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-I

Physical Processes in Clouds and Cloud Modeling This book presents

the most comprehensive and systematic description currently
available of both classical and novel theories of cloud processes,
providing a much-needed link between cloud theory, observation,
experimental results, and cloud modeling. The book shows why and
how modern models serve as a major tool of investigation of cloud
processes responsible for atmospheric phenomena, including climate
change. It systematically describes classical as well as recent
advancements in cloud physics, including cloud-aerosol interaction;
collisions of particles in turbulent clouds; and the formation of
multiphase cloud particles. As the first of its kind to serve as a
practical guide for using state-of-the-art numerical cloud models,
major emphasis is placed on explaining how microphysical processes
are treated in modern numerical cloud-resolving models. The book
will be a valuable resource for advanced students, researchers, and
numerical model designers in cloud physics, atmospheric science,
meteorology, and environmental science. Dr. Alexander P. Khain is
Professor in the Institute of Earth Sciences at the Hebrew University
of Jerusalem. He is a renowned leading expert in developing cloud
and cloud-resolving models with precise microphysics in order to
investigate the physics of clouds and precipitation. He has
participated in several American, European, and Asian international
research projects where his advanced microphysical schemes were
widely used to investigate natural and anthropogenic aerosol effects
and relations between microphysics and atmospheric dynamics. He
has published two books on tropical cyclones and their interaction
with the ocean, and approximately 200 academic papers on cloud
physics, cloud- aerosol interaction, and numerical modeling of
clouds, storms, and hurricanes. Dr. Mark Pinsky is Professor in the
Institute of Earth Sciences at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.
He is a leading expert in the investigation and modeling of drop
condensation/evaporation and turbulence impact on collision
processes in clouds. The cloud models he has developed have
enabled us - for the first time - to explain the impact of turbulence
on precipitation formation as well as drizzle formation. Dr. Pinsky has
participated in several joint European and American research
projects in the fields of cloud physics, precipitation enhancement,
and satellite and radar meteorology. He has published more than
100 academic papers on cloud physics, cloud modeling, radar
meteorology, and estimation of symmetry measure in chemistry.

Physical Processes in Clouds and Cloud Modeling ALEXANDER P.

KHAIN Hebrew University of Jerusalem MARK PINSKY Hebrew
University of Jerusalem ■§■ Cambridge ^P UNIVERSITY PRESS

Cambridge UNIVERSITY PRESS University Printing House, Cambridge

CB2 8BS, United Kingdom One Liberty Plaza, 20th Floor, New York,
NY 10006, USA 477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, VIC 3207,
Australia 314-321, 3rd Floor, Plot 3, Splendor Forum, Jasola District
Centre, New Delhi - 110025, India 79 Anson Road, #06-04/06,
Singapore 079906 Cambridge University Press is part of the
University of Cambridge. It furthers the University's mission by
disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of education, learning, and
research at the highest international levels of excellence.
www.cambridge.org Information on this title:
www.cambridge.org/9780521767439 DOI: 10.1017/9781139049481
© Alexander P. Khain and Mark Pinsky 2018 This publication is in
copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of
relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part
may take place without the written permission of Cambridge
University Press. First published 2018 Printed in the United States of
America by Sheridan Books, Inc. A catalogue record for this
publication is available from the British Library. Library of Congress
Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Khain, A. P. (Aleksandr
Pavlovich), author. | Pinsky, Mark (Senior scientist), author. Title:
Physical processes in clouds and cloud modeling / Alexander Khain
(Hebrew University of Jerusalem) and Mark Pinsky (Hebrew
University of Jerusalem). Description: Cambridge, United Kingdom ;
New York, NY : Cambridge University Press, 2018. | Includes
bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2017049967 |
ISBN 9780521767439 (hardback) | ISBN 0521767431 (hardback)
Subjects: LCSH: Cloud physics-Mathematical models. Classification:
LCC QC921.5 .K43 2018 | DDC 551.57/6-dc23 LC record available at
https://lccn.loc.gov/2017049967 ISBN 978-0-521-76743-9 Hardback
Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence
or accuracy of URLs for external or third-party internet websites
referred to in this publication and does not guarantee that any
content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.

Contents Preface List of Abbreviations List of Symbols page vii 5 ix

xiii 1 Clouds: Definitions and Significance 1 1.1 The Importance of
Clouds 1 1.2 Clouds and Cloud-Related Phenomena 4 1.3
Investigating Clouds: The Purpose and Scope of This Book 15
References 18 2 Cloud Particles and Their Representation in Cloud
Models 19 2.1 General Characteristics of Cloud Particles and Their
Description in Cloud Models 19 2.2 Atmospheric Aerosols 29 2.3
Cloud Drops 39 2.4 Cloud Ice 51 References 63 3 Basic Equations 68
3.1 Thermodynamics of Dry and Moist Air 68 3.2 Budget and Motion
Equations 79 3.3 Turbulence 85 3.4 Scales of Atmospheric Motions
and Equation Averaging 100 3.5 Dynamic, Thermodynamic, and
Kinetic Equations in Cloud Models 109 3.6 Similarity of Averaged and
Non-Averaged Equations 114 References 119 4 Numerical Methods
Used in Cloud Models 122 4.1 Finite-Difference Approximation and
Representation of Derivatives 122 4.2 Equation of Advection.
Stability and Errors of Numerical Schemes 126 4.3 Equations of
Friction and Diffusion 135 4.4 Gravity and Inertia Gravity Waves 137
4.5 Numerical Schemes for Non- Hydrostatic Models 142 4.6
Comments Concerning Application of Numerical Schemes in Cloud
Models 147 References 148 Warm Microphysical Processes 5.1
Droplet Nucleation Condensational (Diffusional) Drop Growth
Parameterization of Droplet Nucleation in Cloud Models Calculation
of Diffusional Growth and of Supersaturation in Numerical Cloud
Models Drop Dynamics Gravitational Drop Collisions Methods Used
for Solving Stochastic Collection Equation and Stochastic Breakup
Equation Turbulent Collisions of Drops and Their 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6
5.7 5.8 151 152 165 188 198 207 222 Parameterization in Cloud
Models 5.9 Turbulent Mixing in Clouds 5.10 Numerical Modeling of
Mixing Effects 5.11 Formation of DSD and Raindrops via Warm
Processes References Microphysical Processes in Ice and Mixed-
Phase Clouds 6.1 Main Ice-Related Processes and Ice Particles
Description 6.2 Nucleation of Ice Particles 6.3 Phase Transformations
in Mixed-Phase Clouds due to Diffusion Growth and Deposition 6.4
Motion of Ice Particles 6.5 Collisions and Coalescence in Mixed-Phase
Clouds and Ice Clouds 6.6 Melting and Freezing 6.7 Dry and Wet
Growth of Graupel and Hail 6.8 Ice Multiplication and Its
Representation in Cloud Models References Modeling: A Powerful
Tool for Cloud Investigation 7.1 Characteristics of State-of-the-Art
Cloud and Cloud-Resolving Models 235 253 276 298 313 331 344
345 354 376 397 416 440 460 477 486 497 497 v

VI Table of Contents 7.2 Two Methodologies in Cloud Microphysics:

Bulk Schemes and Bin Schemes 7.3 Effects of Aerosols on the
Structure and Microphysics of Clouds and Cloud Systems 7.4 Some
Advances in Modeling Clouds and Cloud-Related Phenomena 7.5
Conclusions and Perspectives of Cloud Modeling References 505 536
563 579 581 Appendix A Tensors 595 Appendix B Collision Efficiency
between Drops and Turbulent Enhancement Factor 597 Appendix C
Graupel-Drop Collision Efficiency and Kernel 609 Index 623

Preface Clouds, to a great extent, govern the radiation balance and

energy fluxes reaching Earth and have a strong impact on the
hydrological cycle and freshwater distribution over the globe. Latent
heat release in clouds is the energy source for atmospheric
phenomena from the scale of a separate cloud to global circulation.
Clouds are also a major component of hazardous atmospheric
phenomena such as hurricanes, storms, and hailstorms. Changes in
cloud microphysical and radiative properties are the main factors
leading to climate change. All of these determine the vital impact
that clouds exert on all forms of life on the planet, human life
included. Studies of clouds and cloud-related phenomena are an
integral part of modern meteorology, providing data to be directly
applied in weather forecasting, agriculture, environment control, air
traffic control, and many other spheres of human activity. One of the
major methods of investigating clouds and cloud-related phenomena
is numerical modeling. Numerical cloud models solve coupled
dynamic and microphysical equations for different processes
occurring in clouds. The microphysical processes characterizing
transformation of cloud particles are typically accompanied by phase
transitions and latent heat release determine, to a large extent, the
type, dynamics, and structure of clouds. There are several classic
books on cloud physics and cloud microphysical processes, among
them are the following (see the References in Chapter 1 for details):
A Short Course in Cloud Physics by Rogers and Yau (1996); the
fundamental book Cloud Microphysics and Precipitation by
Pruppacher and Klett (1997); Cloud and Precipitation Microphysics
by Straka (2009), describing simplified expressions for rates of
microphysical processes used in bulk-parameterization; and
Thermodynamics, Kinetics, and Microphysics of Clouds by
Khvorostyanov and Curry (2014), dedicated to theoretical analysis of
specific microphysical processes. These books, however, do not
discuss the issues of numerical cloud model design. In the absence
of detailed information, many scientists (especially students) use
cloud models as "black boxes." Inevitably, analysis of model results
in this case is rough and often conjectural and descriptive. Our book
is aimed at filling in this gap. Major focus is put on explaining how
cloud microphysical processes are treated in modern numerical cloud
models. We stress the relationship between the physics of the cloud
processes and the mathematical description of these processes in
cloud models. Cloud hydrometeors of different types such as liquid
drops, low density ice particles such as snowflakes, and high-density
particles such as hail are active participants in condensation,
collision, sedimentation, and other phase-transition processes. These
processes unfold in different ways (and, accordingly, are differently
represented in the models) depending on specific conditions and
hydrometeors. Therefore, the two largest chapters in this book are
dedicated to description and modeling of warm microphysical
processes occurring at positive temperatures, and mixed-phase
microphysical processes (in particular, ice processes) occurring at
negative temperatures. Considerable attention is paid to the two
main approaches used for description of microphysical processes in
models. The bin approach focuses on the evolution of size
distributions of hydrometeors. The bulk parameterization is less
time-consuming, while treating only changes of several moments of
these distributions. In this book, we systematically describe how
cloud microphysical processes are treated in modern bin and bulk
cloud models. Along with the classic studies, we analyze numerous
modern research contributions made over the past two decades that
have greatly improved understanding of the cloud microphysical
processes. We present the state-of-the-art view of liquid
precipitation and ice precipitation formation. This book also outlines
the recent progress in modeling techniques, which enabled an
increase in the number of the microphysical processes described by
models and also improved the representation of these processes in
models of both bin and bulk types. Comparison of model results
obtained by both approaches and analysis of their importance for
atmospheric and cloud physics is also a distinctive feature of this
book. To make the content accessible for a wide reading audience,
we included extensive background material vn

Vlll Preface that is intended as the reference source on a vast variety

of cloud-related phenomena. Large numbers of illustrations, figures,
and tables are provided to facilitate better understanding of this
material. We hope that the approach undertaken in this book, which
combines the theory of cloud microphysical processes and their
numerical realizations in models, will prove to be helpful for
students, researchers, and cloud-model designers in the fields of
cloud physics, atmospheric science, and meteorology. Work on this
book took several years. We express our sincere gratitude to Dr.
Elena Negnevitsky, who took over the hard work of editing. She can
rightfully be considered a coauthor of this book. We thank our
former and current students Igor Sednev, Yaron Segal, Nir
Benmoshe, Leehi Magaritz-Ronen, Eyal Ilotoviz, Jacob Shpund, and
others for their help with model development and for performing
numerical experiments. We express our deep gratitude to colleagues
from different countries: Profs. Daniel Rosenfeld, Hans Pruppacher,
Vaughan Phillips, Isaac Ginis, Alexei Korolev, Ilia Mazin, Klaus
Beheng, Alexander Ryzhkov; Drs. Axel Seifert, Thara Prabhakaran,
Mikhail Ovchinnikov, Jiwen Fan, Barry Lynn and many others for their
fruitful collaboration, exchange of ideas and work in the framework
of joint grants. This book would have never appeared without this
invaluable collaboration. We remember with gratitude our late
colleague Dr. Andrei Pokrovsky, who made an enormous contribution
to the development of the Hebrew University Cloud Model. We
express our gratitude to the U.S.-Israel Bina- tional Science
Foundation, the Israel Science Foundation, the U.S. Department of
Energy, the Ministry of Science, Technology and Space of Israel, and
to the Hebrew University of Jerusalem for support of our scientific
work. Our thanks go to Matt Lloyd and Zoe Pruce at Cambridge
University Press, and to Shaheer Husanne, Project Manager at SPi
Global, for their continuous support and advice. And of course, we
thank our wives, who for many years patiently suffered our long
working hours and often had to witness quite heated debates on
chapters, sections, sentences, and words of the text.

