedical specific phase functions . . . . . . . . . . . 157
4.5.6 Astrophysics specific phase functions . . . . . . . . . . 160
4.5.7 Marine environment specific phase functions . . . . . . 163
4.5.8 Single scattering properties of snow . . . . . . . . . . . 165
x Contents

4.6 Some distribution specific analytic phase functions . . . . . . 167

4.6.1 Rayleigh phase function for modified gamma distribu-
tion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
4.6.2 Junge size distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
4.7 Extinction by randomly oriented monodisperse particles . . . 170
4.7.1 Cylinders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
4.7.2 Spheroids and ellipsoids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
4.7.3 Arbitrary shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
4.8 Extinction and scattering efficiencies by a polydispersion of
spheres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
4.8.1 Modified gamma size distribution in the ADA . . . . . 177
4.8.2 Modified gamma distribution for coal, fly ash and soot 178
4.8.3 Power law distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
4.8.4 Power law distribution: Empirical formulas for interstel-
lar extinction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
4.9 Scattering by nonspherical polydispersions . . . . . . . . . . 191
4.10 Effective phase function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
4.11 Relation between light scattering reflectance and the phase
function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194

Appendix 197

Bibliography 201

Index 239
Preface

The technique of elastic scattering of electromagnetic radiation is used exten-

sively for characterizing single particles as well as particulate systems. This
technique is a truly multidisciplinary technique, and has found applications
in diverse disciplines of science, engineering, medicine, agriculture, etc.

Many books exist on this topic. However, most of them focus on specific
themes. Some, restrict the scope by choosing a particular spectral region of
the electromagnetic spectrum. Consequently, there appears to be room for a
book with a wider perspective. This monograph is a modest attempt to fill
this space. An effort has been made to keep the presentation self-contained
and simple. It is hoped that this monograph will help the reader to become
aware of developments across the disciplines, and provide a flavour of the basic
analytic approaches.

The subject matter is limited to analytic solutions. These are mathematical

expressions constructed using known mathematical operations. As a result,
the analytic solutions are mostly approximate. From the point of view of the
target, the stress is on single particle scattering and on particulate systems
in which multiple scatterings are negligible. Some peripheral aspects of the
multiple scattering problem are included.

Many friends and colleagues have helped in the preparation of this mono-
graph, in different ways. I would like to thank them all. In particular, I would
like to mention the names of Dr. Ratan K. Saha and Mr. Ransell R. Dsouza
for helping me with preparation of a number of figures. Last but not the least,
I would also like to thank the publishers and printers for all the help provided
by them. It was a pleasure to work with them.

S. K. Sharma
Kolkata, India

xi
List of Figures

1.1 A schematic diagram showing scattering of a scalar wave. . 15

2.1 Normalized angular scattering patterns. . . . . . . . . . . . 39

2.2 Normalized scattered intensity plotted as a function of qa for
x = 100.0. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.3 Plots of extinction efficiency factor against x. . . . . . . . . 43
2.4 Plots of absorption efficiency factor Qabs versus size parameter
x. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.5 Plots of absorption efficiency factor Qabs versus imaginary
part of the refractive index (ni ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.6 Plots of asymmetry parameter g versus size parameter x. . . 47
2.7 Departure of Qabs from unity for a single spherical coal par-
ticle (m = 1.7 + i0.04) in an absorbing medium of refractive
index (m = 1.33 + imhi ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.8 Single spherical coal particle albedo in an absorbing medium
of refractive index m = 1.33 + imhi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.9 Geometry of a layered sphere. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

3.1 Comparison of parameterizations obtained using (3.44) with

exact sphere phase functions of x = 0.1, 0.5 and 1.0. . . . . 80
3.2 Comparison of parametrization of φ(π) by (3.63c) with the
Mie phase function. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.3 A comparison of phase functions predicted by φ̄F P P F and
φCSP F with the exact phase function for a sphere of (i) x =
0.25 and (ii) x = 1.25. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
3.4 A comparison of percent rms error in φ̄F P P F (solid line) and
φCSP F (dashed line) as a function of size parameter. . . . . 88
3.5 A comparison of MRGA with RGA and the Mie phase func-
tion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
3.6 Ray propagation in the eikonal approximation. . . . . . . . 99

4.1 A typical ladder diagram depicting various orders of scatter-

ing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
4.2 A comparison of some approximate small particle phase func-
tions with the Mie phase function (x = 1.0, m = 1.5). . . . 151

xiii
xiv List of Figures

4.3 Relative root mean square error, as defined in (4.96), as a

function of wavelength for a model of interstellar dust parti-
cles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
4.4 A comparison of the observed average interstellar extinction
data (solid line) and that obtained using the formulas from
Roy et al. (2009, 2010) (points). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
A1 Coordinate system depicting angles specified in the Appendix. 200
List of Tables

