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 Foreword

The 19th International Conference on Human–Computer Interaction, HCI International

2017, was held in Vancouver, Canada, during July 9–14, 2017. The event incorporated
the 15 conferences/thematic areas listed on the following page.
A total of 4,340 individuals from academia, research institutes, industry, and gov-
ernmental agencies from 70 countries submitted contributions, and 1,228 papers have
been included in the proceedings. These papers address the latest research and
development efforts and highlight the human aspects of design and use of computing
systems. The papers thoroughly cover the entire field of human–computer interaction,
addressing major advances in knowledge and effective use of computers in a variety of
application areas. The volumes constituting the full set of the conference proceedings
are listed on the following pages.
I would like to thank the program board chairs and the members of the program
boards of all thematic areas and affiliated conferences for their contribution to the
highest scientific quality and the overall success of the HCI International 2017
conference.
This conference would not have been possible without the continuous and unwa-
vering support and advice of the founder, Conference General Chair Emeritus and
Conference Scientific Advisor Prof. Gavriel Salvendy. For his outstanding efforts,
I would like to express my appreciation to the communications chair and editor of HCI
International News, Dr. Abbas Moallem.

April 2017 Constantine Stephanidis

 HCI International 2017 Thematic Areas
and Affiliated Conferences

Thematic areas:
• Human–Computer Interaction (HCI 2017)
• Human Interface and the Management of Information (HIMI 2017)
Affiliated conferences:
• 17th International Conference on Engineering Psychology and Cognitive Ergo-
nomics (EPCE 2017)
• 11th International Conference on Universal Access in Human–Computer Interac-
tion (UAHCI 2017)
• 9th International Conference on Virtual, Augmented and Mixed Reality (VAMR
2017)
• 9th International Conference on Cross-Cultural Design (CCD 2017)
• 9th International Conference on Social Computing and Social Media (SCSM 2017)
• 11th International Conference on Augmented Cognition (AC 2017)
• 8th International Conference on Digital Human Modeling and Applications in
Health, Safety, Ergonomics and Risk Management (DHM 2017)
• 6th International Conference on Design, User Experience and Usability (DUXU
2017)
• 5th International Conference on Distributed, Ambient and Pervasive Interactions
(DAPI 2017)
• 5th International Conference on Human Aspects of Information Security, Privacy
and Trust (HAS 2017)
• 4th International Conference on HCI in Business, Government and Organizations
(HCIBGO 2017)
• 4th International Conference on Learning and Collaboration Technologies (LCT
2017)
• Third International Conference on Human Aspects of IT for the Aged Population
(ITAP 2017)
 Conference Proceedings Volumes Full List

1. LNCS 10271, Human–Computer Interaction: User Interface Design, Development

and Multimodality (Part I), edited by Masaaki Kurosu
2. LNCS 10272 Human–Computer Interaction: Interaction Contexts (Part II), edited
by Masaaki Kurosu
3. LNCS 10273, Human Interface and the Management of Information: Information,
Knowledge and Interaction Design (Part I), edited by Sakae Yamamoto
4. LNCS 10274, Human Interface and the Management of Information: Supporting
Learning, Decision-Making and Collaboration (Part II), edited by Sakae
Yamamoto
5. LNAI 10275, Engineering Psychology and Cognitive Ergonomics: Performance,
Emotion and Situation Awareness (Part I), edited by Don Harris
6. LNAI 10276, Engineering Psychology and Cognitive Ergonomics: Cognition and
Design (Part II), edited by Don Harris
7. LNCS 10277, Universal Access in Human–Computer Interaction: Design and
Development Approaches and Methods (Part I), edited by Margherita Antona and
Constantine Stephanidis
8. LNCS 10278, Universal Access in Human–Computer Interaction: Designing
Novel Interactions (Part II), edited by Margherita Antona and Constantine
Stephanidis
9. LNCS 10279, Universal Access in Human–Computer Interaction: Human and
Technological Environments (Part III), edited by Margherita Antona and
Constantine Stephanidis
10. LNCS 10280, Virtual, Augmented and Mixed Reality, edited by Stephanie Lackey
and Jessie Y.C. Chen
11. LNCS 10281, Cross-Cultural Design, edited by Pei-Luen Patrick Rau
12. LNCS 10282, Social Computing and Social Media: Human Behavior (Part I),
edited by Gabriele Meiselwitz
13. LNCS 10283, Social Computing and Social Media: Applications and Analytics
(Part II), edited by Gabriele Meiselwitz
14. LNAI 10284, Augmented Cognition: Neurocognition and Machine Learning
(Part I), edited by Dylan D. Schmorrow and Cali M. Fidopiastis
15. LNAI 10285, Augmented Cognition: Enhancing Cognition and Behavior in
Complex Human Environments (Part II), edited by Dylan D. Schmorrow and
Cali M. Fidopiastis
16. LNCS 10286, Digital Human Modeling and Applications in Health, Safety,
Ergonomics and Risk Management: Ergonomics and Design (Part I), edited by
Vincent G. Duffy
17. LNCS 10287, Digital Human Modeling and Applications in Health, Safety,
Ergonomics and Risk Management: Health and Safety (Part II), edited by
Vincent G. Duffy
18. LNCS 10288, Design, User Experience, and Usability: Theory, Methodology and
Management (Part I), edited by Aaron Marcus and Wentao Wang
X Conference Proceedings Volumes Full List

19. LNCS 10289, Design, User Experience, and Usability: Designing Pleasurable
Experiences (Part II), edited by Aaron Marcus and Wentao Wang
20. LNCS 10290, Design, User Experience, and Usability: Understanding Users and
Contexts (Part III), edited by Aaron Marcus and Wentao Wang
21. LNCS 10291, Distributed, Ambient and Pervasive Interactions, edited by Norbert
Streitz and Panos Markopoulos
22. LNCS 10292, Human Aspects of Information Security, Privacy and Trust, edited
by Theo Tryfonas
23. LNCS 10293, HCI in Business, Government and Organizations: Interacting with
Information Systems (Part I), edited by Fiona Fui-Hoon Nah and Chuan-Hoo Tan
24. LNCS 10294, HCI in Business, Government and Organizations: Supporting
Business (Part II), edited by Fiona Fui-Hoon Nah and Chuan-Hoo Tan
25. LNCS 10295, Learning and Collaboration Technologies: Novel Learning
Ecosystems (Part I), edited by Panayiotis Zaphiris and Andri Ioannou
26. LNCS 10296, Learning and Collaboration Technologies: Technology in Education
(Part II), edited by Panayiotis Zaphiris and Andri Ioannou
27. LNCS 10297, Human Aspects of IT for the Aged Population: Aging, Design and
User Experience (Part I), edited by Jia Zhou and Gavriel Salvendy
28. LNCS 10298, Human Aspects of IT for the Aged Population: Applications, Ser-
vices and Contexts (Part II), edited by Jia Zhou and Gavriel Salvendy
29. CCIS 713, HCI International 2017 Posters Proceedings (Part I), edited by
Constantine Stephanidis
30. CCIS 714, HCI International 2017 Posters Proceedings (Part II), edited by
Constantine Stephanidis
 Distributed, Ambient and Pervasive Interactions

Program Board Chair(s): Norbert Streitz, Germany,

and Panos Markopoulos, The Netherlands

• Andreas Braun, Germany • Antonio Maña, Spain

• Adrian David Cheok, Malaysia
• Richard Chow, USA
• Alois Ferscha, Linz, Austria
• Dimitris Grammenos, Greece
• Nuno Guimarães, Portugal
• Dirk Heylen, The Netherlands
• Pedro Isaias, Portugal
• Achilles Kameas, Greece
• Javed Vassilis Khan, The Netherlands
• Kristian Kloeckl, USA
• Shin’ichi Konomi, Japan
• Ben Kröse, The Netherlands
• Don Marinelli, USA
• Irene Mavrommati, Greece
• Ingrid Mulder, The Netherlands
• Anton Nijholt, The Netherlands
• Fabio Paternó, Italy
• Victor M.R. Penichet, Spain
• Susa Pop, Germany
• Carsten Röcker, Germany
• Tanya Toft, Denmark
• Reiner Wichert, Germany
• Woontack Woo, South Korea
• Xenophon Zabulis, Greece

The full list with the Program Board Chairs and the members of the Program Boards of
all thematic areas and affiliated conferences is available online at:
http://www.hci.international/board-members-2017.php
 HCI International 2018

The 20th International Conference on Human–Computer Interaction, HCI International

2018, will be held jointly with the affiliated conferences in Las Vegas, NV, USA, at
Caesars Palace, July 15–20, 2018. It will cover a broad spectrum of themes related to
human–computer interaction, including theoretical issues, methods, tools, processes,
and case studies in HCI design, as well as novel interaction techniques, interfaces, and
applications. The proceedings will be published by Springer. More information is
available on the conference website: http://2018.hci.international/.