Abbreviations 2DC A Two-Dimensional Cloud probe 2DP A Two-

Dimensional Precipitation probe ACE Aerosol Characterization
Experiment ACTOS Airborne Cloud Turbulence Observation System
ADI Alternating-Direction Implicit method AF Adiabatic Fraction AP
Aerosol Particle ARM Atmospheric Radiation Measurement ARW
Advanced Research WRF solver ASASP Active-Scattering Aerosol
Spectrometer Probe ASTEX Atlantic Stratocumulus Transition
Experiment ATSR Along Track Scanning Radiometer BB Bright Band
BBC Baltex Bridge Campaign BIMGQ Bin Integral Method with Gauss
Quadrature BL Boundary Layer BM Bin Microphysics BRM Berry and
Reinhardt Method CAIAPEEX Cloud-Aerosol Interaction and
Precipitation Enhancement Experiment CAPE Convective Available
Potential Energy CaPE Convection and Precipitation/ Electrification
experiment CASP Canadian Atlantic Storms Program CCN Cloud
Condensation Nuclei CCOPE Cooperative Convective Precipitation
Experiment CFAD Contoured Frequency Altitude Diagram CFDC
Continuous Flow Diffusion Chamber CFL Courant-Friedrichs-Lewy
condition CIMMS Cooperative Institute for Mesoscale Meteorological
Studies model CKE CN COPE COPE-MED COSMO CPI CRM CRYSTAL-
FACE CWC DHARMA DHF DNS DSD DYCOMS EARLINET EC ECHAM
EL EMPM ETEM EUCREX FATE FD FFT FIRE FSSP GATE GCCN
Collision Kinetic Energy Condensational Nuclei Convective
Precipitation Experiment Convective Precipitation Experiment -
Microphysical and Entrainment Dependencies Consortium for Small-
Scale Modeling Cloud Particle Imager Cloud Resolving Model NASA
Cirrus Regional Study of Tropical Anvils and Cirrus Layers - Florida
Area Cirrus Experiment Cloud Water Content Distributed
Hydrodynamic Aerosol and Radiative Modeling Application
Deliquescent-Heterogeneous Freezing Direct Numerical Simulation
Drop Size Distribution Dynamics and Chemistry of Marine
Stratocumulus field study European Aerosol Research Lidar Network
Elemental Carbon Atmospheric general circulation Model Equilibrium
Level Explicit Mixing Parcel Model Entity-Type Entrainment Mixing
process European Cloud-Radiation Experiment First ATSR Tropical
Experiment Freeing Drops Fast Fourier Transform First ISCCP
Regional Experiment Forward Scattering Spectrometer Probe Global
Atlantic Tropical Experiment Giant Cloud Condensation Nuclei IX

X List of Abbreviations GCE GCM GT HDI HMT HUCM HVPS ICE ICE-L
ICE-T IN INCA INSPECT-1 INSPECTRO IPCC ISCCP ISDAC ISF ITCZ
IWC IWP JMA-NHM LAM LBA- SMOCC LCL LCM LDM LE LEM LES LFC
LFM LMDzT LSM LST LWC LWF LWP Goddard Cumulus Ensemble
model General (Global) Circulation Model Glaciation Time
Hydrodynamic Drop Interaction Hydrometeorology Testbed project
Hebrew University Cloud Model High Volume Precipitation
Spectrometer International Cirrus Experiment Ice in Clouds
Experiment - Layer clouds Ice in Clouds Experiment-Tropical Ice
Nuclei Interaction with Chemistry and Aerosols model First Ice Nuclei
Spectroscopy study Influence of clouds on the Spectral actinic flux
density in the lower troposphere field campaigns Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change International Satellite Cloud Climatology
Project Indirect and Semi-Direct Aerosol Campaign Ice Sponge Front
Inter-tropical Convergence Zone Ice Water Content Ice Water Pass
Japan Meteorological Agency Non-Hydrostatic Model Limited Area
Model Large-Scale Biosphere Atmosphere Experiment in Amazonia -
Smoke Aerosols, Clouds, Rainfall, and Climate: Climate Campaign
Lifting Condensation Level Lagrangian Cloud Model Linear Discrete
Method Large Eddies Lagrangian-Eulerian Model Large-Eddy
Simulation Level of Free Convection Linear Flux Method Laboratoire
de Meteorologie Dynamique general circulation model Land-Surface
Model Local Standard Time Liquid Water Content Liquid Water
Fraction Liquid Water Pass MCS MD MM5 MMM M-PACE MPL NASA
NASA FIRE ACE NCAR NCEP NOAA OAP PBAP PBE PCASP PDF PMS
PRE- STORM PSD PVM RACORO RAMS RDF RF RH RICO RK2 RK3
RMS RSD RWC SAM SBE SBM SCE SCMS SLL Mesoscale Convective
System Mass Distribution Fifth-Generation Penn State/NCAR
Mesoscale Model Microphysical Method of Moments Mixed-Phase
Arctic Cloud Experiment Maximum Parcel Level National Aeronautics
and Space Administration NASA FIRE Arctic Cloud Experiment
Atmospheric Chemistry Experiment National Center for Atmospheric
Research National Centers for Environmental Prediction National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Optical Array Probe Primary
Biological Aerosols Particles Positive Buoyant Energy Passive Cavity
Aerosol Spectrometer Probe Probability Distribution Function Particle
Measuring System Preliminary Regional Experiment for Storm-scale
Operational and Research Meteorology Particle Size Distribution
Particulate Volume Monitor Routine AAF CLOWD Optical Radiative
Observations Regional Atmospheric Modeling System Radial
Distribution Function Research Flight Relative Humidity Rain in
Cumulus over the Ocean field program Runge-Kutta 2 step method
Runge-Kutta 3 step method Root Mean Square Raindrop Size
Distribution Rain Water Content System for Atmospheric Modeling
Stochastic Breakup Equation Spectral Bin Microphysics Stochastic
Collection Equation Small Cumulus Microphysics Study Schumann-
Ludlam Limit
List of Abbreviations XI SMOCC SST STD STEPS SUCCESS TARA TAU
TC TEM TKE TLS TOGA TOGA COARE Smoke Aerosols, Clouds,
Rainfall and Climate program Sea-Surface Temperature STandard
Deviation Severe Thunderstorm Electrification and Precipitation
Study Subsonic Aircraft: Contrail and Cloud Effect Special Study
Transportable Atmospheric Radar Tel-Aviv University model Tropical
Cyclone Trajectory Ensemble Model Turbulent Kinetic Energy
Tethered Lifting System Tropical Ocean Global Atmosphere program
TOGA Coupled Ocean- Atmosphere Response Experiment TOM
UHSAS UT UTC UWNMS WBF WDM6 WINSIC WINSOC WRF WSF
WSOC Total Organic Matter Ultra-High Sensitivity Aerosol
Spectrometer Universal Time Coordinated Universal Time The
University of Wisconsin Non-Hydrostatic Model Wegener-Bergeron-
Findeisen process WRF Double-Moment 6-class Microphysics scheme
Water Insoluble Inorganic Carbon Water Insoluble Organic
Compounds Weather Research and Forecasting model WRF Software
Framework Water Soluble Organic Compounds

Symbols Symbol A, At Bu Bnn cp Cv cw Co M)_cr Q Cph d,D D Da e

ew Description Lagrangian acceleration of the air Longitudinal
correlation function of turbulent velocity Lateral correlation function
of turbulent velocity Specific heat capacity at constant pressure
Specific heat capacity at constant volume Specific heat of water
Courant number Critical Courant number Drag coefficient Phase
speed Diameter or width of particle Diffusivity of water vapor in air
Damkohler number Water vapor pressure Saturation vapor pressure
over water Units ms-2 2 -2 m s mV2 J kg"1 K-1 J kg"1 K-1 J kg"1 K-1
- - - m/s m m2s_1 - Nm-2 Nm-2 et - over ice E Turbulent kinetic
energy per unit mass Ei - on subgrid scale E(r\, r2) Collision
efficiency Ecoai Coalescence efficiency ET Total coalescence energy /
Coriolis parameter fw Liquid water fraction flm) Size distribution of
water drops as a function of mass fr{r) - as a function of radius fj(m)
Size distribution of ice particles or ice crystals fg(m) - of graupel
fh(m) - of hail fs(m) - of snow Nm-2 2 -2 m s 2 -2 m s kg lm kg lm 3
kg_1m-3 kg_1m-3 kg_1m-3 Fv E(k) Fl g(m) h h h hi k K ka k, kw k K
K(rl9 r2) Kg_col Kn I L Lw Lt Lm m nij mN mis M Mw MN N
Ventilation coefficient Spectrum of turbulent kinetic energy Flatness
of velocity gradient Acceleration of gravity Mass distribution of drops
Planck constant Thickness or length of particle static energy of dry
air - of moist air Boltzmann constant Heat conductivity - of air - of
ice - of water Wave number Turbulent coefficient Collision kernel
Collection kernel Coefficient of numerical viscosity Knudsen number
Spatial scale, mixing length External turbulent scale Latent heat of
water evaporation - of ice sublimation - of ice melting/freezing Mass
of cloud particle, or drop - of ice particle - of aerosol particle
Wettability parameter Mass content Molecular weight of water - of
aerosol salt The moment of particle size distribution of order k
Concentration of cloud particles or drops 3 -2 m s ms m"3 Js m 2 -2
m s mV2 JK"1 W K_1m W K_1m W K_1m W K_1m m m J kg"1 J
kg"1 J kg"1 kg kg kg kg m-3 kg mol" kg mol" xin