2.1 Scatterer description and references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

A1 Form factors for some particles with axis of symmetry. . . . 198

A2 Form factors for randomly oriented particles. . . . . . . . . . 199

xv
Symbols

ADA anomalous diffraction ap- FMA Fymat–Mease approxima-

proximation. tion.
ADr anomalous diffraction rapid. g asymmetry parameter.
ADT anomalous diffraction the- GEA generalized eikonal approxi-
ory. mation.
αp polarizability. GGADT general geometry ADT.
B magnetic induction vector. GKP F Gegenbauer kernel phase
BN A Bohren and Nevitt approxi- function.
mation. GRA Gaussian ray approxima-
hcos θi first moment of the phase tion.
function. GLM T generalized Lorenz–Mie the-
Cabs absorption cross section. ory.
Csca scattering cross section. H magnetic field vector.
(1)
Cext extinction cross section. hn Hankel function of first kind.
CASP F Cornette and Shanks phase HM A Hart and Montroll approxi-
function. mation.
HGP F Henyey–Greenstein phase
CLD chord length distribution.
function.
CSA Caldas and Semião approxi- (2)
hn Hankel function of second
mation.
kind.
CSP F Caldas and Semião phase
Iinc incident intensity.
function.
Isca scattered intensity.
CSP F L Caldas and Semião phase
i⊥ (θ) |S1 (θ)|2 .
function, large particle.
ik (θ) |S2 (θ)|2 .
D dielectric displacement.
jn spherical Bessel function of
DDA discrete dipole approxima- order n.
tion. Jn cylindrical Bessel function of
DP F Draine phase function. order n.
E electric field vector. k wavenumber.
ε dielectric constant. ki incident wave vector.
εr real part of dielectric con- ks scattered wave vector.
stant. κ index of absorption.
εi imaginary part of dielectric κ = 2xni .
constant. κADA = 2xni .
EA eikonal approximation. κEA = 2xnr ni .
EADA extended ADA. Kabs absorption coefficient.
EF A Evans and Fournier approx- Kext extinction coefficient.
imation. Ksca scattering coefficient.
F F P F Fournier and Forand phase KZAA Kokhanovsky and Zege ap-
function. proximation.
F P P F five-parameter phase func- λ wavelength of the radiation.
tion. m nr + ini .
xviii Symbols

µ magnetic permeability/hcos θi. RAA Ramsauer approximation.

µabs absorption coefficient. RGA Rayleigh–Gans approxima-
µext extinction coefficient. tion.
µsca scattering coefficient. RP F Rayleigh phase function.
M magnetic polarization. S1 , S2 scattering functions for a
M ADA modified ADA. sphere.
M GEA modified GEA. σ conductivity.
MPA main form of the Perelman σ(θ, ϕ) differential cross section.
approximation. SIXP P F six-parameter phase func-
M RGA modified RGA. tion.
M SP A modified SPA. SP A Scalar Perelman approxima-
N refractive index of the host tion.
medium. SP P F Single particle phase func-
nr real part of the refractive in- tion.
dex. ST A Shifrin–Tonna approxima-
ni imaginary part of the refrac- tion.
tive index.
SRA simplified Ramsauer approx-
N W A Nussenzweig and Wiscombe imation.
approximation.
θ scattering angle.
p(θ) single scattering phase func-
T1 , T2 scattering functions for an
tion.
infinite cylinder.
φ single particle phase func-
T EW S transverse electric wave
tion.
scattering.
ψn Riccati–Bessel function of
order n. T M W S transverse magnetic wave
scattering.
P electric polarization.
PA Perelman approximation. T T HG two-term Henyey and
P AP P Penndorf approximation. Greenstein.
P SP A Penndorf–Shifrin–Punina T T P F two-term phase function.
approximation. W AA Walstra approximation.
Qabs absorption efficiency factor. W A Wiscombe approximation.
Qext extinction efficiency factor. W KBA Wentzel–Kramers–Brillouin
Qsca scattering efficiency factor. approximation
QSA quasi-stationary approxima- ω angular frequency.
tion. ω0 albedo.
ρ̃ADA = ρADA + iκADA . ̟0 co-albedo.
ρ̃EA = ρEA + iκEA . ξn Riccati–Hankel function of
ρADA 2ka(nr − 1). order n.
ρEA = ka(n2r − n2i − 1). yn Neumann function of order
RA Rayleigh approximation. n.
Chapter 1
Introduction

1.1 Objective and scope of the book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.2 Electromagnetic wave propagation in homogeneous media . . . . . . 5
1.2.1 Dielectric medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.2 Conducting medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2.3 Optically active medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.2.4 Anisotropic medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.3 Classification of electromagnetic scattering problems . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.3.1 Wave, particle and ray descriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.3.2 Elastic, quasi-elastic and inelastic scattering . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.3.3 Static and dynamic scattering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.3.4 Single and multiple scattering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.3.5 Independent and dependent scattering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.3.6 Rayleigh scattering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.3.7 Mie scattering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.4 Single particle scalar scattering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.4.1 Basic definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.4.2 Scalar wave scattering versus potential scattering . . . . . . 18
1.4.3 Applicability of the scalar approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.5 Vector description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.5.1 Stokes parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.5.2 Scattering matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.6 Acoustic wave scattering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

1.1 Objective and scope of the book

The scattering of waves and particles by an obstacle is perhaps the most
important experimental capability available to researchers for characterizing a
given target. By analyzing the scattered radiation, a great deal of information
about the target can be retrieved. The technique has found applications in
diverse fields of studies spanning science, engineering, agriculture, medicine,
atmospheric science, ocean optics, remote sensing, routine measurements in
industry, and more.