General Chair
Prof. Constantine Stephanidis
University of Crete and ICS-FORTH
Heraklion, Crete, Greece
E-mail: general_chair@hcii2018.org

http://2018.hci.international/
 Contents

Designing and Evaluating Distributed, Ambient and Pervasive Interactions

What Changes from Ubiquitous Computing to Internet of Things

in Interaction Evaluation?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Rossana M.C. Andrade, Rainara M. Carvalho, Italo Linhares de Araújo,
Káthia M. Oliveira, and Marcio E.F. Maia

Evaluating an IoT Application Using Software Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

Rainara M. Carvalho, Rossana M.C. Andrade, Jefferson Barbosa,
Adyson M. Maia, Belmondo A. Junior, Paulo A. Aguilar,
Carla I.M. Bezerra, and Káthia M. Oliveira

Service Design Strategy for Social Internet of Things in China . . . . . . . . . . . 34

Jiajia Chen

Design for Social Innovation Supported by Social Based Technologies . . . . . 45

Teresa Franqueira and Gonçalo Gomes

Social Impact of Enhanced Gaze Presentation Using Head

Mounted Projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
David M. Krum, Sin-Hwa Kang, Thai Phan, Lauren Cairco Dukes,
and Mark Bolas

Individuals’ Motivations to Adopt Smart Technologies

for Tourism - Discrepancy Between Initial and Post Adoption . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Yongda Li

Usability Evaluation and Redesign of an IoE Portal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

Lúcia Satiko Nomiso, Eduardo Hideki Tanaka,
and Daniel Augusto Guerra da Costa

‘Wizard of Oz’ Study for Controlling Living Room Lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

Jo Olsen and Jeremy Spaulding

Heuristics to Evaluate the Usability of Ubiquitous Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

Larissa C. Rocha, Rossana M.C. Andrade, Andreia L. Sampaio,
and Valéria Lelli
XVI Contents

Natural Interaction

Freehand Gesture-Based 3D Manipulation Methods for Interaction

with Large Displays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Paulo Dias, João Cardoso, Beatriz Quintino Ferreira, Carlos Ferreira,
and Beatriz Sousa Santos

It Made More Sense: Comparison of User-Elicited On-skin Touch

and Freehand Gesture Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Hayati Havlucu, Mehmet Yarkın Ergin, İdil Bostan, Oğuz Turan Buruk,
Tilbe Göksun, and Oğuzhan Özcan

MIDAS-M: A Software Framework for Supporting Multimodal Interaction

on Heterogeneous Interaction Devices for Cloud Applications. . . . . . . . . . . . 172
Myunghee Lee, Gerard J. Kim, and Jeonghyun Baek

Design and Evaluation of Cross-Objects User Interface

for Whiteboard Interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Xiangdong A. Li, Preben Hansen, Xiaolong Lou, Weidong Geng,
and Ren Peng

Experience Design of Social Interaction for Generation Y Based

on Tangible Interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
Yan Shi, Yuhui Guo, Zheng Gong, Bing Yang, and Leijing Zhou

Propositions for a Mid-Air Interactions System Using Leap-Motion

for a Collaborative Omnidirectional Immersive Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Robin Vivian

Smart Cities

A Smart City Application for Sharing Up-to-date Road Surface

Conditions Detected from Crowdsourced Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Kenro Aihara, Piao Bin, Hajime Imura, Atsuhiro Takasu,
and Yuzuru Tanaka

Building a Platform Society Towards Sustainability Based

on Internet-of-Things . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Hina Akasaki, Fumiko Ishizawa, Mizuki Sakamoto,
and Tatsuo Nakajima

Knowledge-Based Approach to Modeling Urban Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252

Sonja Gievska and Petre Lameski

A Service Infrastructure for Human-Centered IoT-Based Smart

Built Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Denis Gračanin, Mohamed Handosa, and Hicham G. Elmongui
 Contents XVII

Food Ordering Service System Design for Chinese Urban Commuters

Based on Internet of Things . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Xinhui Hong

Real-Time Visualization of the Degree of Indoor Congestion

with Smartphone-Based Participatory Sensing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
Tomoya Kitazato, Kyoichi Ito, Keisuke Umezawa, Masaki Ito,
and Kaoru Sezaki

Radioactive Soundscape Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302

Hiroki Kobayashi and Hiromi Kudo

Civic Tech and Ambient Data in the Public Realm: Challenges

and Opportunities for Learning Cities and Smart Cities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
H. Patricia McKenna

Art and Cultural Heritage in Smart Environments

Intelligent Painting Based on Social Internet of Things . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335

Zhiyong Fu, Jia Lin, Zhi Li, Wenjia Du, Jieye Zhang, and Shuxiong Ye

Guidance Method to Allow a User Free Exploration with a Photorealistic

View in 3D Reconstructed Virtual Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
Sho Iwasaki, Takuji Narumi, Tomohiro Tanikawa, and Michitaka Hirose

Wearable AR Platform for K-Culture Time Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358

Eunseok Kim, Jungi Kim, Kihong Kim, Seungmo Hong, Jongwon Lee,
Noh-young Park, Hyerim Park, Hayun Kim, Jungwha Kim,
and Woontack Woo

Flyer Mapping in Art Museums: Acquiring Implicit Feedback

Using Physical Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
Tomoyo Sasao and Shin’ichi Konomi

The Construction of Art in Virtual Reality and Its Education . . . . . . . . . . . . 380

Jin Sheng

Painting Image Classification Using Online Learning Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . 393

Bing Yang, Jinliang Yao, Xin Yang, and Yan Shi

The Study and Application of Smart Art Community Service

with “ESPSAS” Internet of Things Platform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
Jheng-Chun Yang and Su-Chu Hsu

Geometry-Aware Interactive AR Authoring Using a Smartphone

in a Wearable AR Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
Jeongmin Yu, Jinwoo Jeon, Jinwoo Park, Gabyong Park, Hyung-il Kim,
and Woontack Woo
XVIII Contents

Smart Environments for Quality of Life

A Preliminary Study of Smart Seat Cushion Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427

Shijian Luo, Yun Wang, Yan Gong, Ge Shu, and Na Xiong

Human-Sensing: Low Resolution Thermal Array Sensor Data Classification

of Location-Based Postures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
Bruno Pontes, Marcio Cunha, Rafael Pinho, and Hugo Fuks

Ambient Information Design to Amplify Connections Between New Empty

Nest Parents and Their Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
Zhenyu Cheryl Qian, Yue Ma, Yingjie Chen, Yafeng Niu,
and Chengqi Xue

Breath Is to Be Perceived - Breathing Signal Sharing Involved

in Remote Emotional Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
Xiaotian Sun and Kiyoshi Tomimatsu

Development and Evaluation of a Non-obtrusive Patient Monitoring

System with Smart Patient Beds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
Ruben van Dijk, Weifeng Liang, Biyong Zhang, and Jun Hu

Design of Internet Rehabilitation Service System with Individual

Assessment Data for Autistic Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
Lie Zhang, Guobin Wang, Jiarui Wu, and Wei Wang

Smart Environments for Learning and Creativity

Using Eye Tracking to Map Behaviors in an Online Course Prototype

About Epilepsy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
Ana Teresa Contier and Laila Brito Torres

Building Tools for Creative Data Exploration: A Comparative Overview

of Data-Driven Design and User-Centered Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514
Sara Diamond, Steve Szigeti, and Ana Jofre

The Foundation of the SEE BEYOND Method: Fashion Design

and Neuroeducation Applied to the Teaching of the Project Methodology
to Students with Congenital and Acquired Blindness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528
Geraldo Coelho Lima Júnior and Rachel Zuanon

Interaction/Cognition in Design: The Red Bull Station’s Classroom

Case Study. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547
Priscila Trovo, Adriana Valli, Nivia Ferreira, and Agda Carvalho

A Programming Cutting System to Enhance Productivity

with Individualities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
Cheng Yao, Ye Tao, Ting Zhang, Guanyun Wang, and Fangtian Ying
 Contents XIX

Ambient Games and Humour

Mobile Augmented Games in Playable Cities: Humorous Interaction

with Pokémon Go . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
Marvin Andujar, Anton Nijholt, and Juan E. Gilbert

Virtual Reality Games, Therapeutic Play and Digital Healing . . . . . . . . . . . . 587

Matt Dombrowski and Jaime Dombrowski

Emergence in Game Design: Theoretical Aspects

and Project’s Potentialities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597
Nivia Ferreira, Priscila Trovo, and Sérgio Nesteriuk

Augmented Reality Games for Learning: A Literature Review . . . . . . . . . . . 612

Jingya Li, Erik D. van der Spek, Loe Feijs, Feng Wang, and Jun Hu

Humor as an Ostensive Challenge that Displays Mind-Reading Ability . . . . . 627

Gary McKeown

Modelling Playful User Interfaces for Hybrid Games . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 640

Anna Priscilla de Albuquerque, Felipe Borba Breyer, and Judith Kelner

Visualizing Incongruity and Resolution: Visual Data Mining Strategies

for Modeling Sequential Humor Containing Shifts of Interpretation . . . . . . . . 660
Andrew Smigaj and Boris Kovalerchuk

Players’ Experience of an Augmented Reality Game, Pokémon Go:

Inspirations and Implications for Designing Pervasive Health
Gamified Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 675
Xin Tong, Ankit Gupta, Diane Gromala, and Chris D. Shaw

Making Fun of Failures Computationally . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 684

Alessandro Valitutti

I Read the News Today, Oh Boy: Making Metaphors Topical, Timely

and Humorously Personal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 696
Tony Veale, Hanyang Chen, and Guofu Li

Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 711

Designing and Evaluating Distributed,
Ambient and Pervasive Interactions
 What Changes from Ubiquitous Computing
to Internet of Things in Interaction Evaluation?