List (cont.) Symbol Nt NN Nccn NIN Nc Nr NB P Pa Pr Pr q qc qi q™

qr qs qt qv qt qn qw Q r rN rcr ya n f rv Veff ^mod R R Ra Rv R Ra
Racr Rat Description - of ice particles - of aerosols - of cloud
condensational nuclei - of ice nuclei - of crystals - of raindrops Brunt-
Vaisala frequency Pressure of moist air of dry air Probability of
spontaneous breakup Prandtl number Mixing ratio of water vapor -
of cloud droplets - of liquid water - of ice water - of rain water -
saturated - total Specific humidity Ice water content (IWC) Aerosol
mass content Liquid water content (LWC) Integral of supersaturation
radius of wet particle, or liquid drop - of dry aerosol particle - critical
- of water drop - of ice particle Mean radius Mean volume radius
Effective radius Modal radius Universal gas constant Specific gas
constant of moist air - of dry air - of water vapor Potential
evaporation parameter Rayleigh number Critical Rayleigh number
Turbulent Rayleigh number Units m"3 m"3 m"3 m"3 m-3 m-3 Hz Pa
Pa - - kg/kg kg/kg kg/kg kg/kg kg/kg kg/kg kg/kg kg/kg kgm-3 kg
m-3 kg m-3 s m m m m m m m m m J K^mol-1 J K^kg-1 J K^kg-1
J K^kg-1 - - - - Re Recr Re, Ret Ri Ricr SN sw St Sqs Sv Sk St Sc T
Tc Td TL Tv T0 t tf tgi U, Uj V V, V, V y imp vg 'swept W We x, xt X z
Pext r(p,T) 7a 7ma 7d 7i 7f Reynolds number Critical Reynolds
number Taylor microscale Reynolds number Turbulent Reynolds
number Richardson number Critical Richardson number Solubility of
aerosol water solution Supersaturation over water - over ice - quasi-
steady Velocity gradient tensor Skewness of velocity gradient Stokes
number Schmidt number Absolute temperature of air Temperature of
air in Celsius scale Dew point Lagrangian time scale Virtual
temperature Triple point (273.15) Time - of freezing - glaciation time
Air velocity, turbulent air velocity air volume Particle velocity Particle
velocity relative to the air Impact velocity Sedimentation velocity of
particles (terminal velocity) Swept volume Vertical air velocity Weber
number Spatial coordinates Best number (Davis number) Radar
reflectivity Optical extinction Psychrometric correction Dry adiabatic
lapse rate Moist adiabatic lapse rate Aspect ratio of drop Aspect ratio
of ice crystals Fourier number

List of Symbols xv (cont.) Symbol *f ss *v At Ax, Ay, Az £ £ijk <$>s

X X V V V /*k, h V vN n n0 n" Description Dispersion of size
distribution Soluble fraction of aerosol particle Kronecker symbol
Time step Grid space lengths Turbulent energy dissipation rate Levy-
Civita tensor Osmotic coefficient Taylor microscale Entrainment
parameter Dynamic viscosity of air Chemical potential Cloud fraction
Kolmogorov microscale Kinematic viscosity of air Number of
dissociated ions per aerosol molecular Exner function Reference
Exner function Deviation of Exner function Units - - - s m mV3 - - m-
1 m kg m_1s_1 - Jmol"1 m m2s_1 - - — : e - ee On Oi p Pa Pbulk Pv
Pn Pw Pi G\v Oi Giw °f T ^mix *pi *d *k Tpy Potential temperature
Equivalent potential temperature Ice-water potential temperature
Liquid potential temperature Density of wet air - of dry air - bulk
density of particle - of water vapor (absolute humidity) - of aerosol
particle - of water - of ice Surface tension of water-air interface - of
ice-air interface - of water-ice interface RMS size distribution width
Lifetime Characteristic mixing time Particle or drop relaxation time
Kolmogorov time scale Phase relaxation time K K K K kgm-3 kgm-3
kg m-3 kg m-3 kg m-3 kg m-3 kg m-3 Nrn-1 Nrn-1 Nrn-1 m s s s s s

1 Clouds: Definitions and Significance Clouds are visible clusters of

small water drops and ice particles. Being a widespread atmospheric
phenomenon, clouds are part of most processes occurring in the
atmosphere. To a great extent, they govern solar radiation and
energy fluxes reaching Earth, and have a strong effect on the
hydrological cycle and freshwater distribution over the globe. Clouds
are the energy source for different mesoscale phenomena, including
dangerous ones such as tornadoes and hurricanes. All this
determines the vital impact that clouds exert on all forms of life on
the planet, human life included. Studies of clouds and cloud-related
phenomena are an integral part of modern meteorology, providing
data to be directly applied in weather forecasting, agriculture,
environment control, air traffic control, and many other spheres of
human activity. 1.1 The Importance of Clouds The Sun is the major
source of energy for Earth's oceans, atmosphere, land, and
biosphere. The flux of about 342 J/s of shortwave solar radiation
falls upon every square meter of Earth. The difference between the
total amount of energy that Earth receives from the Sun and the
total amount of energy that Earth reflects and emits back into space
in the form of infrared radiation determines our planet's energy
budget. Earth's climate system tends toward eventually reaching a
radiation balance between the incoming solar energy and the
outgoing thermal energy. If more solar energy comes in, Earth
warms up and emits more heat into space to restore the radiation
balance. Figure 1.1.1 shows the composition of the annual mean
global energy balance for the decade 2000-2010. The average top-
of-atmosphere (TOA) imbalance is 0.6 = 340.2 - 239.7 - 99.9 Wm"2.
This small imbalance is more than two orders of magnitude smaller
than each of the individual balance components. Covering a
substantial portion of Earth's surface, clouds significantly influence
the TOA balance. The main impact factor is a so-called cloud albedo
effect, which is a measure of cloud reflectivity and is defined as the
ratio of the reflected radiation to the incident radiation. It varies
within a vast range from less than 10% to more than 90% and
depends on several factors, such as liquid water content and ice
content, sizes of drops and ice particles, cloud thickness, the Sun's
zenith angle, etc. The smaller the drops and the Incoming solar
340.2±0.1 TOA imbalance 0 6±0.4 Reflected solar 100.0±2
Atmospheric absorption 75±10 Outgoing 239.7*3.3 longwave
radiation Clear-sky 27.2±4.6 refection Surface shortwave 165*6
absorption 'T9±9 All-sky longwave absorption -187.9±12.5 Clear-sky
emission to surface 345.6±9 All-sky emission to surface Figure 1.1.1
The annual mean global energy budget of Earth for the period 2000-
2010. All the fluxes are in Wm"2. The solar fluxes are marked yellow
and the infrared fluxes are marked pink. The four flux quantities in
the purple-shaded boxes represent the principal components of the
atmospheric energy balance (from Graeme et al., 2012; reprinted
with permission from Macmillan Publishers Ltd.). 1

2 Clouds: Definitions and Significance larger the liquid water

content, the higher the cloud albedo is, all other factors being equal.
The overall reflectance of planet Earth is about 30%, meaning that
about 30% of the incoming shortwave solar radiation is reflected
back into space. If, hypothetically, all clouds were removed, the
global albedo would decrease to about 15%. Figure 1.1.1 shows that
the cloud albedo effect decreases the radiative influx by 47.5 ± 3
Wm-2. At the same time, in comparison to the clear-sky case, clouds
reduce the outgoing long-wave radiation flux by approximately 26.4
± 4 Wm~2 (Figure 1.1.1), creating a phenomenon known as the
greenhouse effect. The global cloud albedo effect is significantly
larger than the greenhouse effect. The net cloud-induced loss of
radiation from Earth can be estimated as 21.1 zb 5 Wm~2. This
accounts for a net cooling effect that clouds have on Earth's climate,
as illustrated in Figure 1.1.2. The scatter diagram of the global air
temperature vs. the total cloud cover clearly demonstrates the
inverse dependence between the temperature and the cloud cover
with the correlation coefficient of about 0.5. A simple linear fit model
suggests that an increase in the global cloud cover by 1%
corresponds to a global temperature decrease of about 0.07°C. The
diagram also shows that the cloud impact strongly depends on the
cloud cover, which varies in the range of 63-70%. Different types of
clouds play different roles in the radiation balance. Cirrus clouds
transmit most of the incoming shortwave radiation but trap some of
the outgoing long-wave radiation. Their cloud greenhouse forcing is
greater than their cloud albedo forcing, resulting in net warming of
Earth. Stratocumulus clouds reflect much of the incoming shortwave
radiation but also reemit large amounts of long-wave radiation. Their
cloud albedo forcing is larger than their cloud greenhouse forcing,
causing a net cooling of Earth. Deep convective clouds emit little
long-wave radiation at the top but much of it at the bottom, and
reflect much of the incoming shortwave radiation. Their cloud
greenhouse and albedo forcing are both high, but are nearly in
balance, causing neither warming nor cooling. Since the atmosphere
is nearly in energetic equilibrium, the net effect of different factors is
substantially smaller than the value of any individual factor (or
component) and smaller than errors in estimations of each individual
factor. This fact indicates an almost precise radiation and energetic
balance and complicates predictions of climate change, because
changes result from small differences between large components of
the balance. Variation of the cloud cover is one of the most
important factors affecting the radiation balance. Even comparatively
small changes in cloud cover may substantially affect the climate and
affect climatic changes. Hence the great attention paid today to
factors that can change the reflectivity properties of clouds and of
the cloud cover (Rosenfeld et al., 2006). Another important factor
affecting the radiation balance is the aerosol effect on clouds. Rain
and drizzle formation have a high impact, as well. Human activity
can also affect the cloud cover and cloud radiation properties, thus
creating anthropogenic climate changes (Ramanathan et al., 2001).
Clouds are an important component of the global hydrological cycle
schematically shown in Figure 1.1.3. o ci) % ature temper ace air
urf; v> obal o 15.8 15.7 15.6 15.5 15.4 15.3 15.2 15.1 15.0 14.9 14
8 14.7 146 I I I l_ ■ # Irear Fit i ■ _ ■ ■'"•JJL i m ■ ■ 1 ■ 1 > ■■:'
'-/■ ■ %i\. :--" *-%^-\' * ■ ■ 4% ■ ■ Y- -0.06591076414 'X ♦ 19
63785499 Num5»f of data points used > 316 CoefofCeternnnation.
R-squared« 0277992 r 1 1 1 ^ 1 . 1 ■ Total global ■ 9 ■ _ ■ ■ ■ ■■
_ :•' -■.-■■■ ■ .* ■ ■ ■ •■■■ ■. ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ . ■ ■ •■■ ■ • x m "■ •
"1 ' 1 j |_ cloud cover vs ■ I. . ■ ■ '. ■■ "■ r~ i global ..". # ■ ■ ■ ■
a 1 1 . 1 , surface air temperature ■ ■ ■ ■^■""—^* ■ ■ «^ _ ■ ■ ■
■ m Ckmate4you C'aph 1 ^1 1 1 1 15.8 15.7 15.6 15.5 15.4 15.3
15.2 15.1 15.0 14.9 148 14.7 146 63 64 65 66 67 Total cloud cover
(°o) 68 69 70 Figure 1.1.2 Scatter diagram showing the total
monthly global cloud cover plotted versus the monthly global surface
air temperature (diagram of Dr. Ole Humlum; published with
permission of the author).