Lord Rutherford (1911) investigated the structure of the atom by bombarding

1
2 Elastic Scattering of Electromagnetic Radiation

a thin gold foil with a beam of α particles. More than a century later, the basic
idea behind current experimental resources for studying fundamental particles
continues to be the same. The higher the energy of the probe, the deeper it
explores the target. This is the basic logic behind scattering experiments being
conducted at higher and higher energies. It is now known that the probing
particles can also be looked upon as waves known as “matter waves”.

Besides matter waves, there are two other wave types that are of great interest
as probes. These are electromagnetic waves and acoustic waves. In a series of
papers commencing 1871, Lord Rayleigh (1871) showed that the blue colour
of the sky is a consequence of the scattering of sunlight by gas molecules and
other small atmospheric particles. Simultaneously, he also studied the scatter-
ing of sound (Rayleigh 1872).

While the wave equations guiding propagation of matter waves, electromag-

netic waves and acoustic waves have some formal similarities, they also dif-
fer from each other in a number of ways. For example, whereas electromag-
netic waves are transverse vector waves, acoustic waves are longitudinal scalar
waves. Matter waves are scalar waves for a spinless particle but vector wave
for a spin 1 particle. All three wave types are expected to interact with matter
differently. The differences occur even within the realm of a particular type
of wave depending on its frequency. For example, X-rays as well as light are
electromagnetic radiation. But the interaction of X-rays with a target could
be at variance with how light interacts with the same target. Clearly, waves
in different frequency ranges are suitable for different purposes depending on
the peculiarities of the target.

One specific example of electromagnetic wave scattering, where the scattering

technique has been regularly employed as a tool of inquiry, is the scatter-
ing of light. The interaction of light with a single particle (or an ensemble
of particles) depends strongly on particle size (or size distribution), shape,
refractive index and also on the concentration of particles in an ensemble.
As a consequence, at least in principle, it should be possible to deduce in-
formation about these quantities by executing a suitable measurement of the
scattered radiation. The nondestructive nature of light and the prospect of
real-time study are the main features that make light scattering a preferred
and popular means for exploring properties of an isolated particle as well as
for particles in an ensemble. The intense interest in the topic is evident from
the large number of books and monographs that have been published in the
past 15–20 years on the topics relating to light scattering and the vast amount
of other literature in the form of research papers and reviews.

Biomedical diagnostics and therapeutic considerations have benefited im-

mensely from light scattering studies (see, for example, Tuchin 1997, Niemz
2003; Wax and Backman 2010, Vo-Dinh 2015). Diagnostic applications in-
 Introduction 3

clude flow cytometry for cell diagnosis and differential blood count, optical
coherence tomography, optical biopsy, tissue characterization by a variety of
optical measurements such as diffuse reflectance and transmittance, light scat-
tering spectroscopy, etc. In tissues, the scattering originates from the spatial
heterogeneities of the refractive index as the radiation propagates through a
tissue sample. The heterogeneities can be looked upon as a consequence of
different refractive indices of tissue components such as the cell nucleus and
other organelles. The aim of light scattering studies is to achieve methods for
decoding the differences between the normal and diseased tissue structures
from the scattering measurements made on the tissue. The contributions of
studies on light interaction with tissues for therapeutic use are well known as
well. Photo dynamic therapy and laser surgery are two prominent examples.
Both require a good understanding of light propagation in a tissue.

Extensive applications of light scattering studies occur in optical characteri-

zation of particles in flows such as in fuel sprays, agricultural sprays, domestic
sprays, spray drying, spray cooling, etc. (see, for example, Xu 2000, Berrocal
2006). For injecting the fuel into a piston and gas turbine engines or coal
slurry in furnaces, an appropriate spray device is required. This should pro-
duce droplets of the desired dimensions and kinematics. The objective is to
maximize the energy efficiency and to minimize the emissions and residues.
Medical sprays are another example where control of the drop size is crucial.
The droplets to be inhaled must be in a specified size range. While larger
droplets may get stuck on the way, droplets of smaller size may get expelled
even before they reach their destination.

Optical methods have been used in food science and technology to deter-
mine the post harvest shelf life of fruits and vegetables. It is important that
the produce be harvested at an ideal time. Light scattering methods consti-
tute a perfect way of assessing the state of maturity, quality and ripeness
of the produce in terms of its texture, colour and turbidity (see, for example,
Cubeddu et al. 2002, Zude 2009, Nikolai et al. 2014, Fang et al. 2016, Lu 2016).

Material specific peculiarities often appear in nanometer-size particles. Con-

sequently, studying the properties and interactions of nanoparticles and their
aggregates has become a very active field of research in recent years. Among
the numerous properties of nanoparticles, the optical properties play a vital
role in determining the type of application in which a nanoparticle may be
utilized or the type of nanoparticles which may be used for a desired outcome.

Besides scattering of electromagnetic waves at optical frequencies, there is

interest in scattering of radio waves, microwaves, infrared, ultraviolet and X-
ray regions. The wavelength range is from hundreds of meters for radio waves
to 0.01 nm for X-rays. The propagation of radio waves and microwaves for the
purpose of communication and remote sensing has been studied extensively
4 Elastic Scattering of Electromagnetic Radiation

for a long time. Radar and lidar-based techniques require a good understand-
ing of radio and light wave scattering.