Rossana M.C. Andrade1(B) , Rainara M. Carvalho1 , Italo Linhares de Araújo1 ,

Káthia M. Oliveira2 , and Marcio E.F. Maia1
1
Group of Computer Networks, Software Engineering and Systems (GREat)
Graduate Program in Computer Science (MDCC),
Federal University of Ceará, Fortaleza, Brazil
{rossana,rainaracarvalho,italoaraujo,marcio}@great.ufc.br
2
Laboratory of Automatic Control, Mechanics and Computer Science for Industrial
and Human-machine Systems (LAMIH), University of Valenciennes and
Hainaut-Cambrésis (UVHC), CNRS UMR, 8201 Valenciennes, France
kathia.oliveira@univ-valenciennes.fr

Abstract. Internet of Things (IoT) is a new paradigm that includes a

network of smart objects, which are embedded sensors, communicating
using the Internet. One of the areas that are leading up to IoT is Ubiq-
uitous Computing (UbiComp). There are thus solutions such as frame-
works, middlewares, and other development artifacts that come from the
UbiComp community and can be used for IoT applications. On the other
hand, the interaction evaluation of the applications can be more complex
in IoT than in UbiComp systems, once we have two different perspec-
tives: Human-Thing and Thing-Thing interactions. In this paper, based
on the literature, our experience in these two domains, and case studies
with Ubicomp and IoT applications, we discuss how we can benefit from
the UbiComp move towards IoT, focusing on the main differences and
similarities related to interaction evaluation. These differences open a set
of questions that are also presented and discussed in this paper.

Keywords: Internet of Things · Ubiquitous computing · Quality

characteristics · Software measures · Interaction evaluation

1 Introduction

The Internet of Things (IoT) paradigm has recently emerged, and one of the
areas that are leading up to IoT is Ubiquitous Computing (UbiComp) [32,52].
The evolution happened due to the association with other areas, such as Cloud
Computing, and the hardware advance, which allowed the improvement of the
sensors, actuators and the creation of smaller devices with a network connection
[1]. In this paradigm, we have several things communicating between themselves.

R.M.C. Andrade—Researcher Scholarship - DT Level 2, sponsored by CNPq

I.L. de Araújo—PhD Scholarship (MDCC/DC/UFC) sponsored by CAPES.

c Springer International Publishing AG 2017
N. Streitz and P. Markopoulos (Eds.): DAPI 2017, LNCS 10291, pp. 3–21, 2017.
DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-58697-7 1
4 R.M.C. Andrade et al.

A thing is an object/device of our daily routine with sensors, actuators, embed-

ded computing and wirelessly interoperable [36].
Ubiquitous Computing (UbiComp), in turn, was defined in 1991 by Mark
Weiser who considers that “the most profound technologies are those that dis-
appear. They weave themselves into the fabric of everyday life until they are
indistinguishable from it” [55]. UbiComp makes then the technology present in
our daily life able to monitor us and provide services, but we do not perceive
that we interact with these technologies.
Although UbiComp has preceded IoT and we could identify commonalities
between them, the challenges related to building IoT systems are far more com-
plex. These problems arise mainly because of the number of things that make
the IoT systems and the different role they play [18,35].
Nevertheless, the interaction evaluation can be even more complex in IoT
than in UbiComp systems once we have two different perspectives to take into
account: Human-Thing and Thing-Thing interactions [30]. The first one is the
interaction between users and things and has more commonalities with the Ubi-
Comp interaction evaluation [31]. The second one is the interaction between
things themselves [51], which is both a novelty and a challenge.
In this paper, we investigate the innovations and issues introduced by things,
considering the literature, our previous experience with Ubicomp [25,26,39],
and case studies. Then, we discuss how we can benefit from the UbiComp move
towards IoT, highlighting the main commonalities and differences related to
interaction evaluation.
For the case studies on interaction evaluation, we choose three ubiquitous
applications and two IoT applications. This evaluation was performed using a
set of measures that focused on characteristics for UbiComp, such as context-
awareness, mobility, transparency, attention and calmness [8], which are also
presented in IoT Systems. The results showed that is possible to apply the same
measures in both Ubicomp and IoT applications to evaluate user interaction.
However, there are specific restrictions of IoT systems that also need to be con-
sidered and prioritized in the evaluation. So, we believe and discuss throughout
this paper that Thing-Thing interaction severely impacts on Human-Thing inter-
action evaluation, for example, the responsiveness of the system changes because
things are on the Internet [41] and the answer can take a while.
The remainder of this paper is organized as follows. Section 2 presents the
main concepts about Human-Computer Interaction (HCI) Evaluation in Ubi-
Comp and a brief overview about IoT. Section 3 presents the case studies with
UbiComp and IoT applications. Section 4 presents a discussion about open ques-
tions that allow the identification of important research challenges and a brief
conclusion is presented in Sect. 5.

2 Background
In this section, we bring a brief overview of the ubiquitous computing concepts
highlighting the context-awareness and other characteristics that impact the
 What Changes from Ubiquitous Computing to Internet of Things 5

quality of user interaction in these systems. We also introduce the main concepts
and elements of IoT to give a general outline to the reader.

2.1 HCI Evaluation in UbiComp

As we introduced before, the Ubiquitous Computing was coined by Mark Weiser
in 1991 and became a well-established research area [55]. The main motiva-
tion behind UbiComp is to support the user with daily activities without the
user noticing they are interacting with a computing infrastructure. Therefore,
the technology should be invisible or cause a minimal distraction to the user,
changing completely the way users interact with systems [45].
To achieve Mark Weiser’s vision of UbiComp, the system should be capable
of understanding user’s behavior. This is enabled by context-awareness, which
captures relevant information during the interaction between users and applica-
tions, and applies it to support users in performing their tasks [11]. Therefore,
UbiComp allows that the systems capture various information (e.g., GPS, tem-
perature, accelerometer, and magnetometer) without the user noticing, or by
voice, gesture and touch. These new sources of inputs make the interaction with
users much more natural [8] and allow the interaction being initiated by the
system itself.
Regarding HCI evaluation in Ubicomp, a systematic mapping study that we
performed in [8] identifies a set of 27 essential quality characteristics to evaluate
ubiquitous systems that run in mobile devices (see Fig. 1).
All characteristics found in the systematic mapping impact, somehow, on
the quality of interaction in ubiquitous systems and, therefore, need to be taken
into account. However, there are general characteristics for any system (for
instance, efficiency and security) and specific characteristics for ubicomp appli-
cations (marked in bold in Fig. 1). These particular characteristics are better
explained as follows:
• Context-awareness is the system’s capability of monitoring contextual infor-
mation regarding the user, the system, and the environment. With this
information, the system dynamically and proactively adapts its functions
accordingly [20].
• Mobility in Ubiquitous Computing refers to the continuous or uninterrupted
use of the systems while the user moves across several devices [56]1 .
• Transparency is the system’s ability to hide its computing infrastructure in
the environment, so the user does not realize that is interacting with a set of
computational devices [48].
1
According to [56], there are several definitions for Mobility and they are highly
dependent on the community or area. For example, distributed computing introduced
mobility as a process migration into operating systems. Mobile computing brings a
notion of mobility by making communication, entertainment, and Internet possible
while the user is in motion. Then, mobility in this paper is a superset of several
areas. The idea is that no computational or communication gap (e.g., networks)
should exist when users move.
6 R.M.C. Andrade et al.

Fig. 1. Characteristics for HCI evaluation in ubiquitous systems.