1.1 The Importance of Clouds 3 Atmosphere Ocean to land 12.7

Ocean Precipitation 373 tt Ice^^ 26,350 u Ocean i Evaporation 413
Ocean /ater vapor transport ***»^ —** 40 - Surface flow 40
Ground water flow z± x "2^ ,TTTr / // ' 'Land / / ' / Precipitation "3
m Evaporation, transpiration 73 A and Vegetation Percolation ~m
Rivers Lakes 78 •*&% Soi oisture ••!*?• 22 • Permafros
Groundwater 22 15,300 Ocean 1,33 ,040 Figure 1.1.3 Scheme of the
global hydrological cycle. Units: 1,000 cubic km for storage and
1,000 cubic km/year for exchanges (from Trenberth et al., 2007;
courtesy of© American Meteorological Society. Used with
permission). Water vapor evaporated from Earth's surface - mostly
from the ocean surface - is transported by atmospheric motions
sometimes over hundreds or thousands of kilometers and then
ascends. The temperature in the ascending air volumes decreases
and the air becomes saturated or oversaturated. This process leads
to formation of clouds containing droplets formed on small aerosol
particles. Droplets grow, decreasing the amount of water vapor in
the air. At freezing temperatures, ice particles form and grow,
producing different types of ice hydrometeors: ice crystals,
aggregates (snow), graupel, and hail. The growth of ice particles
also decreases the air humidity. Thus, clouds are responsible for the
amount of water vapor in the atmosphere. Collisions of cloud
particles lead to formation of large drops and precipitation. The rate
and type of precipitation (liquid vs. solid) depends on a cloud type
and environment conditions (temperature and humidity). Water
reaching the surface as precipitation may seep underground or get
into rivers, where it travels large distances before evaporating. The
combination of evaporation, precipitation, and transport of liquid
water into (or beneath) soil and along rivers and ocean streams
creates the complicated global hydrological cycle. Since water vapor
and clouds play a crucial role in the atmospheric energy balance,
there is a close relationship between the climate and the
hydrological cycle. The hydrological cycle is also essential in shaping
Earth's environment, the availability of water being a critical factor
for life as well as for many chemical reactions and transformations
affecting the physical environment. Describing various components
of the hydrological cycle and analyzing the mechanisms responsible
for the exchange of water between different reservoirs are thus
important elements of climatology. The role of clouds is not limited
to their effect on radiation and the hydrological cycle. The latent
heat released during condensation of water vapor is a dominant
energy source of atmospheric motions of different scales. The
release of the latent heat in clouds is the main source of kinetic
energy of global circulation of the atmosphere. The kinetic energy of
clouds and related phenomena, such as thunderstorms, tropical
cyclones, etc., is largely determined by the latent heat release in
clouds. Clouds are an important energetic source of turbulent
motions. The latent heat in clouds is released during condensational
growth of liquid droplets and ice particles as well as during freezing
of liquid droplets and melting of ice. These processes take place at
microscales, the sizes of cloud particles ranging from about 1 urn to
1,000 urn, and in rare cases up to 1 cm.

4 Clouds: Definitions and Significance CLOUD MICROPHYSICS IN

EARTH SYSTEM SCIENCE Numerical modeling Airborne Remote
Sensing Ground-Based Remote Sensing Satellite Remote Sensing \ .
t Passive Sensing (Microwave. IR. Vis) Active Sensing (Radar. Lidar)
Cloud icrophyslcs ^, Energy Cycle (many scales) I Hydrologic Cycle \
Radiative Forcing Air Chemistry Atmos Electrification Cloud Structure
Land/Ocean - Atmos Interactions Figure 1.1.4 Links between cloud
microphysics and other fields of atmospheric and earth sciences and
methods of cloud investigation (from Tao and Moncrieff, 2009 with
changes; courtesy of © Willey and Sons Ltd.). Thus, atmospheric
motions within a wide range from centimeters to global scales are
affected by microscale processes taking place in clouds. Cloud
effects depend on cloud type, height, cloud age, cloud thickness,
etc. Cloud physics represents a special branch of earth science.
Cloud microphysics studies formation, growth, transition, conversion,
and sedimentation of cloud particles (drops, ice particles, and
aerosol particles). The cloud microphysical processes determine the
microstructure of clouds that include the spatial-temporal field of
masses and concentrations of cloud particles (hydrometeors), as well
as size distributions of cloud particles belonging to different
hydrometeor types. Cloud microphysics is related to many areas of
earth science: atmospheric radiation (radiation forcing), hydrology,
atmospheric electrification, aerosol science, and atmospheric
chemistry. These links are illustrated in Figure 1.1.4. 1.2 Clouds and
Cloud-Related Phenomena 1.2.1 Typology of Clouds Clouds can be
classified according to their geometrical (morphological) structure
and (roughly) assigned to two large classes. Clouds belonging to the
first class have horizontal scales far exceeding their thickness. These
clouds are stratiform-like clouds. The word "stratus" comes from the
Latin prefix strato-, meaning "layer." Stratiform-like clouds are
further separated into subclasses according to the altitudes of their
cloud base as low-, middle-, or high-level clouds. Each subclass is, in
turn, separated into different types according to cloud forms and
structures determined by their dynamical and microphysical
properties. The second class includes clouds of vertical development
(convective clouds) whose thickness is of the same order or even
larger than their horizontal size and whose base is typically located
in the boundary layer (BL). Convective clouds are driven by
atmospheric instability and buoyancy forces. The class of convective
clouds is separated into subclasses according to altitudes of their
tops. The main subclasses of clouds are shown in Figure 1.2.1. Next,
we briefly describe the main specific phenomenological properties of
cloud types shown in Figure 1.2.1. A more detailed description and
classification can be found on Cloud Atlas (www.clouds-online.com/)
Stratiform-Like Clouds Subclasses of low-level stratiform-like clouds
include four cloud types: stratus (St), stratus fractus (St fr.),
stratocumulus clouds (Sc), and nimbostratus (Ns). Horizontal sizes of
St exceed the cloud depth by several orders of magnitude. They are
homogeneous in the horizontal direction and often cover the entire
sky. The height of cloud base of St typically ranges from 0.1 to 0.7
km, and the thickness of the cloud layer ranges from 0.2 to 0.8 km.
They sometimes produce drizzle, freezing drizzle, or snow
(aggregates), depending on temperature. St form due to turbulent
mixing of air in the BL, or in a manner similar to that of fog
formation when the ambient air temperature decreases, thus
increasing the relative humidity. Once the temperature drops below
the dew point, a stratus cloud forms. St are essentially aboveground
fog formed either through

1.2 Clouds and Cloud-Related Phenomena 5 4».ooo n 12.000 m High

21.000 n 7.000 m Mid 6.500 ft 2,000 m ontrails Cu mulus Cb
Cumulonimbus Cinocumulus q$ * - Cnrostratus As Altostratus
Nimbostratus Stratocumulus Ci Onus Ac Altocumul St Stratus Low
Fo: $Kla* Figure 1.2.1 Classification of clouds. Clouds of vertical
development (convective) are depicted on the left side of the panel;
stratiform-like clouds are depicted on the right side of the panel (The
Scheme, by Christopher Klaus, published with changes; with
permission of the author). Warm, dry, subsiding free-troposphere iA
1 1 ' 855 4 572 4 Entrainment warming, drying "\ Radiative driving
Large eddies Surface heatand moisture fluxes m*** ww»,'p,p'w*»,w'
283.1 291.6 Temperature, K \ P \ Cool ocean ^■^■^■^■^■^■^i
1.58 8.91 Total water specific humidity, g fogr1 0 0.5 Liquid water
content, grrf3 Figure 1.2.2 Conceptual scheme of a well-mixed
boundary layer covered by a non-precipitating maritime Sc over the
cool, eastern subtropical oceans (research flight near 30°N, 120°W)
(with changes) (courtesy of Bjorn Stevens). lifting of morning fog or
through cold air moving at low altitudes over a region. Sometimes St
are called "high fog." They can be composed of water droplets,
supercooled water droplets, or ice crystals, depending upon the
ambient temperature. St fr. clouds look like separate shreds with
broken edges. Stratocumulus clouds (Sc) is a basic cloud type of
low- level stratiform-like clouds. Sc contain elements of Cu that are
embedded into zones of stratiform clouds. Cloud tops of Sc is
typically less than 2.5 km. The vertical velocities are usually caused
by convective cells in the BL and reach 1-2 m/s. The maximum
vertical velocities often take place near the cloud base. A conceptual
scheme of a well-mixed boundary layer covered by a non-
precipitating maritime Sc is shown in Figure 1.2.2. Liquid Sc clouds
develop within a neutral or slightly unstable BL, typically over
relatively cool ocean surfaces. The BL is well mixed and limited from
above by the stable inversion layer in which the temperature
increases with height. Figure 1.2.2 shows the vertical profiles of
temperature and total specific humidity qt, i.e., the total amount of
water including water vapor and liquid per kg of air. Mixing in the
vertical direction leads to linearly decreases in the temperature from
the surface upward

6 Clouds: Definitions and Significance Figure 1.2.3 Typical

stratocumulus cloud (credit: dszc/Getty Images). with a gradient of
9.8 Kkm~ and to nearly constant values of qt within the mixing layer
of the BL below the inversion level. Sharp increase in T and decrease
in qt take place within the inversion layer. The inversion is typically
supported by large-scale subsidence of dry and warm air. The depth
of Sc is a few hundred meters. Humidity and temperature in the BL
are determined to a large extent by surface fluxes. Radiative fluxes
from the upper boundary of Sc lead to cooling of the upper
boundary and favor the vertical mixing within the BL. Mixing in the
BL is due to large eddies arising within it. In non-precipitating Sc,
cloud droplets are smaller than 20 urn in radius. When the cloud
depth is larger and exceeds about 0.3 km, and the air humidity in
the BL is high, liquid water content exceeds the critical value, and
drizzle (drops of about 100 urn in radius) forms and falls down.
Formation of drizzle dramatically changes the cloud structure and
cover and, as a result, the radiative characteristics of Sc. A typical Sc
in the BL is shown in Figure 1.2.3. Nimbostratus (Ns) is a low-to-
middle troposphere stratiform cloud that has considerable vertical
extent (2-5 km) and horizontal extent (tens to hundred kms) and
produces precipitation over a large area. Nimbo comes from the
Latin word nimbus, meaning "precipitation." Ns is a major source of
precipitation. They usually have a darker color than stratus clouds
due to their high moisture content. A typical Ns is shown in Figure
1.2.4. They form along a warm front or an occluded front within
zones of weak updrafts. Often, Ns form from an altostratus cloud
when it thickens and descends into lower altitudes. Figure 1.2.4 A
raining nimbostratus cloud (from https:// pixabay.com/en/mongolia-
steppe-rain-clouds-487112/). Altostratus (As) and Altocumulus (Ac)
are stratiform- like clouds of middle level. Alto comes from the Latin
word altus, meaning "high." As look like a sheet or a layer and are
generally uniform gray to bluish-green in color (Figure 1.2.5). As are
lighter in color than Ns, but darker than cirrostratus. As are
transparent and the sun can be seen through thin ones. They can
produce light precipitation that evaporates, not reaching the surface.
If the precipitation increases in persistence and intensity, the As may
thicken into Ns, as previously mentioned. They most often take the
form of a featureless sheet; however, they can also be fragmented.
The appearance of As is often a sign of an upper-level warm front
approaching. They may be composed of ice crystals whose sizes
increase as the altitude decreases. Near cloud top, the ice crystals
are largely hexagonal plates, becoming more conglomerated as the
cloud descends. Altocumulus (Ac) may appear as parallel bands
(Figure 1.2.6) or rounded masses. Typically, a portion of an Ac is
shaded, which distinguishes them from the high-level cirrocumulus.
They usually form by convection in unstable layers at the upper
levels. The presence of Ac during a humid summer morning is a sign
of thunderstorms that may occur later in the day. Cirrostratus (Cs)
and Cirrus (Ci) are stratiform-like clouds of the upper level. The word
cirrus is the Latin word for "curl". These clouds arise due to slow
large- scale updrafts at the updraft velocity of the order of 1 to few
cm/s in zones of atmospheric fronts. Cs are ice crystals stratiform
clouds of high location that can appear as a striated sheet in the sky.
They are transparent, so the sun or the moon are always clearly
visible