Much farther away from the earth’s atmosphere, interstellar and interplan-
etary media consist of gas and dust. The information about the nature of the
interstellar and interplanetary dust is critical for multiple reasons, including
developing theories on the birth and death of stars. The only way to retrieve
this information is by deciphering it from the electromagnetic radiation em-
anating from a star and reaching the observer after interaction with the in-
terstellar medium (see, for example, Whittet 2003, Krugel 2007, Draine 2011).

A change in particulate-size distribution, say, in the atmosphere, can influ-

ence weather and climate changes. To be able to predict these changes, it is
necessary to have an understanding of the interaction of electromagnetic waves
with particles in the atmosphere (see, for example, Kokhanovsky 2006, 2008)
and in natural water (see, for example, Jerlov 1968, Jonasz and Fournier 2007).

Many more examples can be cited. However, the array of examples provided
above are sufficient to demonstrate that the problems that could possibly be
addressed by way of interpreting electromagnetic wave scattering data, are
innumerable and not discipline specific. Many books and monographs exist
which give insight into various aspects of electromagnetic wave interaction
with particles. This monograph is an attempt to focus attention on a par-
ticular aspect of the electromagnetic wave scattering problem, namely, the
analytic solutions. The scope and contours of the monograph are defined be-
low.

Broadly speaking, the solution to an electromagnetic wave scattering problem

may be catalogued as analytic or numerical. The present work confines itself
to analytic solutions. The analytic solutions may be further subdivided as ex-
act and approximate solutions. While both types of solutions are important,
it is the approximate solutions which generally provide direct and simple re-
lationships between scatterer properties and the measured quantities. Hence,
approximate solutions are of greater interest. New analytic solutions, exact
as well as approximate, are appearing all the time in newer and newer sit-
uations, contributing to better understanding, new knowledge and increased
intuition. Even the software “Mathematica” has been used to obtain analytic
expressions (Matciak 2012). As demonstrated above, the scattering problems
of interest occur across diverse disciplines. Identifying these and bringing to-
gether such spread out material in one place appears desirable. We see this as
the primary purpose of this monograph.

The scattering problems considered in this monograph are restricted to elastic

scattering processes. Thus, the scatterings such as Brillouin, Raman, Comp-
ton and processes like fluorescence lie outside the scope of this monograph. No
 Introduction 5

restriction has been placed on whether the target is a single isolated scatterer
or is an ensemble of particles. However, in the latter case, the constituents are
always taken to be randomly separated independent scatterers.

From the target perspective, the investigations may be divided in three cate-
gories. (i) Scattering by a single particle. This approach is appropriate when-
ever it is possible to achieve a “one particle at a time” type of scattering
arrangement; for example, in flow cytometry. (ii) Scattering by a tenuous
system of uncorrelated scatterers. In such systems, multiple scattering can be
ignored. The solution for such systems can be constructed by integrating a sin-
gle particle scattering solution over a judicious choice of particle-size distribu-
tion—guided by the requirements of the problem. (iii) Scattering by particles
in an ensemble in which multiple scatterings cannot be ignored. The prob-
lem then demands the solution of radiative transfer equation. In the present
monograph, our primary focus is on scattering problems of types (i) and (ii).
Only some peripheral aspects of type (iii) problems have been made part of
this work.

1.2 Electromagnetic wave propagation in homogeneous

media
As a first step, it is appropriate to consider the propagation of electromag-
netic waves in a medium which is devoid of scatterers. This establishes the
notation and vocabulary and recaps some ideas and notions which might be
needed later in the monograph.

1.2.1 Dielectric medium

The macroscopic Maxwell equations in a dielectric medium with no free
charges and currents are:
∇.D = 0, (1.1)
∇.B = 0, (1.2)
∂B
∇×E = − , (1.3)
∂t
∂D
∇×H= . (1.4)
∂t
SI units are used. The electric field vector is represented by the symbol E,
the magnetic induction vector by B, the magnetic field vector by H, and the
electric displacement vector by D. The linear constitutive relations are:

D = ε0 E + P = ǫE, (1.5)
6 Elastic Scattering of Electromagnetic Radiation

and
B = µ0 H + M = µH, (1.6)
where ǫ0 and µ0 , respectively, are the electric permittivity and the magnetic
permeability of the vacuum. The corresponding quantities for the medium are
ε and µ. The electric polarization P and the magnetization M are defined by
the equations,
P = ǫ 0 χe E ; M = µ0 χm H, (1.7)
where χe and χm are the electric and magnetic susceptibilities, respectively.
The quantity P gives polarization per unit volume and M is the magnetiza-
tion per unit volume. Thus, ε = ε0 (1 + χe ) and µ = µ0 (1 + χm ).