• Attention in ubiquitous environment refers to the system’s ability to keep the

user’s focus on real-world interactions rather than in technology [17].
• Calmness is the system’s capability of interacting with the user at the right
time and situation, presenting only relevant information, using the periphery
and the center of attention only when necessary and being easy and natural
to use [38].
As these five characteristics directly impact the quality of interaction in Ubi-
Comp applications, they need to be taken into account by an HCI evaluation.
One way of evaluating these characteristics is using software measures. Our sys-
tematic mapping in [8] found 218 citations of measures associated with these
five quality characteristics. Most measures found are defined to evaluate the
Context-awareness characteristic (44 measures)[8].
However, most of them are simple definitions with no detail about their
measurement functions. Because of that, our group has been working on the
definition of software measures for these characteristics [14,15,45]. For instance,
Table 1 shows a set of software measures for the Calmness characteristic already
presented in [6].
Knowing that IoT presents similar characteristics from UbiComp, for exam-
ple, context-awareness [35,52] and transparency [54], it is feasible to use software
measures from this area to evaluate the interactions in IoT, i.e., Human-Thing
and Thing-Thing interactions.
 What Changes from Ubiquitous Computing to Internet of Things 7

Table 1. Software measures for the calmness characteristic. Adapted from [6]

Name Measurement Function

N
j=1 (Aj/Bj)∗100
Adaptation degree N
Aj =Number of performed adaptations i
Bj =Number of requested adaptations i
N=Number of adaptations
N
i=1 (Ai/Bi)∗100
Adaptation N
correctness
Ai=Number of correctly performed adaptations i
Bi=Number of performed adaptations i
N=Number of adaptations
Availability degree X = B, where B is the the element that appears most often
among the following options answered by users (i.e., the
mode)
(1) Very Low, (2) Low, (3) Medium and (4) High
Context-awareness X = B is the mode
timing degree
(1) Very Low, (2) Low, (3) Medium and (4) High
Relevancy degree X = B, where B is the mode
(1) Very Low, (2) Low, (3) Medium and (4) High
Courtesy degree X = B, where B is the mode
(1) Very Low, (2) Low, (3) Medium and (4) High

2.2 IoT
According to IEEE [32], Internet of Things is a network of objects, which are
embedded devices, connected to the Internet [32]. Considering this, Fuqaha
et al. [1] define IoT to be formed by six elementary building blocks (see Fig. 2):
(i) identification; (ii) sensing; (iii) communication; (iv) computation; (v) services;
and (vi) semantic.
The first element, the identification, allows an object to be accessed over the
Internet by other objects, in a Thing-Thing interaction, or by an application

Fig. 2. The IoT elements. Source [1]

8 R.M.C. Andrade et al.

controlled by the user, in a Human-Thing interaction. Here, the identification

is comprised of two elements: (i) the network address of the thing, and (ii) the
description of its functionality (e.g., light or A/C).
The sensing is responsible for capturing the information from the environ-
ment or for actuating to change that information. Examples of information that
can be collected or controlled are luminosity level and temperature. Finally,
information gathered from the environment or changed when the actuation is
completed must be available on the Internet to be accessed by others things or
applications [1].
The communication element is responsible for connecting a thing using the
identification element. In IoT, there are several protocols to facilitate the commu-
nication, both at the network layer, such as Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, LTE, or NFC, and
at the application layer, such as the Constrained Application Protocol (CoAP)2
and the Message Queue Telemetry Transport (MQTT)3 . In the network layer,
the characteristics of the communication technologies, like range, energy con-
sumption, reliability or routing protocols, define their applicability according
to the characteristics of the things. In the application layer, the functionalities
required by the application guide the selection of the most appropriate protocol.
The goal of the computation is to process the information perceived from
the environment, and to decide when acting on the environment is required,
based on the processed information. The processing is executed both on the
things embedded in the environment and on processing units located in the
cloud. The decision to process it locally on the thing or on the cloud depends
on the processing capabilities of the embedded devices, the load inserted by the
processing algorithm and the response time required by the application.
The services are an abstraction used to represent the things, with two main
responsibilities: (i) encapsulate the functionality provided by each thing; and
(ii) provide a known interface to access that functionality. Services improve the
interoperability; they hide details about the things, such as operating system or
programming language [1].
And the last element, semantics, allows the knowledge representation of both
the information collected by the thing and the information processed either by
the thing or by a cloud unit [1].
These elements are present in different domains, like e-health, transportation,
agriculture. For example, in healthcare, things (smartwatch, camera, presence
sensor, heart rate sensor, among others) monitor an elderly in his/her house and
the application sends the collected information to the physician, where he/she
can control this information and improve user care. In transportation, for exam-
ple, users can monitor the status of vehicles and they can send a command to
change the behavior if it is necessary. Or yet, to control the growth of the plants
in agriculture monitoring the sun rays, humidity, rain, among others.
In all these scenarios, the Thing-Thing interaction is present. The work
from [51] calls the Thing-Thing communication as machine to machine (M2M).

2
http://coap.technology/.
3
http://mqtt.org/.
 What Changes from Ubiquitous Computing to Internet of Things 9

However, M2M refers to those solutions that allow communication between

devices of the same type and a specific application, all via wired or wireless
communication networks and does not generally allow for the broad sharing of
data or connection of the things directly to the Internet [18]. In contrast, IoT
also refers to the connection of such systems and sensors to the broader Inter-
net. Therefore, the Thing-Thing interaction refers to the communication between
things over the Internet [18]. Then, we believe that the evaluation for IoT should
also take into account characteristics of the Thing-Thing interaction that is a
critical part of the IoT environment.
Analyzing the IoT elements and the scenarios they are used, two UbiComp
features can be identified in IoT as well: context-awareness and adaptability.
Context-awareness captures the information from the user environment to pro-
vide a better service to the user. The Adaptability uses context information to
make changes in the application behavior. For example, when the mobile appli-
cation identifies the user location to be nearby his/her house, the application
sends this information to the user’s home and the air conditioner is turned on4 .
In [36], another important feature influencing the application behavior is
presented: spontaneous interaction. Razzaque et al. said that subtle interactions
exist when users and things move around, coming in and out of their commu-
nication range leading to the spontaneous generation of events. Hence, subtle
interactions between things have significant implications in the Human-Thing
interaction as well. This characteristic can be compared with the service discov-
ery and the context-aware from UbiComp. This occurs for the sake of the new
services that can be provided and adapted based on the new devices in or out
of the environment.

3 Applications and Evaluations

The applications that are presented in this paper are an essential part of the
research conducted by the Group on Computer Networks, Software Engineering
and Systems (GREat) of the Federal University of Ceará (UFC). They are a
result of both research projects and undergraduate and graduate students work
that were developed over the past ten years.
In this section, first, we present three ubiquitous applications as follows.
GREatTour is a product of a Mobile Guide dynamic software product line
(DSPL) [28,29] and we have been using this application to evaluate several
masters and Ph.D. theses in DSPL [2,27,42–44,47] and HCI quality evaluation
[16,40,46]. Both GREatMute and GREatPrint were developed in two different
master theses to evaluate their findings [34,46].
Then, we show two IoT applications, which are our first efforts to move from
Ubicomp to IoT: GREat Room [10] and Automa GREat. Both applications are
4
In the previous section, we defined context-awareness as one of the five characteristics
to be evaluated in Ubicomp applications. Adaptability, in this case, is provided by
context-awareness, which is the characteristic applied to evaluate IoT applications
in this work.
10 R.M.C. Andrade et al.

a result of a graduate course about IoT and they have been used as case studies
for our research in IoT [4].

3.1 UbiComp Applications

GREat Tour is a UbiComp application to guide visitors in the GREat laboratory

[29]. For each room visited, the application shows texts, images, videos, audios
and persons who work there. GREat Tour shows this information according to
the visitor’s location inside the lab. The application also presents some infor-
mation according to battery level. For example, if the battery’s charge is more
than 50%, the application presents all kinds of medias. If the charge is less than
50 and more than 30%, the application blocks the videos to the user. If it is less
than 30%, the application does not show images and videos.
GREatMute aims to turn off the device’s sound according to the user’s
appointment in his/her agenda and current location [6]. For example, if the
user has an appointment 4 p.m. in an office registered in the calendar, the appli-
cation will check if the user local is equal to the defined in the agenda in the
hour recorded. If the answer is affirmative, the sound is turned off. Moreover, this
application allows users to specify for which events they would like the device
to be put into silent mode; this is done by monitoring for matches with the key-
words registered in the system. When the application finds an event in which
the title has one of the recorded keywords, GREatMute extracts the information
of the start time and end time of the event, using this information to put the
phone into the silent profile during this period.
GREatPrint aims to print documents at the nearest printer from the user,
providing a ubiquitous and mobile printing service [7]. The application works as
follows: after selecting a file, the user click on the print button of the given doc-
ument, and the application collects the six Wi-Fi networks previously mapped
in the laboratory. Then the application sends the document to the server. Based
on the GREatPrint Server response, GREatPrint App notifies the user where
the file has been printed or if it was not possible to print the file.
These ubiquitous mobile applications (See Fig. 3) were evaluated regard-
ing the following five quality characteristics presented in Sect. 2.1: context-
awareness, mobility, transparency, attention, and calmness. Twenty-four mea-
sures were collected to evaluate these characteristics, some examples of such
measures are presented in Table 1. More details about these evaluations can be
found in [6,7]. However, we present some examples of the results of these evalu-
ations in Table 2.
The collection of these software measures makes possible to evaluate the
quality of interaction in the applications. The results are an indication that the
measures are capable of evaluating a ubiquitous application according to the
selected HCI quality characteristics.
 What Changes from Ubiquitous Computing to Internet of Things 11

Fig. 3. Screens of (a) GREat Tour, (b) GREat Mute, and (c) GREat print

Table 2. Results for UbiComp applications evaluations. Adapted from [6]

Measure GREat Tour GREatMute GREatPrint

Adaptation degree 72% 92% 79%
Adaptation correctness 100% 27% 52%
Availability degree Medium High Medium
Context-awareness timing degree Medium Low Medium
Relevancy degree High/Medium High High
Courtesy degree High High High

3.2 IoT Applications

Automa GREat is an IoT application developed to control airs conditioners and

the lamps of the GREat Lab’s seminar room. The users can switch on/off the
air conditioners and increase and decrease the temperature. About the lights,
the users can turn on/off and set their color and intensity. There are two modes
of user interaction with the application: manual and automatic. In the manual
mode, the user controls all things, and in the automatic mode, the applica-
tion uses the motion sensor to turn on/off the things. To manage data from/to
devices, the application uses the middleware LoCCAM (Loosely Coupled Con-
text Acquisition Middleware) [23] that is based on [24,25,33,34].
GREat Room provides a way to register the presence of people in a par-
ticular room, making possible to see who is in that room at a given time and
it can create a report about the presence of the persons. Furthermore, the pri-
mary requirement is the creation of the virtual group with these individuals to
12 R.M.C. Andrade et al.