1.2 Clouds and Cloud-Related Phenomena 7 Figure 1.2.5 Altostratus

(credit: Wallace Garrison/Getty Images). Figure 1.2.6 Typical Ac
clouds (from https://pixabay.com/en/ mongolia-steppe-rain-clouds-
487112/). through them. A photo of a Cs cloud is shown in Figure
1.2.7. Ci consist of ice crystals of different types, the fraction of a
particular type depending on the temperature. The dominating
crystal types in such clouds are thick hexagonal plates and short,
solid hexagonal columns. Clouds of Vertical Development
(Convective Clouds) A specific feature of convective clouds is that
they form as a result of a thermal instability in the atmosphere.
Their updrafts are caused largely by the buoyancy force, which
explains the term "convective clouds." The friction force in the BL
leads to formation of zones of convergence and divergence. The
vertical velocities arising in the convergence zone foster formation of
convective clouds. The subclasses of convective clouds include
cumulus {Cu), cumulus congestus (TCu) and cumulonimbus (Cb).
The word cumulus comes from the Latin word meaning "heap" or
"pile." Vertical sizes Figure 1.2.7 A Cs (from
https://pixabay.com/en/cirrostratus- skyscape-sky-cloud-246294/).
of Cu and Cb are of the same order as their horizontal sizes.
Cumulus clouds (Cu) are often described as "puffy," "cotton like," or
"fluffy"; their bases look flat. They are low-level clouds with altitudes
generally less than 1,000 m, characterized by an unstable BL capped
from above by a stable inversion layer. Sometimes single Cu may
form, but usually they are organized into 2D rolls or 3D convective
cells. The vertical velocities in Cu, determined by the magnitude of
the BL instability, are of the order of few m/s. Typical Cu are shown
in Figure 1.2.8. They contain only liquid droplets, i.e., they are liquid
clouds. The microphysical processes in Cu are called warm
microphysical processes.

8 Clouds: Definitions and Significance Figure 1.2.8 Fair-weather

cumulus clouds (from https://pixabay .com/en/cloud-blue-white-
cloudscape-sky-1044223/). Cumulus congestus (TCu). If the
atmosphere is unstable within a layer of several kilometers deep, Cu
can further develop in the vertical direction and become TCu. More
rarely, Sc can transform into TCu. The vertical velocity in TCu is
typically of several m/s. High vertical velocities are caused by the
buoyancy force, while the cloud top height is about 6 km. They
contain both liquid and ice particles, thus being mixed-phase clouds
(Figure 1.2.9). TCu are capable of producing severe turbulence and
showers of moderate-to-heavy intensity. Cumulonimbus clouds (Cb)
are thunderstorm clouds that form if TCu clouds continue to grow
vertically, sometimes up to the tropopause level (12-16 km). The
vertical velocity in Cb sometimes reaches 40-50 m/s. A single-cell Cb
at its mature stage is shown in Figure 1.2.10. The Cb has a well-
defined anvil consisting of ice crystals. The existence of the cloud
anvil indicates the presence of a stable layer above the cloud, so the
anvil appears in the zone of air detrainment within the cloud. Cb are
mixed-phase clouds usually producing heavy rains, thunderstorms,
hailstorms, and often lightning. The precipitation rates can reach
several cm/hour and even tens of cm per hour. Hailstones may reach
5 cm in diameter. Crude schemes of the microphysical structures of
developing and decaying convective clouds are shown in Figure
1.2.11. At the developing stage, aerosols known as cloud
condensational nuclei ascend in updrafts. The vertical motions can
be caused by gravitational waves, orography, temperature
inhomogeneity of the underlying surface and other factors. Clouds
form due to air cooling in updrafts when the relative humidity
exceeds 100%. As the relative humidity exceeds a certain critical
value, part of atmospheric Figure 1.2.9 TCu, developing into a
cumulonimbus near Key Biscayne, Florida. The clear-contrast cloud
boundaries indicate the liquid phase. Smoothed cloud boundaries
indicate ice particles (from Houze's Cloud Atlas,
http://www.atmos.washington.edu/ Atlas/oro.html; courtesy of R.
Houze). * Figure 1.2.10 Single-cell cumulonimbus (from https://
pixabay.com/en/cumulus-nimbus-cloud-white-large-491106/).
aerosols turns into cloud droplets (droplet nucleation). The droplets
ascend, growing by condensation of water vapor. The latent heat
release increases the vertical velocity. When droplets reach about 20
urn in radius, intense collisions start leading to formation of
raindrops, and small raindrops ascend and freeze. In order to freeze,
a raindrop should either have an immersion aerosol inside or collide
with ice particles. Frozen raindrops give rise to hail particles. At cold
temperatures, ice crystals are activated on insoluble aerosol
particles. Other mechanisms of ice crystal nucleation also exist, e.g.,
ice crystals can grow by deposition of water vapor. Collisions
between ice crystals lead to formation of aggregates called snow or
snowflakes. When the

1.2 Clouds and Cloud-Related Phenomena Detainment Ice crystals

Aggregates Aggregates Graupel and hail Rain drops Cloud droplets
••••••• m . # • • • Aerosols Ice crystals Graupel and hail • • * • . *
Rain drops Figure 1.2.11 Schemes of the microphysical structure of a
developing (left) and a decaying (right) mixed-phase convective
cloud Figure 1.2.12 A photo of orographic clouds (from
http://213.239.206.108/Bilder/HTML/digl410_01.html; courtesy of
photographer, Dr. Bernhard Muhr). aggregates accrete a significant
amount of cloud droplets, their density increases and they become
graupel. Graupel and hail are the main high-density precipitating
hydrometeors in Cb. At the decaying stage, the cloud updrafts
decrease or may even be replaced by downdrafts. Raindrops,
graupel, and hail fall down. Depending on the environmental
conditions, some (or all) graupel and hail melt. The largest particles
that do not fully melt reach the surface. There are clouds that
typically develop in zones of air updrafts caused by hills and
mountains. As the air mass ascends, temperature decreases and the
relative humidity rises to 100%, creating clouds and frequent
precipitation. Such clouds are called orographic clouds (OC) (Figure
1.2.12). Being linked to the topography,

10 Clouds: Definitions and Significance Stable Air Condensation level

Orographic Clouds Mountain Wave Wind \j Lee Wave "Rotor Cloud"
Fohn Wall Cloud \ Condensation level Top View ^ ^ \ VJump" Wind
"Hydraulic Jump" Banner Cloud Side View Figure 1.2.13 Structure of
wind flows and related cloudiness arising over mountains (from
Houze's Cloud Atlas, www.atmos.washington.edu/Atlas/oro.html;
courtesy of R. Houze). OC are usually standing clouds, even if the
winds at the same height are very strong. As a result, mountains
form local precipitation regimes. Typically, more precipitation falls
over the upwind slope of a mountain region while precipitation
amount decreases on the downwind side since precipitation on the
windward side removes water from the air. Depending on stability
conditions, OC can be both stratiform like

1.2 Clouds and Cloud-Related Phenomena 11 Table 1.2.1

Characteristics of the main cloud types in extratropical zone (from
Mazin and Shmeter, 1983*; courtesy of I. Mazin). Cloud Type St Sc
Ac Cc Ns As Cs Ci Cu TCu Cb Cloud Base Height (km) 0.1-0.7 0.4-2.0
2-6 6-9 0.1-2.0 3-6 5-9 6-10 0.8-2.0 0.8-2.0 0.4-1.5 Cloud Depth
(km) 0.1-1.0 0.1-1.0 0.1-0.8 0.2-1.0 Up to several km Up to several
km Up to several km From several tens to 1.5 km <3 3-5 <14
Horizontal Size (km) 10-1,000 10-1,000 10-100 10-100 100-1,000
100-1,000 100-1,000 10-1,000 1-5 5-10 Up to 50-100 Phase State
Liquid Liquid or mixed-phase Liquid or mixed-phase Ice or mixed-
phase Mixed-phase Ice or mixed-phase Ice Ice Liquid Liquid or
mixed-phase Mixed-phase Life Time Day and more Day and more
Day and more Day and more Day and more Day and more Day and
more Day and more Tens of min. Tens of min. From tens of min to
several hours Characteristic Mean Vertical Velocities (cm/s) 1-10 1-
10 1-10 1-10 1-10 1-10 1-10 1-10 100 Up to 5,000 . Up to 5,000
Precipitation No or drizzle No or drizzle No No Rain, snow Rain, snow
No No No or drizzle No or not strong showers Showers, hailshaft *
Values of the vertical velocity for Cu and Cb are averaged updraft
velocities. Velocities of downdrafts are typically 1.5-2 times less. The
data concerning the thickness of Cu and Cb are related to
summertime clouds at middle latitudes; in winter, these clouds have
lower thickness. and convective, and therefore can be classified as
shown in Figure 1.2.1. OC can produce both liquid and ice
precipitation. The existence of mountains leads to formation of wave
clouds. The standing waves form in stable atmosphere over a
mountain and can either form above or in the lee of the mountain.
Clouds develop in updrafts and evaporate in downdrafts (Figure
1.2.13). Depending on the wind speed, stability of the atmosphere,
and mountain height, different cloud structures can appear over
mountains. In case of a moderate wind wave, the lee wave
develops, as shown in Figure 1.2.13a. Under strong background
wind, a strong air flow arises over the downwind slope, which may
end as a "hydraulic jump" accompanied by formation of strong
updraft and convective clouds (Figure 1.2.13b). In case of highly
stable atmosphere, the air cannot overcome the ridge. Clouds rise
over the upwind side of the mountain (Figure 1.2.13c). The air
masses flow around the mountain sides. Table 1.2.1 summarizes the
characteristics of the main classes of nontropical clouds. Orographic
clouds are not included as a separate cloud type, as they can be
both stratiform-like and convective. On meteorological maps, types
of clouds are denoted using certain abbreviations that, alongside
brief descriptions, are presented in Table 1.2.2. 1.2.2 Cloud Systems
and Cloud-Related Phenomena Clouds evolve during their lifetime
and can transform from one class into another. Clouds often form
systems known as mesoscale cloud systems (MCS). The formation of
cloud systems of certain structures is often referred to as self-
organization of clouds. Cloud systems form clusters with
characteristic spatial scales of hundreds of kilometers and a
characteristic lifetime of tens of hours. Many MCS have their own
specific dynamics and structure. Next, several examples of cloud
self- organization are presented.