The coupled Maxwell equations (1.3) and (1.4) can be decoupled by taking
the curl on both sides and using the vector identity,

∇ × (∇ × A) = ∇(∇.A) − ∇.(∇A), (1.8)

yielding separate equations for E and H:

∂ 2E
∇2 E = µε , (1.9)
∂t2
and
∂2H
∇2 H = µǫ . (1.10)
∂t2
In the Cartesian coordinate system, each component of the E and H vectors
satisfies an equation of the type,

1 ∂2U
∇2 U = , (1.11)
v 2 ∂t2
which describes a wave travelling with speed v. A comparison of (1.11) with
(1.9) shows that the electromagnetic wave travels in the medium with a speed,
√ c
v = 1/ εµ = , (1.12)
N
where N is the real refractive index of the medium given by,

εµ
r
N= . (1.13)
ε 0 µ0

For most dielectrics µ = µ0 . For such media,

p
N = ε/ε0 . (1.14)

One may also define a quantity,

µ
η= , (1.15)
ε
 Introduction 7

which is called the wave impedance of the medium. For a vacuum, its value is
377 ohms. In empty space
√
v = 1/ ε0 µ0 = 3.0 × 108 m/sec, (1.16)

is nothing but the speed of light usually denoted by c.

The solutions of (1.9) and (1.10) that are of the most practical interest are
the time harmonics. That is, the solution may be written in the form,

E(r, t) = E(r)e−iωt H(r, t) = H(r)e−iωt , (1.17)

where ω is the angular frequency of the monochromatic wave. Substitution

from (1.17) in equations (1.9) and (1.10) then leads to the Helmholtz equa-
tions,
∇2 E(r) + m2 k 2 E(r) = 0, (1.18)
for the electric field vector and

∇2 H(r) + m2 k 2 H(r) = 0, (1.19)

for the magnetic field vector, with k 2 = µǫω 2 = ω 2 /c2 , k being the wave
number. The plane wave solutions of (1.18) and (1.19) are well known. Their
substitution in (1.17) leads to:

E(r, t) = E0 ei(k.r−ωt) , (1.20)

and
H(r, t) = H0 ei(k.r−ωt) , (1.21)
where E0 and H0 are (complex) amplitudes. The wave vector k expresses
the propagation direction. It is tacitly assumed that the actual solution of the
wave equation is given by the real components on the right-hand sides of (1.20)
and (1.21). The complex number representation is used because it makes the
handling of mathematical expressions and the accompanying algebra simpler.
At any given time t, surfaces k.r = constant are planes of constant phase and
hence the wave is called a plane wave.

An alternative convention is often used, in which a time harmonic plane wave

is represented as exp(−i(k.r − ωt)). Note that i in (1.20) has been replaced by
(−i). This convention for representing a plane wave appears in the books by
van de Hulst (1957), Kerker (1969) and Kokhanovsky (2004). The convention
adopted here is that used in the books by Newton (1966), Bayvel and Jones
(1981), Bohren and Huffman (1983), Mishchenko et al. (2002), Babenko et
al. (2003), and Sharma and Somerford (2006). In this notation the complex
refractive index is expressed as m = nr + ini . The scattering function is the
complex conjugate of that in the other notation. The detailed implications of
selecting a particular convention were discussed in Shifrin and Zolotov (1993).
8 Elastic Scattering of Electromagnetic Radiation

With the solutions given by (1.20) and (1.21), the Maxwell equations (1.1)
to (1.4) impose the following added restrictions on the fields,

∇.E = 0 → k.E = 0, (1.22)

∇.B = 0 → k.B = 0, (1.23)

∂B
∇×E = − → k × E = ωB, (1.24)
∂t
∂D
∇×H= → k × H = −εωE, (1.25)
∂t
implying that E and H are perpendicular to the direction of propagation vec-
tor k and to each other.

Further, by writing
E0 = n̂E0 eiδ , (1.26)
the electric and magnetic field vectors may be expressed as,

E(r, t) = E0 ei(k.r−ωt+δ) n̂, (1.27)

and
k
H(r, t) = (k̂ × n̂)E0 ei(k.r−ωt+δ) , (1.28)
ωµ
respectively. The unit vector n̂ determines the direction of the electric field
vector, E0 is a real number and eiδ is a complex phase. It may be noted that
E and H are in phase.

The flux density transported by the wave is given by the Poynting vector,

S = (E × H). (1.29)
At the frequencies involved (∼ 1015 Hz in the visible region), the variation of
S with time is very rapid. Most instruments are not capable of responding to
such fast changes. Therefore, what one actually measures is the average power
per unit area, I, called intensity. The temporal averaging is over a time T , such
that ωT ≫ 1. Under this condition, the intensity can be readily shown to be:
1
I = |hSi| = εvE02 , (1.30)
2
where the contributions of the electric and magnetic fields are equal.

If ε(r) 6= constant spatially, then ∇.E 6= 0. Instead, ∇. (ε(r)E) = 0. This

yields,
1
∇.E = − E.∇ε(r). (1.31)
ε(r)
 Introduction 9

The wave equation for the electric field then becomes,

∇2 E(r) + ∇ (E(r).∇ log ε(r)) + k 2 ε(r)E(r) = 0. (1.32)

The second term is zero only if the spatial variation of ǫ(r) or m(r) is zero.