Fig. 4. (a) Screen of the automa GREat, and (b) Screen of the GREat room.

share files. The application uses the information from the beacons to identify
new things and persons in the room.
Figure 4 presents the screens of these applications.
These two IoT applications were also evaluated using the software measures
for UbiComp applications presented in Sect. 2.1. We present some results of these
two evaluations in Table 3. Details of the GREatRoom evaluation can be found
in [5].
In general, these measures give us a comprehension into not only whether the
app achieves the Human-Thing interaction or not, but also what can be improved

Table 3. Results of IoT applications evaluations. Adapted from [6]

Measure GREatRoom AutomaGREat

Adaptation degree 78% 0%
Adaptation correctness 79% 0%
Availability degree High Medium
Context-awareness timing degree High Medium
Relevancy degree High High
Courtesy degree High Low
 What Changes from Ubiquitous Computing to Internet of Things 13

in the application. For example, GREatRoom still needs to be improved regard-

ing the adaptation degree (78%) and adaptation correctness (79%). These mea-
sures obtained bad results, because the application presented some problems
when the user position is on the border between two environments, where the
system cannot be sure which room the user should assign. Moreover, we dis-
cover that Automa GREat is not working regarding the context-awareness, which
means the application cannot adapt itself when the user enters or leaves a room.
In other measures, we found results that diverge between both applications.
For example, we have considerable differences in the “Availability Degree” and
“Courtesy Degree”. The GREat Room receives the best evaluation, because it
reacts correctly and in the better and calm way. Automa GREat, in turn, does
not work well in the automatic mode for the sake of the inability of detecting
the user presence. This leaves the result “low” in the measure that checks if the
behavior changed was the better one. The value “medium” in the “Availability
Degree” occurs, because the application does not perform the required functions.
Users also consider that the application does not interact at the right moment,
what leaves us with the result “medium” in “Context-awareness Timing Degree”.

4 Discussion
In this section, based on the applications’ evaluations, the literature, and our
experience, we discuss how we can benefit from the UbiComp move towards
IoT. Also, we detail the main differences between these two kind of applications’
evaluations, highlighting what was not detected by the measures from UbiComp
applied in the case studies in the previous section. We used the following four
open questions to organize our discussion.

What are the commonalities of HCI UbiComp evaluation that can

be also used in IoT applications?

The characteristics and measures that come from UbiComp, which are pre-
sented in Sect. 2.1, are also useful to evaluate IoT applications and they give us
a good insight into what can be improved in IoT applications as presented in
Sect. 3. For example, GREatRoom needs to be improved regarding adaptation
degree and adaptation correctness degree. Automa GREat, in turn, needs to
be improved regarding all measures for the Calmness characteristic. Therefore,
these case studies show an example that characteristics and measures for Ubi-
Comp are useful to IoT applications. Nevertheless, the evaluations presented in
Sect. 3 indicate that:
• The same UbiComp evaluation process can be used to IoT applications. In
our work, we used the same process from usability testing with profile ques-
tionnaires, observation, and measures collections;
• The necessary data collection for the measures calculation in IoT applications
requires the same effort as in UbiComp applications. All IoT applications need
to be instrumented like we do in UbiComp applications;
14 R.M.C. Andrade et al.

• The questionnaires used to capture the subjective measures from users are
relevant and suitable in IoT as well; and
• The results from the measures in IoT can be interpreted following the same
analysis procedure as in Ubicomp.

Our answer is that good part of what is used in Human-Things evaluation in

UbiComp can be used in IoT. However, several problems arise from the Thing-
Thing interaction that needs to be evaluated as pointed out in the next questions.

What interaction problems were not identified in the IoT applica-

tions by the UbiComp measures?

Regarding the case studies presented in the previous section, the collected
measures were not able to identify several problems that the IoT applications
presented. For example, GREatRoom presents problems when multiple mobile
devices enter and exit a room, because it generates an inconsistency in the data
presented in the application’s interface to different users. This is a problem of
things being out of sync with the other things.
The other problem is the lack of conflicts handling. Conflicts occur among
contrasting goals [37]. Despite being a subject already explored in the field of
smart homes and ubiquitous computing, IoT brings greater complexity to this
problem, because IoT environments allow remote control by users, automated
rules programmed by users and context-aware decisions in the same system. For
example, the other application, Automa GREat, has no conflicts handling. If two
users send opposing requests, Automa GREat is not able to handle this conflict.
Another problem regarding conflicts in IoT, not detected by the evaluations,
is when a user may want to turn the lamp on remotely via smartphone, but
the application wants to turn it off because no one is at home. Therefore, the
measures from UbiComp are not able to evaluate if there are conflicts in Human-
Thing and Thing-Thing interactions.
Another issue that was observed during the case study with Automa GREat
was a delay when users turned on the air conditioner, which affects the system’s
responsiveness. Also, the state of things (i.e., air conditioning and lights) were
not being displayed properly in the interface, whenever the user changed the
tab, the application loses the current state about the things.
In short, the main interaction problems that arise from IoT applications
are related to the Thing-Thing interaction, which impact on the Human-Thing
interaction. So, to answer this question taking into account the case studies,
we should consider the following: synchrony, the lack of conflicts handling and
communication delay between things.

What characteristics and measures of Thing-Thing interaction

should be evaluated in IoT systems?