Table 1.2.2 Symbols used for notation of some types of atmospheric

clouds on weather maps. Cloud Abbreviation CL Description
(Abridged from W.M.O. Code) CM Description (Abridged from CH
W.M.O. Code) Description (Abridged from W.M.O. Code) St or Fs -
Stratus or 1 f~\ Fracto stratus Ci - Cirrus ^ ^ Cs - Cirrostratus 3 /^\
Ac - Altocumulus 4 As - Alto stratus 5 Sc - Stratocumulus 6 Ns -
Nimbostraus 7 — - — Cu or Fc - Cumulus 8 /^>v or Fractocumulus
Cb - Cumulonimbus 9 y~\ Sc not formed by spreading out 5 ofCu St
or Fs or both, but no Fs of bad weather Fs and/or Fc of bad weather
7 (scud) Cu far weather, little vertical 1 development & flattened Cu
considerable development, 2 towering with or without other Cu or
SC bases at same level Cb with tops lacking clear-cut 3 \^KJ
outlines, but distinctly not cirriform or anvil shaped; with or without
Cu, Sc, St Sc formed by spreading out of 4 Cu; Cu often present also
6 6, y^ 4* M Cu and Sc (not formed by 8 spreading out of Cu) with
bases at different levels Cb having a clearly fibrous 9 /. (cirriform)
top, often anvil- shaped, with or without Cu, Sc, ST or scud Thin As
(most of cloud layer 1 2) semitransparent) Thick As greater part 2 £)
sufficiently dense to hide sun (or moon), or Ns Thin Ac, mostly semi-
3 ^ transparent, cloud elements not changing much at a single level
Thin Ac in patches; cloud 4 ^s elements continually changing and/or
occurring at more than one level Thin Ac in bands or in a layer 5 J?
gradually spreading over sky and usually thickening as a whole Ac
formed by the spreading out 6 ^P ofCu Double-layered Ac, or a thick
7 2 £ layer of Ac, not increasing; or Ac with As and/or Ns Ac in the
form of Cu-shaped 8 £ tufts or Ac with turrets Ac of a chaotic sky,
usually at 9 ^^\ different levels; patches of dense Ci are usually
present Filaments of Ci. or "mares tails," scattered and not
increasing Dense Ci in patches or twisted sheaves, usually not
increasing, sometimes like remains of Cb; or towers tufts Dense Ci,
often anvil-shaped derived from associated Cb Ci, often hook-shaped
gradually spreading over the sky and usually thickening as a whole
Ci and Cs, often in converging bands or Cs alone; generally
overspreading and growing denser, the continuous layer not
reaching 45 altitude Ci and Cs, often in converging bands or Cs
alone; generally overspreading and growing denser; the continuous
layer exceeding 45 altitude Veil of Cs covering the entire sky Cs not
increasing and not covering entire sky Cc alone or Cc with some Ci
or Cs but the Cc being the main cirriform cloud

1.2 Clouds and Cloud-Related Phenomena 13 i • « - r* Closed cells v

Convective cells. Thermal instability in the BL leads to formation of
convective cells consisting of zones of updrafts and downdrafts.
Clouds develop in the updrafts and form different geometrical
patterns depending on the shapes of convective cells. The cells can
be either 2D rolls or 3D convective cells (Figure 1.2.14). Convective
cells are referred to as closed cells if updrafts are in the center of the
cells, or as open cells if there are downdrafts in the cell centers
(Figure 1.2.14, right). In closed cells, the area of updrafts is larger
than that of downdrafts. Since the horizontally averaged vertical
velocities in the BL are close to zero, updrafts are weak, clouds in
these cells are of Sc type, and the cloud coverage is large. In open
cells, updrafts are located along the cell periphery and cover an area
lower than that covered by downdrafts. Therefore, the vertical
updraft velocities are stronger than the downdraft velocities and
clouds forming at the cell periphery are of Cu type. Open cells are
mostly observed in cold-air outbreaks, when cold and dry air from
continents moves over a relatively warm water surface and the BL is
thermally unstable. Closed cells typically arise over cold ocean
surfaces. Transition from closed cells to open ones can be a result of
changes in the surface temperature, but can also be caused by
microphysical processes such as drizzle formation, when droplet
concentration decreases. Open cells can convert to closed ones in
case of increasing aerosol concentration when droplet concentration
also increases while droplet size decreases. The area covered by
these droplets enlarges since they do not collide and sediment only
slightly. The updrafts in 2D convective rolls lead to formation of
cloud streets (Figure 1.2.14, left). The convective rolls are typically
elongated along the wind direction. The presence of convective cells
intensifies the vertical circulation in the BL and increases surface
fluxes and wind • «e el near the surface. In the presence of the rolls,
air volumes experience spiral motions in the BL, ascending within
cloud streets and descending between them. Squall lines. A common
structure of MCS over both oceans and land is squall lines. As shown
in Figure 1.2.11, convective clouds at the decaying stage create
downdrafts that are cold due to melting ice and evaporation of rain
drops. Cold air descends, creating so-called cool pools within the
surface layer. The convergence of the spreading cold air and warm
air in the BL leads to formation of updrafts and of new clouds. In
some cases, including squall lines, the convergence caused by the
downdrafts supports the parent clouds at the convective front.
Convergence at low levels prevents cloud dissipation, increasing the
lifetime of the convective cloud and the entire cloud system. At low
levels, the convergence zone can move at velocity that differs from
the wind velocity. Thus, squall lines may propagate at velocity
typically different from that of the environmental wind. An example
of a squall line is presented in Figure 1.2.15. Schematic diagram of
geometrical and microphysical structure of a squall line is shown in
Figure 1.2.16. The scheme of a squall line shown in the diagram
describes the following process. A deep convective cloud (convective
region) creates strong precipitation (convective showers). The squall
line is located within the vertical wind shear. As a result of air
detrainment from cloud anvil (together with ice crystals and
aggregates), a stratiform area forms behind the convective region
(the left part of the diagram). Ice particles grow by deposition, and
their collisions lead to formation of aggregates. Sedimentation of
aggregates their melting and consequent drop in evaporation lead to
a dramatic decrease of temperature in the stratiform zone within the
BL. The divergence of the cold air in the BL supports the convective
region that may shift with time at velocity Figure 1.2.14 Convective
cells. Left: cloud streets over the southern Appalachian Mountains
(Seth Adams and Jim Foster, courtesy of authors). The streets are
formed by small Cu. Right: 3D convective cells (from Rosenfeld et
al., 2006).

14 Clouds: Definitions and Significance Figure 1.2.15 A squall line in

Western NSW in Australia, November 2015 (from
http://www.rawartists.org/djmimages; courtesy of David Metcalf). '
CONVECTIV6 • REGION —A • STRATIFORM" REGION CONVECTIVE
SHOWERS II EVAPORATION. • |l. • . . II I I HMIH ''-■illl HEAVIER
STRATIFORM RAIN -12#C RAOAR BRIGHT BAND Mean Descent
(KTscm/s) ACE Figure 1.2.16 Schematic diagram of precipitation
mechanisms for a tropical squall line. Straight solid arrows indicate
convective updrafts; wide-open arrows indicate mesoscale ascent
and subsidence in the stratiform region where vapor deposition and
evaporation occur. Curved solid arrows indicate particle trajectories.
Arrows show the wind direction relative to the moving squall line
(adapted from Houze, 1989; courtesy of © Willey and Sons Ltd.).

1.3 Investigating Clouds: The Purpose and Scope of This Book 15 Air
flows outwardly from the center, in the cooler upper levels of the
storm Cirrus shield CI®Q^©6[fl§(iii® \ \ Cb Cb The warm, humid
air rises rapidly in thunderstorm updrafts near the center ©loud
©arrets Winds ne ar the surface carry Eye warm, moist air in
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Title: Hanna
Romaani

Author: Bertha von Suttner

Translator: Hertta S.

Release date: October 4, 2023 [eBook #71801]

Most recently updated: October 30, 2023

Language: Finnish

Original publication: Helsinki: Otava, 1914

Credits: Anna Siren and Tapio Riikonen

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HANNA ***

HANNA

Romaani

Kirj.

BERTHA VON SUTTNER

Suomentanut

Hertta S.

Helsingissä, Kustannusosakeyhtiö Otava, 1914.

I.

»Oi Jumala, hyvä Jumala, mitä minä kirjoitan… mitä voin sanoa
hänelle, onnettomalle miesparalle!»

Nyyhkyttäen hän nojasi pään käsiinsä. Hänen edessään pöydällä

olevalle kirjepaperille oli kirjoitettu vapisevin käsin vain viisi sanaa:
»Kun sinä löydät tämän, ei…»

»Oh, en tiedä…» vaikeroi hän taas, »kaikki on kuin unennäköä,

olen kuin mieletön!»

Hän nousi mennen päätään pidellen huoneen toisessa

nurkkauksessa olevan seinäpeilin ääreen. Tuskaisin katsein hän
silmäili siinä näkyvää kalpeata, mutta hurmaavan kaunista kuvaa.
Kun on yksin rikoksineen, yksin kauhistuttavine salaisuuksineen,
vetää peili puoleensa. Syyllinen hakee siitä vastauksen
odottamattomiin kysymyksiin, todistajan, ainoan, joka saa tietää
kaiken. Jos vaimo on tekemäisillään syntiä, niin hänen oma
kauneutensa on tavallisesti hänen uskottu rikostoverinsa.

»Hän rakastaa sinua, hän rakastaa sinua», sanoi hän hiljaa. »Hän
odottaa sinua, hän vie sinut satumaisen onnen syliin…»
 Mutta vaikka huulet kuiskasivatkin sanan »onni», tiesi hän
kuitenkin valehtelevansa kauniille peilikuvalle. Hänestä tuntui, kuin
aavistamaton onnettomuus hiipisi hänen ympärillään. Mutta
pyörryttävä syvyys veti puoleensa; hänen jalkansa oli jo sen
reunalla, ja hänen täytyi syöksyä sinne. Päättävästi hän poistui peilin
luota kirjoituspöydän ääreen. Lattialla oli täytetty, vielä avonainen
matkalaukku. Hän oli kompastua siihen kumartuessaan sitä
sulkemaan. Sitten hän otti kirjoituspöydänlaatikosta kukkaron ja pani
sen palttoonsa taskuun. Hänestä tuntui, kuin joku muu kuin se, jonka
hän oli nähnyt peilistä, olisi toimittanut nämä koneelliset tehtävät.
Hän ei myöskään ollut se, joka kastoi kynän mustetolppoon ja lopetti
alotetun kirjeen.

Kirjoittaessaan hän tuli entiselleen; sanat pursuivat esiin hänen

sydämensä syvyyksistä:

»Kun sinä löydät tämän, ei sinulla enää ole vaimoa. Ajattele, että
hän on kuollut — hänelle ehkä olisi parempi niin. Älä sure minua,
en sitä ansaitse. Tule onnelliseksi, sinä hyvä, kylmä mies! Minua
odottavat taivaan hurmat… vai helvetinkö turmat! Sama se; en voi
vastustaa niitä. Siksi pakenen. Sinua olisi niin helppo pettää —
mutta kunniani, ylpeyteni sen estävät. Ei, suo anteeksi! Pyyhi pois
nämä sanat; minullahan ei ole enää kunniaa eikä ylpeyttä; minä
olen langennut vaimo raukka. Huuliani tosin eivät vielä synnilliset
suudelmat ole saastuttaneet, mutta eivät ne ole enää puhtaatkaan,
koska ne ovat lausuneet uskottoman myöntymyksen muukalaisen
pakoehdotukseen. Hyvästi! Ainoa lohdutukseni, ainoa
puolustukseni on, ettet minua rakasta. Rakkaimpasihan sinulle jää:
kirjasi. Näihin sanoihin ei sisälly moitetta. Kuinka uskaltaisin minä,
rikoksellinen, joka polvistuneena, pää kumarassa, viimeisen kerran
puhun sinulle, vielä yhdistää katkeria sanoja tähän katkeraan
tekoon. Usko minua, tämä viimeinen hetkeni hiljaisessa,
kunniallisessa, rauhaisessa kodissasi tuntuu minusta
kuolinhetkeltä. Äsken sulkiessani matkalaukkuni oli kuin olisin
virittänyt murha-aseen. Ja nyt kirjoitan joukon turhia asioita tälle
paperille, vaikka aikomukseni oli vain lyhyin sanoin ilmaista
poistumiseni…mutta miksi kirjoittaa enempää? Kätesi vapisee jo
rypistääkseen vihamielin tämän kirjeen, jonka halveksien heität
liekkeihin. Sinä tunnet nyt vain vihaa, oikeutettua inhoa onnetonta,
mieletöntä kohtaan, joka ei enää ole sinun omasi!