1.2.2 Conducting medium

In a conducting medium, equation (1.4) is modified to,
∂D
∇×H= + σE, (1.33)
∂t
where σ is the conductivity of the medium. The wave equations for electric and
magnetic fields in such a medium can be obtained exactly in the same manner
as in the case of a non-conducting medium. The modified wave equations still
allow a time harmonic plane wave solution but the propagation vector now
has an imaginary part too:
k = k′ + ik′′ , (1.34)
where
r s  2 1/2
εµ σ
|k′ | = ω 1+ +1 , (1.35)
2 εω
and
r s  2 1/2
εµ σ
|k′′ | = ω 1+ −1 . (1.36)
2 εω
The refractive index and fields corresponding to the propagation vector defined
in (1.35) to (1.36) are:
r s  2 1/2
εµ σ
nr = 1+ +1 , (1.37)
2 εω
r s  2 1/2
εµ σ
ni = 1+ −1 , (1.38)
2 εω
′′
.r i(k′ .r−ωt)
E(r, t) = E0 e−k e , (1.39)
and ′′
.r i(k′ .r−ωt+φl )
H(r, t) = H0 e−k e . (1.40)
Equations (1.39) and (1.40) together represent a plane electromagnetic wave
propagating in the direction given by wave vector k′ . The wave decays in
amplitude in the direction given by k′′ . If k′ and k′′ are parallel, the wave
is homogeneous; else, it is an inhomogeneous wave. The magnetic vector lags
behind the electric vector and contributes more to the energy density in com-
parison to the electric field.
10 Elastic Scattering of Electromagnetic Radiation

1.2.3 Optically active medium

A model of an optically active medium consists of uniformly distributed
chiral objects. A chiral object, by definition, is any geometrical figure which
cannot be superimposed on its mirror image.

The constitutive relations for such a medium depend on the specific model
adopted. All researchers do not agree on a single model. A widely accepted
model consists of lossless short wire helices of same handedness (see, for ex-
ample, Jaggard et al. 1979, Bassiri 1987, Bohren and Huffman 1983). For time
harmonic waves, constitutive relations in this model can be written as,
D = ǫE + γε(∇ × E), (1.41)
and
1
H = −β (∇ × H) + B, (1.42)
µ
where γ and β are the cross susceptibilities. Further, if it is assumed that
γ = β ≡ γ, (1.41) and (1.42) become,
D = εE + γε (∇ × E) , (1.43)
and
1
H = −γ (∇ × H) + B. (1.44)
µ
For γ > 0 the medium is right handed, for γ < 0 it is left handed and for
γ = 0 it is achiral. Other often quoted constitutive relations are from Condon
(1937) and Born (1972) and can be found in a review of optical properties of
chiral media by Lenekar (1996).

With constitutive relations given by (1.43) and (1.44), the Maxwell equation
∇ × H = −iωD, (1.45)
becomes  
1
∇ × −γ(∇ × H) + B = iω (εE + γε∇ × E) , (1.46)
µ
which can also be expressed as,
(1 − ω 2 γ 2 εµ)∇2 E + k 2 E + 2ωεµγ∇ × E = 0. (1.47)
Substitution of a plane wave solution of the form
E(r) = ê⊥ E⊥ + êk Ek eihz ,


(1.48)
in (1.47) leads to simultaneous equations for E⊥ and Ek which can be solved
to yield two physically permissible solutions:
√ 
1 + γω εµ