Based on the previously questions and literature review, we classify the char-
acteristics that should be evaluated according to two levels: Internet and Thing.
Another random document with
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eloped, tore down the hill by special dâk, and were married at
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Wynyard made no reply. Captain Ramsay’s wandering memory had
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croquet. “Miss S. Parrett” was a notable player—her name appeared
in print in connection with local tournaments; her arm was steady,
her aim was deadly, and, not only this, she played the game with her
head as well as with her hands.
On the present occasion Miss Susan had lured her reluctant niece to
a meeting at Upstreet—a village about ten miles from Ottinge; in
fact, she made such a point of Aurea’s company, of Aurea’s support
—whether in success or failure—that the girl felt compelled to go—
and, at any rate, she took a sincere pride in Susan’s modest
triumphs. The tournament was prolonged till seven o’clock; Miss
Susan was detained, being in the Finals. Dusk was closing on the
world when the two ladies, with two prizes (salad bowl and a silver
cigarette-case), took their departure. The prize-winner, in exuberant
spirits, uttering effusive expressions of enjoyment and thanks, had
talked herself into the car, and there were so many after-thoughts
and messages that even the chauffeur became impatient with his
dear Miss Susan; he was desperately anxious to get home and hear
the result of the search for Captain Ramsay.
It was an unusually close evening—there was thunder in the air—
and the interior of the motor was stuffy even with the windows down
on both sides—and how they rattled! The old machine trundled along
at its best speed, as if inspired by the fear of Miss Parrett awaiting its
arrival, watch in hand. Its driver had another and more well-grounded
dread in his mind.
The ladies within discussed the recent party, the play, the prizes, and
the guests.
“The Wendovers were there; did you see them?” said Miss Susan
—“Mrs. Wendover and Gertrude. I thought they both looked very ill.”
“Yes, and I believe it was from hunger, Susan,” was her niece’s
surprising reply. “I never saw such a tea as they had—surreptitiously.
It’s shameful to watch, I know, but I was not playing, and happened
to be sitting near, and could not help myself. I felt so frightfully sorry
for them—I was inclined to cry!”
“My dear girl, surely you are not in earnest?”
“I only wish I wasn’t. Gertrude had a whole plate of sandwiches,
besides cakes; she took them quietly, when no one was looking, and
devoured them ravenously, and her mother pocketed several buns
and lumps of sugar.”
“But why? I don’t understand.”
“Because probably they have nothing to eat at home! Mrs. Lucas,
the parson’s wife, told me in confidence that they are almost
penniless; the little money they had has been lost in some bank that
tempted people with high interest and then went smash. The
Wendovers cling to the old cottage—it’s their own—but they have no
servant; they do their own washing and, very early in the morning,
their own doorstep! Everything is spick and span still. After dark they
steal out and collect firewood and apples, and even field turnips, and
yet they hold up their heads and ‘pretend.’ I heard Mrs. Wade
pressing them to have cake and tea—and they declined.”
“Have they no friends or relations?”
“I don’t know. Mrs. Lucas said she did not like to ask for their
confidence. She always has them to supper on Sundays, and sends
them eggs; but she is poor enough herself with eight children. She
thinks the Wendovers will break down now that the winter is coming,
and yet they won’t allow any one to guess that they are destitute.”
“Dear, dear, dear, how shocking! What is to be done, Aurea?”
“I’ve just had my allowance, and I’ll post them a five-pound note to-
morrow anonymously, and I’ll get something later on from dad.”
“Yes, yes, yes, and I must see what I can do too. Poverty is cruel—a
terrible thing—what a trial of one’s character!”
“It is indeed, and so are riches sometimes. They seem to change
people’s dispositions—if they come in for a fortune.”
“That’s true; but I do hope, dear child, you are not thinking of your
poor Aunt Bella?”
“Aunt Bella was much nicer when she lived in the Red Cottage,
dined at one o’clock, and put a penny in the plate.”
“Oh, now, Aurea, I can’t let you say that; she is very proud of you,
and a dear, kind sister to me. Why, only last week she gave me a
lovely lace parasol, and when she writes to me it is always ‘My own
darling Susan.’”
Aurea was silent. She was thinking of darling Susan’s many
deprivations, humiliations, and hardships.
“We all have our foibles, have we not, Aurea, my child?”
“Oh, I know that, Susan, and I——”
Whatever Aurea was going to add was cut short by her aunt’s
piercing scream. From some thick bushes on the left bank, a tall
figure had shot out; there was a lightning rush, a shout from the
chauffeur, who jammed on the brake, then a violent swerve, an
upheaval, and a sickening, crunching sensation.
A man had deliberately flung himself in front of the car, which had
gone over him, then stopped abruptly, shuddering throughout its
rickety frame.
The driver sprang off and dragged from beneath the wheels a limp
and motionless body. Yes, his vague fears had been justified.
“It’s Captain Ramsay!” he called to Aurea, who had already hurled
herself into the road. “I’m afraid he is done for. Stay where you are.”
As he spoke, he raised a limp and bleeding figure in his arms, which
he carried to the hedgerow; next, he took off his coat and laid him
upon it, and ran and lit a motor lamp. All his actions were surprisingly
prompt and vigorous.
“Now, will you come over here, miss?” he called to Susan
authoritatively, but she was almost beside him. In a crisis, simple,
talkative Susan was another person, and could rise to the occasion.
“And you, Miss Morven, try and find some water—we passed a
stream just now; bring it in anything—your hat or—yes, the salad
bowl! I’m afraid it’s a bad business,” he continued, “and his head is
all cut—and his wrist—it’s an artery. Miss Susan, fetch a stick
quickly, quickly, and I’ll make a tourniquet.”
The chauffeur seemed to have taken complete command of the
situation; he ordered the ladies hither and thither, he bandaged up
Captain Ramsay’s head with Aurea’s white scarf—which he tore into
strips—whilst Aurea stood by, eager to help, but trembling like an
aspen. She had never heard a man moan, or witnessed such a
scene.
“I think I’ve fixed him up just for the moment,” said Owen, rising, “and
now I’ll fetch the doctor. You two ladies won’t mind stopping, will
you?”
“Certainly not! What do you think we are made of?” rejoined Miss
Susan. “Here,”—now sinking down—“place his head in my lap, and
just go as hard as ever you can!”
“He is in a very bad way, I’m afraid, and I really don’t like leaving
you, but there’s no help for it.” Then, after sticking a flaring lamp on
the ground beside them, he climbed into his place and sped away.
In less than half an hour he had returned, accompanied by Dr. Boas;
they found the poor sufferer still alive and moaning, his head
supported by Miss Susan, and his lips bathed by her niece.
“I half expected this,” said the doctor, as he knelt beside Captain
Ramsay. “Internal injuries,” he announced, after a rapid examination,
“and fatal.”
“The stretcher and the parish nurse will be here presently,” said
Owen; and, hearing a familiar voice, Captain Ramsay slowly opened
his eyes and asked—
“Oh, it’s cold. Where am I? Where’s Katie?”
As he recognised Owen bending over him, he murmured—
“Wynyard, Wynyard—hold on—I’m coming!”
“You see he is off his head,” said Miss Susan, “poor fellow; he did
not know what he was doing.”
Then, as the chauffeur relieved her of the dying man’s weight, he
regained consciousness, and, again opening his eyes, he whispered
“Wynyard!” and passed away in the arms of Wynyard’s son.
 CHAPTER XXI
BY THE SUNDIAL