Johanna.»

Kello oli yhdeksän vaiheilla illalla Johanna Ballmannin lopettaessa

kirjettä. Huone, jossa hän oli, oli sisustettu porvarillisen
yksinkertaisesti, ja sitä valaisi kirjoituspöydällä oleva lamppu.
Takassa paloi hiipuva tuli. Vaatekaapin ovi oli auki, ja avoimet,
epäjärjestyksessä olevat laatikot osoittivat jonkun kiireisesti niissä
penkoneen. Lattialla kirjoituspöydän luona oli paperipalasia —
revittyjä kirjeitä, laskuja ynnä muuta, kuten aina matkalle
lähdettäessä.

Johannan sulkiessa epätoivoista kirjettään tuli hänen mieleensä

ajatus: »Vielä on aikaa — vielä voin hävittää tämän kirjeen ja
jäädä…» Mutta sitten hänen katseensa osui huoneessa vallitsevaan
sekasortoon. Hänen miehensä voisi millä hetkellä hyvänsä tulla
kotiin, ja miten hän selittäisi tämän epäjärjestyksen ja oman
kiihtymyksensä? Sitäpaitsi oli tämä vaatimattomasti, melkein
köyhästi sisustettu huone kuvana proosallisesta, arkipäiväisestä
tulevaisuudesta, joka oli hänen osansa täällä, kun taas tulevaisuus
siellä, minne hän aikoi paeta, kuvastui hänen mieleensä
satumaisessa komeudessa; siellä kutsuivat häntä romanttisen,
intohimoisen elämän yllätykset. Ja hän, tuo ihana mies tulisine
katseineen ja sointuisine äänineen, mies, joka oli maansa
loistavimpia, jalosukuisimpia, odotti häntä luottavana. »Ei, ei, liian
myöhäistä… minun täytyy lähteä!»

Hän sulki äkkiä kirjeen ja kirjoitti päällekirjoituksen: »Ewald

Ballmann.» Sitten hän painoi jäähyväissuudelman nimen alle. Vielä
kerran hän astui peilin luo; hänestä tuntui, kuin hänen pitäisi ottaa
jäähyväiset myöskin tältä kuvalta — siveän vaimon kuvalta, joka
viimeisen kerran katseli häntä peilistä. Sidottuaan tiheän harson
hattunsa ympäri hän otti matkalaukun ja kiiruhti nopein askelin
portaita alas.
II.

Tämän illan oli Ewald Ballmann, itävaltalaisen maaseutukaupungin

kymnaasin professori, viettänyt juhlaseurassa. Oli johtajan
kaksikymmenviisivuotisjuhla, ja Ewaldin täytyi ottaa siihen osaa.
Kotoa lähtiessään hän oli sanonut vaimolleen:

»Älä valvo minua odotellen, Hanna. En varmaankaan voi tulla

aikaisin kotiin. Olet niin kalpeakin tänään; sinun on paras mennä
aikaisin levolle. Vaivaako sinua jokin?»

»Ei, ei mikään… Pidä hauskaa!»

»Oh, tiedäthän, etten yleensä ole huvien ja seuraelämän suosija!»

»Tiedän, sen pahempi… hyvinkin.»

»Miksi sanot 'sen pahempi', rakas lapsi? Enhän estä sinua

huvittelemasta mielin määrin. Ellen seuraakaan sinua huveihin ja
kävelyille, en myöskään koskaan ole kieltänyt sinua ottamasta niihin
osaa kummisi seurassa, vaikka itse asiassa en käsitä mitä huvia
tuollaiset väsyttävät, tyhjänpäiväiset ja meluavat ihmisjoukot voivat
tarjota. Tuntuu jo pahalta, kun täytyy ottaa hännystakki, tuo
pakkoröijy ylleen. Toivoisin, että tämänpäiväinen juhla olisi ohi.
Hyvästi, Hanna!»

Ewald Ballmann oli siihen aikaan kahdenkymmenenkahdeksan

vuotias ja oli ollut kaksi vuotta naimisissa kauniin Hanna von
Orfalvyn kanssa. He eivät sopineet toisilleen. Ewald oli saksalaisen
kansakoulunopettajan poika, Hanna unkarilaisen aatelismiehen ja
amerikkalaisen tanssijattaren tytär; Ewald oli käytökseltään
yksinkertainen, ujonlainen, miltei kömpelö, umpimielinen ja
harvasanainen, — Hanna viehättävä, vilkas ja voitonvarma; Ewald
totinen, levollinen, työteliäs, Hanna liioiteltu, nautinnonhaluinen ja
työhön tottumaton. Ewaldin sielu sai tyydytystä eksaktisista tiedoista,
kuivista tutkimuksista, — Hannan mieli taas oli täynnä runoja,
romaaneja ja liioiteltuja onnen utukuvia. Tämä avioliitto oli
täydellinen erehdys. Yhteistä molemmille oli heidän nuoruutensa,
kauneutensa ja kykynsä rakastaa; molemmilla oli rikkaat
luonnonlahjat, mutta erilainen kasvatus ja erilaiset olosuhteet olivat
antaneet heidän ymmärrykselleen ja tunteilleen aivan eri suunnan,
niin etteivät heidän sielunsa koskaan voineet sulautua toisiinsa, joten
he koko tämän kaksivuotisen avioliittonsa aikana olivat alati
tunteneet jonkin heitä eroittavan.

Hanna oli kieltämättä saanut huonon kasvatuksen. Hänen isänsä,

entinen upporikas, kevytmielinen magyari, kuoli rappiolle joutuneena
pelaajana, tyttären ollessa kymmenen vuoden vanha. Hänen äitinsä,
ennen niin jumaloitu tanssijatar, joka aina oli elänyt ylellisyydessä ja
jonka nyt täytyi tulla toimeen pienellä eläkkeellä, ei voinut tyytyä
niukkoihin oloihinsa, vaan eli siinä toivossa, että tyttärensä, joka
herätti huomiota kauneudellaan, hankkisi loistavalla naimisella
takaisin entiset ihanat päivät. Näistä tulevaisuuden tuumistaan hän
puheli aina lapsensa kanssa; tuntimääriä hän saattoi Hannalle
selvitellä, miten he järjestäisivät elämänsä tultuaan jälleen rikkaiksi ja
onnellisiksi, kuten olivat olleet isän eläessä. Heidän mielissään
väikkyi huikaisevan komeita satulinnoja; he suunnittelivat pukuja,
joita Hannan oli käytettävä ulkomaisissa hoveissa
esittelytilaisuuksissa; he kuvailivat lakeijain arki- ja juhlapukuja,
erilaatuisia vaunuja, joita oli käytettävä maalla tai ajeluilla Praternilla,
aarrelippaassa olevia timanttidiademeja ja mustahelmisiä
kaulakoruja; suurenmoiset tanssiaiset, ihanat päivälliset, hurmaavat
metsästysretket, huvittavat kylpymatkat, kaikki, kaikki kuvailtiin mitä
yksityiskohtaisimmin ja niin usein, että Hanna vähitellen alkoi pitää
luonnollisena kehittymistään loistavaksi kuuluisuudeksi. Tätä tuki
vielä hänen aikaisin esiintyvä kauneutensa, joka hankki hänelle
mielistelyjä ja rakkaudentunnustuksia jo kolmentoista vuoden iässä.
Mutta äiti vartioi ankarasti tytärtään; hän ei laskenut Hannaa
koskaan silmistään ja opetti hänelle aina hyvien tapojen
noudattamista ja naisellista ylpeyttä. Minnie Orfalvyn mielestä Hanna
oli enkeli, satuprinsessa. Hänen siveyteensä ja kunniaansa ei
koskaan saanut tulla tahraa; hänen tuli saavuttaa rikkautta ja onnea,
mutta ainoastaan avioliiton portin kautta, ainoastaan
arvossapidettynä ja kunnioitettuna vallasnaisena.

Hannalla oli loistavat luonnonlahjat ja ainainen halu oppia ja lukea.

Pianonsoittajana hän oli jo kaksitoistavuotiaana pieni taiteilija ja
saavutti eräässä hyväntekeväisyyskonsertissa myrskyisää suosiota.
Tämä yllytti melkoisesti hänen turhamaisuuttaan; hän astui esiin ja
kumarsi yleisölle voitonhymy huulillaan, sulkien katseeseensa koko
salin, kuten konsanaan suosionosoituksiin tottunut primadonna.
Tästä hetkestä lähtien hän katsoi olevansa oikeutettu aina saamaan
osakseen huomiota. Hän oli tottunut siihen, että ihmiset kadulla
kääntyivät katsomaan häntä. Hänen kauneutensa olikin
hämmästyttävä. Äidiltään hän oli perinyt hienon hipiän ja paksun,
vaalean tukan, joka oli tuuhea ja kihara eikä, kuten vaalea verisillä
yleensä, pehmeä ja sileä. Tummat, tuliset silmänsä, jalon profiilin ja
komean vartalonsa hän oli perinyt isältään.

Paitsi soitannollisia lahjoja oli Hannalla erinomainen

kieltenoppimis-taipumus. Lukuunottamatta englanninkieltä, jonka
hän oppi äidiltään ja jota hän osasi yhtä varmasti kuin saksan- ja
unkarinkieltä, hän tunsi myöskin ranskankielen kaikkine
hienouksineen. Hän luki suunnattoman paljon romaaneja.
Kuusitoistavuotiaana hän oli lukenut kaikki kaupunkinsa
lainakirjastossa olevat ranskalaiset romaanit; sitäpaitsi hän kaikeksi
onneksi tutki myöskin englantilaista kaunokirjallisuutta sekä joitakin
saksalaisten kirjailijain teoksia. Hanna rakasti runoutta, runoilipa
joskus itsekin. Hänellä ei ollut tapana seurustella samanikäisten
lasten kanssa, hän ei ollut koskaan pitänyt nukeista ja hän luki
itsensä edellämainitun konsertin jälkeen aikaihmisiin. Hänestä oli
romaaneja lukiessaan hauskaa laskea, montako vuotta häneltä
puuttui, ennenkuin tuli yhdeksäntoista- tai kaksikymmenvuotiaaksi,
romaanien sankarittarien ikään.