√
h1 ≡ kL = ω µε , (1.49)
1 − γ 2 ω 2 εµ
Another random document with
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silk, also previously neutral, are now electro-negative through the
additional electrons received from the glass atoms. As the result we
find the glass to be positively, and silk to be negatively electrified. On
the other hand, if we rub the glass with fur, a similar atomic
disturbance and consequent migration of electrons takes place, but
this time the glass receives electrons instead of parting with them. In
this case the glass becomes negatively, and the fur positively
electrified. The question now arises, why is the movement of the
electrons away from the glass in the first instance, and toward it in
the second? To understand this we may make use of a simple
analogy. If we place in contact two bodies, one hot and the other
cold, the hot body gives up some of its heat to the cold body; but if
we place in contact with the hot body another body which is still
hotter, then the hot body receives heat instead of parting with it. In a
somewhat similar manner an atom is able to give some of its
electrons to another atom which, in comparison with it, is deficient in
electrons; and at the same time it is able to receive electrons from
another atom which, compared with it, has an excess of electrons.
Thus we may assume that the glass atoms have an excess of
electrons as compared with silk atoms, and a deficiency in electrons
as compared with fur atoms.
A current of electricity is believed to be nothing more or less than
a stream of electrons, set in motion by the application of an electro-
motive force. We have seen that some substances are good
conductors of electricity, while others are bad conductors or non-
conductors. In order to produce an electric current, that is a current
of electrons, it is evidently necessary that the electrons should be
free to move. In good conductors, which are mostly metals, it is
believed that the electrons are able to move from atom to atom
without much hindrance, while in a non-conductor their movements
are hampered to such an extent that inter-atomic exchange of
electrons is almost impossible. Speaking on this point, Professor
Fleming says: “There may be (in a good conductor) a constant
decomposition and recomposition of atoms taking place, and any
given electron so to speak flits about, now forming part of one atom
and now of another, and anon enjoying a free existence. It
resembles a person visiting from house to house, forming a unit in
different households, and, in between, being a solitary person in the
street. In non-conductors, on the other hand, the electrons are much
restricted in their movements, and can be displaced a little way but
are pulled back again when released.”
Let us try to see now how an electric current is set up in a simple
voltaic cell, consisting of a zinc plate and a copper plate immersed in
dilute acid. First we must understand the meaning of the word ion. If
we place a small quantity of salt in a vessel containing water, the salt
dissolves, and the water becomes salt, not only at the bottom where
the salt was placed, but throughout the whole vessel. This means
that the particles of salt must be able to move through the water. Salt
is a chemical compound of sodium and chlorine, and its molecules
consist of atoms of both these substances. It is supposed that each
salt molecule breaks up into two parts, one part being a sodium
atom, and the other a chlorine atom; and further, that the sodium
atom loses an electron, while the chlorine atom gains one. These
atoms have the power of travelling about through the solution, and
they are called ions, which means “wanderers.” An ordinary atom is
unable to wander about in this way, but it gains travelling power as
soon as it is converted into an ion, by losing electrons if it be an atom
of a metal, and by gaining electrons if it be an atom of a non-metal.
Returning to the voltaic cell, we may imagine that the atoms of
the zinc which are immersed in the acid are trying to turn themselves
into ions, so that they can travel through the solution. In order to do
this each atom parts with two electrons, and these electrons try to
attach themselves to the next atom. This atom however already has
two electrons, and so in order to accept the newcomers it must pass
on its own two. In this way electrons are passed on from atom to
atom of the zinc, then along the connecting wire, and so to the
copper plate. The atoms of zinc which have lost their electrons thus
become ions, with power of movement. They leave the zinc plate
immediately, and so the plate wastes away or dissolves. So we get a
constant stream of electrons travelling along the wire connecting the
two plates, and this constitutes an electric current.
The electron theory gives us also a clear conception of
magnetism. An electric current flowing along a wire produces
magnetic effects; that is, it sets up a field of magnetic force. Such a
current is a stream of electrons, and therefore we conclude that a
magnetic field is produced by electrons in motion. This being so, we
are led to suppose that there must be a stream of electrons in a steel
magnet, and this stream must be constant because the magnetic
field of such a magnet is permanent. The electron stream in a
permanent magnet however is not quite the same as the electron
stream in a wire conveying a current. We have stated that the
electrons constituting an atom move in definite orbits, so that we
may picture them travelling round the core of the atom as the planets
travel round the Sun. This movement is continuous in every atom of
every substance. Apparently we have here the necessary conditions
for the production of a magnetic field, that is, a constant stream of
electrons; but one important thing is still lacking. In an unmagnetized
piece of steel the atoms are not arranged symmetrically, so that the
orbits of their electrons lie some in one plane and some in another.
Consequently, although the electron stream of each atom
undoubtedly produces an infinitesimally small magnetic field, no
magnetic effect that we can detect is produced, because the different
streams are not working in unison and adding together their forces.
In fact they are upsetting and neutralizing each other’s efforts. By
stroking the piece of steel with a magnet, or by surrounding it by a
coil of wire conveying a current, the atoms are turned so that their
electron orbits all lie in the same plane. The electron streams now all
work in unison, their magnetic effects are added together, and we
get a strong magnetic field as the result of their combined efforts.
Any piece of steel or iron may be regarded as a potential magnet,
requiring only a rearrangement of its atoms in order to become an
active magnet. In Chapter VI. it was stated that other substances
besides iron and steel show magnetic effects, and this is what we
should expect, as the electron movement is common to all atoms.
None of these substances is equal to iron and steel in magnetic
power, but why this is so is not understood.
This brings us to the production of an electric current by the
dynamo. Here we have a coil of wire moving across a magnetic field,
alternately passing into this field and out of it. A magnetic field is
produced, as we have just seen, by the steady movement of
electrons, and we may picture it as being a region of the ether
disturbed or strained by the effect of the moving electrons. When the
coil of wire passes into the magnetic field, the electrons of its atoms
are influenced powerfully and set in motion in one direction, so
producing a current in the coil. As the coil passes away from the
field, its electrons receive a second impetus, which checks their
movement and starts them travelling in the opposite direction, and
another current is produced. The coil moves continuously and
regularly, passing into and out of the magnetic field without
interruption; and so we get a current which reverses its direction at
regular intervals, that is, an alternating current. This current may be
made continuous if desired, as explained in Chapter IX.
Such, stated briefly and in outline, is the electron theory of
electricity. It opens up possibilities of the most fascinating nature; it
gives us a wonderfully clear conception of what might be called the
inner mechanism of electricity; and it even introduces us to the very
atoms of electricity. Beyond this, at present, it cannot take us, and
the actual nature of electricity itself remains an enigma.
 INDEX

Accumulators, 38, 90.

Alarms, electric, 120.
Alternating currents, 71, 75.
Amber, discovery of, 2.
Ampère, 33.
Arc lamp, 93.
Armature, 68.
Atlantic cable, 145.
Atom, 287.
Aurora borealis, 25.
Automatic telephone exchange, 165.
Aviation and “wireless,” 280.

Bachelet “flying” train, 271.

Bastian heater, the, 110.
Battery, voltaic, 33.
Bell telephone, the, 156.
Bells and alarms, electric, 116.
Blasting, 256.
Bunsen cell, 223.