A long time had elapsed since a tragedy or an inquest had taken

place in Ottinge; the last had occurred twenty years previously, when
Joe Watkins (a village name), being jealous, had thrown his wife
down a well, and, despite her prayers, entreaties, and screams, had
left her to drown, for which crime he had paid the extreme penalty of
the law in Brodfield Gaol.
A suicide was something entirely foreign to the character of the
community, and the topic was exhaustively debated in the Drum. Joe
Thunder gave it as his opinion that the remains of Captain Ramsay
—speaking from recollection—would be buried with a stake at a
cross-roads—probably at Crampton, being nearest. The village was
stirred out of its normal lethargy and, secretly, rather proud of being
the scene of a sensation, and newspaper paragraphs.
The Parson and Miss Morven spent the night succeeding Captain
Ramsay’s death at Ivy House, and were anxious to carry his widow
off to the Rectory; but she preferred to remain in her own home until
after the funeral, and then leave Ottinge. All Mrs. Ramsay’s little
world, gentle and simple, had shown her their kindness and
sympathy: the Rector looked after business matters, Miss Susan had
undertaken correspondence (she enjoyed letter-writing), Wynyard
took charge of the dogs, whilst Aurea gave personal attendance and
warm affection.
The inquest was conducted as quietly and as speedily as possible,
thanks to the good offices of Dr. Boas; the verdict returned was
“suicide whilst of unsound mind,” and the jury offered their sincere
condolences with the widow. At the funeral Ottinge was proud to note
a lord and two honourables appearing as mourners, and the remains
of Captain Ramsay received Christian interment in the churchyard;
there was no word of cross-roads—much less a stake!
Afterwards, Mrs. Ramsay’s brothers, who were guests at the
Rectory, took their departure, and it was generally known that their
sister would follow them to Ireland within a week. Her obstinate
persistence in for years clinging to a man who by rights should be in
an asylum had alienated her friends; but now that he was no more,
there reigned a great peace. The boarder dogs had been abruptly
dispersed, and Wynyard, who obtained special leave, personally
conducted several parties over the fields to Catsfield station, and
wound up matters out of doors. Aurea did the same within—but they
rarely met. She was surprised to discover the footing on which her
aunts’ chauffeur stood at Ivy House. Till now she knew little of their
acquaintance; it was a before-breakfast and after-dark affair.
It was also Wynyard’s task to collect and sort and pack the Captain’s
belongings, by his widow’s particular desire.
“I like to have you about,” she said. “Is it not wonderful how well we
have got to know one another, and how much we have in common,
since I opened the hall door to you, a stranger, that wet morning last
April? Jim was devoted to you, and you were so good to him—sitting
here, evening after evening, talking and listening and playing picquet
with that poor fellow. Oh, Owen, if you had known him as your father
and I knew him, you would understand why I, forsaking all my own
people, clung to him till the end!”
“Yes, you did that!” he answered, with emphasis.
“Only think of the tragedy of his life,” she resumed, in a broken voice,
“the last fifteen years, all through a branch knocking off his sun topee
and his determination to get first spear. Oh, what a little thing to
mean so much! The way of life.”
Wynyard, the handy man, packed up cases containing old Indian
relics, such as faded photographs, horns, bear skins, khaki uniforms,
Sam Brown belts, packets of tiger claws, and all sorts of rubbish
dear to Mrs. Ramsay. Among the collection was a photograph
album, aged at least thirty years, and considerably the worse for
Indian rains and Ottinge damp.
“I think this must be your father,” said Mrs. Ramsay, pointing to the
old-fashioned carte-de-visite of a handsome man in Hussar uniform,
“and this is your mother opposite,” indicating a pretty, dark-eyed girl
holding up a puppy. “You see, she was fond of dogs, like you and
me! Do you care to have them?” drawing them out as she spoke.
“Yes, thank you most awfully, I should. It’s funny that I should come
upon my people and hear so much of them in Ottinge of all the
world! I don’t remember either of them, for my mother died when I
was two years old, and my father was killed at polo—it killed her too
—and then my sister and I were sent home.”
“So you have a sister?”
“I have very much a sister,” and he laughed; “she has all the family
brains—and her own as well.”
“I will not allow that, Mr. Wynyard; it was marvellous how, with a few
hints from me, you threw yourself into a life before you were born.
Isn’t it strange that I am the only one in Ottinge who knows your real
name?”
“Except Miss Morven,” he corrected. “You know he recognised me,
and said ‘Wynyard.’”
“Yes, but no doubt she believes he was wandering. You don’t wish
your surname to be known here, do you?”
“No, my christian name does as well.”
“I must confess I wonder you remain! You are so young, and life here
is deadly dull for such as you, with all the years and energies before
you,” and she looked at him interrogatively. It was dusk; she was
sitting in the deep drawing-room window, her slim figure silhouetted
against the fading light. Wynyard had been nailing down some
cases, and came and stood, hammer in hand, in the middle of the
room. She knew perfectly well why he remained in the sleepy village;
it was because Aurea Morven had glorified Ottinge.
“I believe I know your secret,” she remarked suddenly. He made no
reply. Mrs. Ramsay was no doubt thinking of Aurea, whilst he was
dwelling on the bargain with his uncle. Should he tell her? They had
of late been drawn so much to one another—she already knew half
his story, and had just given him the photographs of his father and
mother—her husband and his father had been like brothers—yes—
he would!
And there in the semi-dusk, leaning his hands on the back of a chair,
in as few words as possible, he related his tale, and how he had
made a solemn compact for two years, which compact he was
bound to keep to the letter and the bitter end.
“And it’s a good deal more bitter than I expected,” he concluded.
Listening with tightly folded hands, the slim figure in black accorded
him her entire sympathy. Now she was in possession of all his
confidence, and such was his unhappy plight, he was desperately in
love with a girl, and could neither speak nor show a sign—nor make
his real position known. What an amazing state of affairs! Did Aurea
recognise in Wynyard a silent worshipper? And was it not true that
love and smoke cannot be concealed?
“You will keep this to yourself, I know,” he said. “I’m not sure that I’m
within my right in telling you, but somehow I had to.”
“You may be certain I shall never breathe it till you give me
permission,” she answered, drawing a long breath; “but what an
extraordinary man your uncle must be!”
“Yes, he is eccentric; but I believe he is right—this sort of
apprenticeship will do me a jolly lot of good. I know more of the
people now I’m one of them. Many a thing I’ve learnt here, that I’d
never have had a glimpse of, and I must tell you fair and square that
I gave Uncle Dick a lot of bother in the way of my debts.”
“Hereditary extravagance—your father—a younger son—drove a
four-in-hand, you know. Ah, here comes Aurea,” as the little gate
swung. “I half promised to go over there this evening.”
“Then good-bye, I’m off; I’ll finish the packing to-morrow,” and he
escaped through the back garden.
It was abundantly evident that of late Miss Morven avoided him, and
he had not spoken to her since the tragic occasion when they both
hung over a dying man on the high road to Upstreet.
More than six months had gone by since he had come to Ottinge;
sometimes it seemed an endless time, at others as but yesterday.
One thing was clear and stationary in his mind—his living among
working people had opened the eyes of a future landowner, given
him a better estimate of his responsibilities, and a sympathy and
understanding that nothing could obliterate.
At last Ivy House was closed; the blinds were drawn down, the key
hung in Mrs. Hogben’s bedroom, and the memory of the recent
catastrophe had become a little dim. It was three weeks since the
Captain had killed himself, and other events had begun to press
upon public attention. Since the tragedy Aurea had absolutely
refused to drive in the motor, to her Aunt Bella’s great annoyance;
she was painfully anxious to have it in daily use, for she feared that
being the cause of a man’s death might depreciate the car’s value!
And when the girl announced she would never get into it again, she
was furious, and her face assumed a dull red shade as she asked—
“Do you mean to tell me that, if there’s an accident to a carriage, or if
a cart runs over somebody, that cart is never to be used? How could
people get on?” she demanded. “I never heard of such affected
nonsense. And now I suppose you will go and give my nice car a bad
name? As if it could help the madman throwing himself under it!”
“I’ll say nothing about it, Aunt Bella, you know that perfectly well; but
if you had been in the motor yourself and felt the crunch, I don’t think
you would have cared ever to drive in it again.”
“Rubbish—you are hysterical! You should get Dr. Boas to give you a
tonic and go away somewhere for a change; only you are too much
away from your father as it is—every one says so. It was remarked
to me only the other day.”
“It is funny, Aunt Bella, how many people make nasty remarks about
me to you. Do you suppose that they think you like hearing them?”
and she laughed, and before Miss Parrett could find her breath or an
answer had left her.
It was a fact that Miss Parrett cultivated a cordon of idle, elderly
women, who came to tea or lunch or to spend the day, who were
aware that Miss Parrett had “a good deal in her power to bestow”
(not only in the form of fruit and vegetables), and who knew that,
even more than talking of herself and her wonderful successes in her
youth, her many broken-hearted lovers, she liked to discuss her
pretty, popular niece and to listen to their hostile criticisms. Miss
Parrett was openly jealous of this girl’s ascendancy in Ottinge, where
she was the great lady. After all, Aurea was only a sort of half-niece,
and she could leave her money where she liked. This notification
was promptly repeated, and received with unqualified and respectful
approval, by the two Miss Dabbs and Mrs. Forbes Cattermole and
her freckled daughters. On these occasions, when Aurea was the
topic, and her appearance, manners, and customs were figuratively
placed under the microscope, and then exhaustively debated, the
entrance of Miss Susan was invariably followed by an abrupt and
awkward silence.

It was a lovely afternoon—Saturday—the third day of September,

and the chauffeur was working in the Manor garden close by the
sundial, repairing some of the rose pergolas with nails and wire.
Suddenly, to his delight, he beheld Miss Morven coming through the
yew arch nearest to the house—a slim white figure in a dark green
frame—with her hat over her arm, and accompanied by Joss, who, in
exuberant joy, was leaping his own height from the ground.
As the young lady sauntered slowly up the broad walk, she stopped
every now and then to pick flowers from the luxuriant borders on
either hand. As these were white, she was evidently gathering them
for the church. He watched, surreptitiously, her wonderfully supple
figure, her lithe grace, as she stooped and stretched hither and
thither. Aurea had grown thin, her lovely colour had certainly faded,
no doubt she had not yet recovered from the shock of Captain
Ramsay’s horribly sudden death.
By and by his vicinity was discovered to her by Joss, who had been
dashing about among the cabbages in chase of an historic pheasant,
and now accorded him a rapturous acknowledgment. He had just
finished his task, and stepped out into the walk; as the young lady
approached he touched his cap, and she halted for a moment and
said, with obvious hesitation—
“A lovely day, isn’t it?”
“Yes, miss;” and then he ventured to add, “You never come out in the
car now?”
“No,” she answered, “never again; it’s a juggernaut!”
“I would not say that!” he protested. “What happened could not have
been helped; of course, it’s an old machine and out of date”—(he
was thinking of the 60 h.p. Napier at Westmere)—“and requires a lot
of humouring to get her to run at all, and if put to too high a pressure
might go to pieces—still——”
But here Miss Morven interrupted with a hasty gesture, and, laying
her flowers upon the sundial, turned to face him fully, and said—
“I’m rather surprised”—she paused for a moment, and then resumed
—“that when you saw what a dull sort of place this was, and what a
wretched old car you had to drive, you stayed on. You really have no
proper job; my aunt’s motoring is absurd. I cannot imagine why you
remain here.”
“Can you not, miss?” he answered, in a low voice, his gaze fixed on
the sundial and its motto, “Time Trieth All.” Suddenly raising his
eyes, he met hers steadily—for one unguarded moment the truth
was in his face!—and there was a thrill of passion in his voice as he
added, “Then, in that case, I am afraid it would be impossible for me
to tell you.”
For as long as one could count ten, there was an expressive silence,
only broken by the crashing of cabbage leaves, the notes of wood
pigeons, the boom of a passing bee.
Miss Morven remained motionless, but the trembling of her lip
indicated the tension of her self-control, and a wave of sudden colour
invaded her cheeks, and raced up into her wavy dark hair. This tell-
tale blush betrayed that she knew as well as the chauffeur, his sole
reason for remaining in Ottinge.
Then without a word she lifted the flowers, and, holding herself
unusually erect, the slim white figure proceeded down the walk that
led towards the old bowling-green.
Wynyard, as he stood watching her, asked himself, Was she also
passing out of his life? In another moment a yew hedge had hid her
from his eyes.
“I believe I’ve done it now!” he muttered. “I could not help it; she
knows, and is ready to kill me for my presumption! She will tell her
aunts, and I shall get the sack.”
He picked up a small blossom that Aurea had dropped on the
sundial, opened his watch, and carefully placed the little flower along
with the little photograph. When people are in love, what irrational
follies tempt them!
 CHAPTER XXII
AUREA’S REFLECTIONS