Cable-laying, 150.
Cables, telegraph, 144.
Cell, voltaic, 29.
Clocks, electric, 124.
Coherer, the, 183.
Commutator, 70.
Compass, magnetic, 52.
Condenser, 63.
Conductors, 6.
Conduit system, 83.
Convectors, 109.
Cookers, electric, 110.
Creed telegraph, 137.
Crookes, Sir W., 230.
Current, electric, 30.

Daniell cell, 31, 223.

Davy, Sir Humphry, 93.
Detector, in wireless telegraphy, 188, 198.
Diamond-making, 113.
Duplex telegraphy, 139.
Dussaud cold light, 106.
Dynamo, 66.

Edison, Thomas A., 103.

Electric cookers, 110.
Electric heating, 109.
Electric motor, 66.
Electric lighting, 70, 75, 93.
Electricity, early discoveries, 1;
nature of, 287.
Electro-culture, 258.
Electrolysis, 224.
Electro-magnets, 58.
Electron, 287.
Electroplating, 213.
Electrophorus, the, 11.
Electrotyping, 213.

Faraday, 66.
Finsen light treatment, 243.
Franklin, Benjamin, 19.
Frictional electricity, 2.
Furnace, electric, 111.

Galvani, 27.
Galvanometer, 59.
Glass, 4.
Goldschmidt system, 197.
Great Eastern, the, 148.

Half-watt lamp, 105.

Heating by electricity, 109.
Hughes printing telegraph, 136.

Iceberg detector, 267.

Ignition, electric, 253.
Incandescent lamps, 103.
Induction, 9.
Induction coil, 61.
Ion, 291.

Kelvin, Lord, 152.

Korn’s photo-telegraph, 174.

Lamps, electric, 93.

Leclanché cell, 32, 116.
Lemström’s experiments in electro-culture,
258.
Lepel system, 196.
Leyden jar, 15, 181.
Light, 23.
Lighting, electric, 75, 93.
Lightning, 1, 19, 23.
Lightning conductors, 25.
Lindsay, wireless experiments, 180.
Lodge, Sir Oliver, 260.

Machines for producing static electricity, 9.

Magnetic poles, 50.
Magnetism, 44, 56, 291.
Marconi, 186, 195.
Medicine, electricity in, 241.
Mercury-vapour lamp, 99.
Microphone, 159.
Mines, submarine, 283.
Mines, telephones in, 169.
Mono-railway, 89.
Morse, telegraph, 130;
experiments in wireless telegraphy, 180.
Motor, electric, 66.
Motor-car, electric, 91.

Navy, use of wireless, 274;

of electricity, 282.
Negative electricity, 5.
Neon lamps, 102.
Non-conductors, 6.

Ohm, 33.
Oil radiator, 110.
Ozone, 23, 247.
Ozone ventilation, 249.
Petrol, motor, ignition in, 253.
Photographophone, the, 173.
Pile, voltaic, 28.
Pipe locator, 266.
Plant culture, electric, 258.
Polarization, 31.
Pollak-Virag telegraph, 137.
Positive electricity, 5.
Poulsen, Waldemar, 171, 197.
Poultry, electro-culture of, 264.
Power stations, 75.
Preece, wireless experiments, 180.
Primary and secondary coils, 62.

Radiator, 109.
Railways, electric, 87;
use of wireless, 211.
Resistance, 33.
Röntgen rays, 228, 242.

Searchlights, 98.
Ships, use of wireless, 206.
Siphon recorder, the, 252.
Sparking plug, 154.
Static electricity, 7.
Stations, wireless, 204.
Steinheil telegraph, 130.
Submarine telegraphy, 144.
Submarine telephony, 169.
Surface contact system, 83.

Telefunken system, 196.

Telegraph, the, 128, 144, 171, 179, 203.
Telegraphone, 171.
Telephone, the, 154, 171, 179, 201.
Telephone exchange, 160.
Thermopile, 36.
Thermostat, 121.
Thunderstorms, 22, 194.
Trains, electric, 87;
the Bachelet, 271.
Tramways, electric, 78, 83.
Trolley system, 83.
Tubes for X-rays, 233.
Tuning in wireless telegraphy, 191.
Tungsten lamps, 104.

Volt, 33.
Voltaic electricity, 28, 129, 290.

War, electricity in, 274;

telegraph in, 277.
Water, electrolysis of, 38.
Water-power, 81.
Waves, electric, 181, 191, 199.
Welding, electric, 114.
Welsbach lamp, 103.
Wheatstone and Cooke telegraphs, 130.
Wimshurst machine, 12.
Wireless telegraphy and telephony, 179, 203,
270, 280.
Wires, telegraph, 141.

X-rays, 231, 242.

Morrison & Gibb Limited, Edinburgh
5/15 2½
 Transcriber’s Notes
Punctuation, hyphenation, and spelling were made
consistent when a predominant preference was found in the
original book; otherwise they were not changed.
Simple typographical errors were corrected; unbalanced
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obvious, and otherwise left unbalanced.
Illustrations in this eBook have been positioned between
paragraphs and outside quotations. In versions of this eBook
that support hyperlinks, the page references in the List of
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of the other illustrations.)
Plate VIII., “Typical Electric Locomotives,” listed as being
on page 90, was not in the original book and therefore not in
this ebook.
The index was not checked for proper alphabetization or
correct page references.
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