But Aurea had no intention of “telling her aunts”; on the contrary,

she crossed the old bowling-green in order to avoid the Manor, and
returned home across the meadows that led by Claringbold’s Farm.
In the dim hall of the Rectory she encountered Norris—who, of an
afternoon, often haunted that vicinity—and said, as she handed her
the flowers—
“Will you please fill the church vases? I’ve rather a headache from
the sun.”
The girl really did feel considerably dazed and bewildered, and
passed into the drawing-room, where she ruthlessly dislodged Mac
from her own particular pet chair. Mac vacated the seat with an air of
injured deliberation, found another, and sighed as heavily as if he
were a human being.
The time had come for thinking things out, and his mistress, having
seated herself, prepared to hold a court of inquiry on Aurea Morven.
One would suppose that she really had had a sunstroke like poor
Captain Ramsay! What mad impulse had urged her to question the
chauffeur? At the moment, she seemed to be listening to another
personality speaking by her lips. She felt a fluttering in her throat as
she told herself that this inscrutable young man was certainly in love
with her. Behold, she summoned her evidence! The photograph in
the watch, the village concert, when, after a rousing camp song, he
had given, as an encore, “I’ll sing thee songs of Araby”; she believed
that the words were addressed to herself, that the singer was
pouring out his soul to her. Possibly other girls shared her conviction,
and had taken it to their tender and palpitating hearts. When the last
note had died away in a ringing silence, Ottinge recognised a
gentleman’s song and a gentleman’s voice; after a pause of
astonishment, there came a storm of belated clapping and applause,
and one or two timid female voices were heard to cry out “Encore!”
Some of the rustic audience grinned, and declared that the words
were no good, and damned nonsense, but the tune was pretty
enough; it was whistled in the street within the week.
Aurea summed up the photograph, the song, and the recent
interview by the sundial; the recollection of Owen’s voice, the look in
his extremely expressive grey eyes, set her heart beating. At the
same time she blamed herself for her amazing indiscretion. She,
who had lately avoided this gentleman chauffeur at choir practice, at
the Manor, and in the village—she, who knew that he treasured her
photo, to actually accost him in the garden, and demand what he
meant by remaining in Ottinge!
She felt her face burning, and no wonder! Well, at any rate the scene
had given her a shock—it had roused her to the knowledge of her
own feelings. It was with difficulty her maidenly reticence could put
the thing into thought, but it simply came to this—she had arrived, at
last, at the clear realisation that the daughter of the Rector of Ottinge
was in love with her aunts’ chauffeur! She whispered it to herself and
Mackenzie! How did it sound? How would it sound when talked
abroad, all over the parish and the county? What would people say?
When she thought of her Aunt Bella, she actually laughed aloud, and
Mackenzie, whom she had disturbed, raised his head and gave a
low growl.
The chauffeur disturbed her—even now her pulses were racing; she
had never felt like this when in the company of Bertie Woolcock—no,
nor any of Aunt Morven’s young eligibles—but this man affected her
differently. Was it because she knew that he cared for her? Was it
because he was handsome, reserved, and self-reliant? Was it
because there was a mystery about him? No; it was simply because
he was himself; his voice was still speaking to her inward ear—“It
would be impossible for me to tell you!” Nevertheless, his eyes had
been eloquent, and, since the truth must be confessed, her heart
was in a wild whirl of happiness.
But why was he here in retreat? Surely not because he had done
anything disgraceful? Mrs. Ramsay liked him, and said he had been
such a comfort to her husband and herself; her father liked him, so
did Susan, so did the village; the dogs adored him—all but
Mackenzie, an exception who proved the rule!
Yes, she would give her heart to the chauffeur—as a matter of fact it
was not a case of giving; it was already bestowed—and keep the
knowledge to herself. No one should ever know—above all, he
should not know. “Time Tries All.” His affairs might improve; some
day he might be able to throw off his chauffeur’s disguise and be
himself; meanwhile, she determined to avoid him, and never again
enter the Manor garden when there was a chance of meeting him; as
to the green motor, she had, as she assured him, done with it for
ever.
 CHAPTER XXIII
AN HOUR OF LIBERTY

The white flowers had been gathered on Saturday in the Manor

garden, and it was now Monday. Miss Parrett had adventured a drive
to Westmere, returning home by four o’clock, and the car being
washed and put away betimes, the chauffeur found himself at liberty.
The glowing and golden September evening was enticing, and,
whistling for Joss, he set out for a good long stretch before supper.
On this occasion, man and dog deserted the low country and the
water-meadows, and climbed the hills which sheltered the village.
Their road lay by a grassy cart-track, which ran sometimes between
high hedges, sometimes along a headland, with here and there a
hoary old gate—it was chiefly used in harvest-time (indeed, wisps of
fresh hay and straw were still clinging to the bushes), and was the
short-cut to Shrapton-le-Steeple, a hamlet which lay eight miles
south of Ottinge. The track emerged upon a bare plateau, from
whence was a fine view of the surrounding country, and here was
also a sharp freshness in the air, which the man inhaled with
unmistakable enjoyment. Here, too, in the banks, were inviting
burrows, and these afforded the dog an absorbing interest, as he
drew their savour into his nostrils with long-drawn sniffs of ecstatic
satisfaction.
After a tramp of between three and four miles, Wynyard threw
himself down on a tempting patch of grass, drew out his case, and lit
one of Martin Kesters’ excellent cigars. His eyes roamed meditatively
over the broad landscape below, stretching away into the dim
distance—the spreading uplands splashed with orange gorse, dotted
with sheep and cattle, with here and there a rust-coloured
farmhouse, whose pale blue smoke lazily ascended into the cool
clear air. Wynyard enjoyed the scene and the sensation of absolute
freedom; at least he was out of livery—he glanced at his shabby
tweed coat—beyond the reach of orders, and master of himself! Not
much to boast of! To think that this job was the only one he could
take on when driven into a corner by circumstances and Uncle Dick!
He had no head, that was his trouble, although he could keep it at a
pinch—and wasn’t this what was called a paradox? If he were only
clever with his tongue and his pen, like Leila, and had her talent for
languages and for organisation, her genius for saying and doing the
right thing!
As he unconsciously picked bits of grass, his thoughts returned to
Aurea and their recent meeting in the Manor garden. Her confusion
and her vivid blush held for him a most stupendous significance.
Memory and imagination had magnified the occasion, until it seemed
to be the one important event in his whole life!
If, by any chance, Aurea cared for him, and saw in him something
more than her aunts’ civil man-servant, why should he not present
himself in his true character? The gruff replies in imitation of Tom
Hogben were surely an unnecessary handicap? Anyway, he had let
himself go on the night of the accident, hustling and ordering on the
spur of the moment, sending Miss Morven for water, Miss Susan for
wood—though no doubt they were both too much upset to have
noticed anything besides the tragedy.
Possibly a change of manner would make a difference, and Aurea
was so bright, and so wonderfully clear-sighted, she might divine
something of his situation, and wait. “Wait!” repeated incredulous
common sense, “wait eighteen months till he had cast off his
shackles!” On the other hand, Bertie Woolcock loomed large.
Undoubtedly he would not wait, nor would Aurea’s own relations.
The Rector himself was a good, unworldly old scribbler, but the
people that mattered, such as Miss Parrett and General and Mrs.
Morven, they would never allow their niece to refuse many
thousands a year and Woolcock, in order to keep faith with a
mysterious and penniless chauffeur. And Bertie undoubtedly meant
business; he was continually appearing at the Rectory or the Manor,
charged with paltry messages and unnecessary notes—any excuse
or none served him! He even attended evening church, where he
openly and shamelessly worshipped the Rector’s daughter, and not
the Rector’s God.
As Wynyard contemplated Woolcock’s position and the desperate
obstacles that lay in his own path, he picked many blades of grass.
Naturally he disliked his rival; he remembered him when he was in
the upper fourth at Eton, a big, loutish fellow—not of course in Pop—
and an awful duffer at games; who never did anything for himself,
that others could be bullied into doing for him. “Woolly” was now a
stout, sleek, well-groomed man of thirty, with a heavy red face, a
lethargic manner, and—in the company of respectable women—a
great talent for silence.
Supposing that Aurea was talked over? Westmere was a temptation.
No; he could not face such a hideous possibility—yet he was
penniless and gagged. Woolly, a rich man and free; he, a prisoner to
a promise and in a false position—a position which compelled him to
touch his cap, not only to his lady-love, but to his rival! and the latter
salutation made him feel murderous.
Woolly had tons of money; he was so rich that possibly he had never
seen a penny! His attentions to Aurea, his rides, his churchgoing, his
marked civilities to Miss Parrett, paraded themselves before
Wynyard’s mental sight—and the old Polly bird was all for the match!
Why, that very afternoon, as she was leaving Westmere, she had
held a long, mysterious “last word” conversation with Mrs. Waring
before she bundled into the car, and squeaked out “Home—and go
slowly!” Meanwhile, Woolcock’s fluffy-haired sister stood on the
steps with her hands on her hips, a newly lit cigarette in her mouth,
the very embodiment of triumphant satisfaction!
Undoubtedly a solemn treaty had been signed and sealed. He had
no powerful allies, how could he interfere? His mind groped round
the puzzle in confusion and despair. If his own forefathers had not
been such crazy, spendthrift fools, he would not have found himself
in this maddening situation. To think that his great-grandfather had
lost thousands of pounds and hundreds of acres, racing snails on the
dining-room mahogany, against another lunatic! However, the
original place still remained in the family, also the most important