Eräs vanha kaunosielu, eläkettä nauttiva rautatievirkailija, joka oli

Hannan äidin ystävä, tutustutti hänet kirjallisuuteen ja tieteisiin. Hän
ihmetteli alituiseen Hannan nopeata käsityskykyä, hänen hyvää
muistiansa, hänen sattuvia huomautuksiaan, ja niin tuotti
jokapäiväinen opiskelu sekä opettajalle että oppilaalle todellista
huvia. Lukusuunnitelmassa oli seuraavat aineet: historia, maantiede,
fysiikka, kansantarusto, estetiikka, saksalaiset, ranskalaiset ja
englantilaiset klassikot. Hanna opiskeli suurella ihastuksella. Se oli
hänen henkisen puolensa koristelua. Yhtä mielellään kuin hän kietoi
valkean kaulansa ympärille helminauhan tai kiinnitti vaaleihin
kiharoihinsa ruiskukkia, hän myös rikastutti henkistä elämäänsä
oppineisuuden jalokivillä, kultaisilla tiedoilla, runouden helmillä.
Hänen mieleensä ei juolahtanutkaan, että saattoi harjoittaa opintoja
niiden itsensä vuoksi, ja siksi hän ei juonut tiedonmaljaa pohjaan.
Hän ei ollut koskaan tuntenut sitä valoa, joka heijastuu tieteestä ja
jonka säteet valaisevat maailmankatsomusta. Liikaa olisikin vaatia,
että puolikasvuiset tytöt katselisivat maailmaa pitäen kokonaisuutta
silmällä. Hannan kuten niin monen muunkin maailma oli se piiri,
jossa hän itse ja hänen tulevat kohtalonsa olivat keskipisteenä. Hän
oli varma siitä, että jokin erikoinen kohtalo odotti häntä. Hän tunsi
olevansa poikkeusolento, sillä minne hän tuli, siellä ihmiset tuijottivat
häneen kuin ihmeeseen. Hanna oli herkkäluontoinen ja
lämminsydäminen. Hän ei saattanut nähdä kenenkään kärsivän ja
olisi ollut valmis mitä suurimpaan uhraukseen, tuottaakseen muille
onnea. Hän ajatteli ajoittain voivansa, vaikka olikin luotu
loisteliaaseen elämään — vaihtaa kohtalonsa »tupaan ja sydämeen»
ja kulkea köyhän, rakastetun miehen rinnalla elämänsä loppuun.
Siinähän olisi ollut jotain sankarillistakin.

Rakkaus… miten salaperäiseltä ja ihanalta tuo sana kaikuikaan

hänen korvissaan — se mahtoi olla elämän kruunu. Minkä näköinen
lieneekään se prinssi tai mökkiläinen, joka on tekevä hänet
onnelliseksi? Näin hän uneksi usein hiljaisuudessa. Äidilleen hän ei
uskaltanut sellaisista asioista puhua; äidistä kaikki rakkaushaaveilut
olivat mielettömiä.

Paitsi äitiään oli Hannalla vielä eräs suojelija ja ihailija. Se oli

hänen kumminsa, hänen isävainajansa serkku, kenraaliluutnantti von
Orfalvyn viisissäkymmenissä oleva leski. Tämä vanha rouva ei tosin
ollut rikas, mutta melkoisen varakas ja äärettömästi mieltynyt
seuraelämään. Hänen keskiviikko-iltoihinsa, »jour fixe», kuten hän
niitä mielellään nimitti, oli rakas »pieni Ihme-Hanna» jo kahdentoista
ikäisenä kerta kaikkiaan kutsuttu. Kenraalitar Orfalvyn luona ei
käynyt n.s. »seurapiirin kerma» (tämäkin oli hänen mielisanojaan),
se kun itävaltalaisissa pikkukaupungeissa on paljon sulkeutuneempi
kuin Espanjan hovissa, niin ettei ylhäisimpään aateliin kuulumaton
voi sen seuroihin päästä. Mutta paitsi tätä »kermaa» eli »haute
voléeta», jossa vain samanarvoiset seurustelevat, on tällaisessa
pikkukaupungissa toinenkin »seurapiiri», nimittäin korkeitten
sotilasviranomaisten ja virkamiesten perheet; näiden joukossa on
joitakuita »kerman» sukulaisia, joille »kerma» on kääntänyt selkänsä
epäsäätyisten avioliittojen tai köyhyyden takia. Nämä antavat
kuitenkin jonkinlaisen ylhäisyyden leiman »alakermalle.» »Oh, rakas
kreivitär Lotti, miten myöhään te tulette! Saanko esittää: majuri
Schmidt… kreivitär Thurn» (tai joku muu helisevä nimi). Tällainen
kohottaa tunnelmaa vastaanotoissa. Seurue tuntee ympärillään
kerman tuoksua.

Kenraalitar Orfalvyn huoneistoon kokoontui mainittuina

keskiviikko-iltoina klo 8:n tienoissa suuri joukko vanhoja herroja
univormuissaan ja vanhoja naisia mustissa silkkileningeissä, tyttäret
valkeissa musliinipuvuissa ja heidän ilokseen joitakuita nuoria
luutnantteja ja hännystakkiin puettuja tohtoreja. Vanhempaa
herrasväkeä varten oli varattu pelipöytiä, nuoret huvittelivat itseään
leikeillä. Klo 10 siirryttiin ruokasaliin, jossa paitsi teetä ja olutta
(jälkimäinen nuorten tohtorien takia) tarjottiin yksi lämminruoka sekä
koko joukko leikkeleitä ja leivoksia. Illallisen jälkeen oli mieliala
vilkkaampi; vanhat jatkoivat peliään, nuoret soittelivat tai tanssivat
hiukan, jos joku osasi soittaa tanssimusiikkia. Klo 1 lähdettiin pois.
Salissa alotettu lepertely ja mielistely jatkui eteisessä, ja ilta päättyi
puoli tuntia kestävään päällysvaatteiden puentaan, liinojen
solmimiseen ja ystävälliseen hyvästelyyn, joka »tuhatkertaisesi»
kiiteltyyn emäntään jätti mieltälämmittävän voitontunteen.
 Hanna oli näiden keskiviikkojen koristus. Hänen äitinsä salli hänen
kuitenkin ainoastaan kolme tai neljä kertaa talven kuluessa mennä
kummitäti Dorin iltakutsuihin, sillä rouva Minnie Orfalvy oli
mustasukkainen äiti eikä itse koskaan ottanut osaa seuraelämään.
Pikkukaupungin seurapiirin kylmäkiskoinen käytös entistä
tanssijatarta ja nykyistä köyhtynyttä aatelisnaista kohtaan sai hänet
katkeroituneena vetäytymään kokonaan syrjään ja kaipauksella
odottamaan voiton ja koston hetkeä, jolloin hänen tyttärensä joutuisi
loistavaan avioliittoon. — Tämän ei muuten ollut tarkoitus tapahtua
vihatussa pikkukaupungissa. Hänen aikomuksensa oli viedä
tyttärensä suureen maailmaan, Baden-Badeniin ja Nizzaan; siellä ei
ollut puutetta englantilaisista lordeista, venäläisistä ruhtinaista,
amerikkalaisista miljonääreistä. Tätä tarkoitusta varten hän vuosittain
säästi puolet tuloistaan, minkä summan hän laski riittävän tätä
sotaretkeä varten Hannan täyttäessä kahdeksantoista vuotta.
Sentakia hän ei mielellään antanut tyttärensä käydä noissa
vähäpätöisissä keskiviikko-illoissa, joissa voisi sattua, että köyhät
luutnantit tai poroporvarilliset tohtorit viekoittelisivat Hannan oikealta
tieltä. Mutta ei myöskään sopinut syrjäyttää kummitätiä, joka oli
kenraalitar, ja sentähden Hanna sai kunnioittaa muutamia iltoja
läsnäolollaan. Hannaa itseä ne suuresti huvittivat. Tämä maailma oli
tosin paljon alhaisempi sitä, johon hän oli tutustunut kirjoissaan ja
johon hän luuli kuuluvansa, mutta voitontunne on aina suloinen. Hän
oli aina nuorin ja kaunein siellä olevista neitosista. »Mitä — vasta
kolmen toista — neljäntoista — se ei ole mahdollista! Hänhän on
täydellinen kaunotar, niin varma käytöksessään, niin viisas!» Tämä
häntä miellytti. Hänen pianonsoittonsa (tosin vailla taiteellista
syventymistä, mutta loistokkaasti esitetty) tuotti hänelle lukemattomia
ylistelyjä. Seuraleikeissä hän osoitti nopeaa käsitystä, monipuolisia
tietojaan. Tanssissa hän oli aina ensimäinen. Illallista syötäessä kosi
häntä tavallisesti joku oluen kiihottama nuori tohtori, ja eteisessä,
missä noutamaan tullut kamarineitsyt häntä odotti, kilpailivat
luutnantit kunniasta saada auttaa palttoota hänen ylleen. Pelkkiä
hyviä takeita tulevista Nizzan voitoista.

Mutta se tuuma — kuten niin monet muut pitkiä aikoja haudotut —

ei toteutunutkaan. Hannan ollessa kuusitoistavuotias kuoli rouva
Minnie Orfalvy ankaraan keuhkokuumeeseen. Tyttären suru oli suuri,
miltei toivoton. Hän oli kaikesta sydämestään rakastanut äitiään,
josta ei ollut koskaan ollut erossa ja joka puolestaan oli elänyt
yksinomaan ainoata lastansa varten, — ja hänen sydämensä pystyi
todellakin lämpimään kiintymykseen. Hanna oli murtunut,
tulevaisuuden voittoja ja nautintoja hän ei enää ajatellut, sillä
ainoastaan äitinsä takia hän olisi tahtonut voittaa rikkautta ja
kunniaa… Miten hänellä voisi enää olla hauskaa, kun hänen rakas
äitiraukkansa oli poissa!

Dori täti otti orvon tytön luokseen. Säästyneen pääoman, joka oli
aiottu suurta matkaa varten, hän otti huostaansa; se oli käytettävä
Hannan myötäjäisiksi, sillä hän toivoi voivansa pian naittaa hänet.
Kummitäti ei ollut koskaan saanut kuulla heidän korkealentoisista
tuumistaan, eikä Hanna niistä mitään puhunut; hän eli vain
surussaan.

Vuoden kuluttua muuttui alkuaan katkera suru hiljaiseksi

haikeudeksi. Nuoruus vaati osansa, ja Hannan katse suuntautui
jälleen, vaikka synkkämielisesti, niin kuitenkin toivorikkaasti
tulevaisuuteen eikä viipynyt yksinomaan menneissä murheissa.

Näihin aikoihin — oltiin kesäkuussa — Dori täti muutti maalle.

Joka vuosi hän vuokrasi läheisestä luonnonihanalla paikalla
sijaitsevasta kylästä pienen, sievän huvilan, jota ympäröi suuri
hedelmäpuutarha. Huvilan vieressä oli talonpoikaistalo, josta levisi
voimakas navetanhaju. Siellä oli liikettä aikaisesta aamusta alkaen;
sieltä kuului iloista puhelua, kukon kiekumista ja koiran haukuntaa.
Tämä maalaisympäristö oli vallan uutta Hannalle. Täällä hän heräsi
kuin uuteen eloon. Metsien tuoksu virkisti hänen mieltänsä, ja sydän
alkoi sykkiä oudosta rakkaudenkaipuusta. Miten tyhjältä tuntuikaan
salonkien, teatterien ja ajoneuvojen komeus tällaisen ihanuuden
rinnalla! Mitä merkitystä oli pompadourin-tyylisellä kammiolla, kun sai
täällä istua puupenkillä putoilevien kirsikankukkien alla — mitä
merkitystä konserttimusiikilla, kun puron lorina, lehtien suhina,
lintujen lemmensävelet, raikas kesätuulahdus sai mielen väräjämään
luonnonmusiikkia? Kaiken tulevan loiston hän tahtoi ilomielin uhrata?
— niin hänestä nyt tuntui — saadakseen tällaisessa ympäristössä
elää rakastetun miehen kanssa, joka olisi onnellinen hänen
rinnallaan. Hän ei ajatellut, että tuleva loisto oli oikeastaan vain
saippuakupla, jota tuskin saattoi tarjota uhriksi. Hänestä tuntui
tekonsa aina kuninkaalliselta alentuvaisuudelta, milloin hän
ajatuksissaan suostui tyytymään yksinkertaiseen elämään.
III.

Näihin aikoihin Ewald Ballmann vietti kuusiviikkoisen lomansa

samassa kylässä. Hän oli niin rasittunut liiallisesta työstä, että lääkäri
voimien palauttamiseksi määräsi hänet maalle lepäämään. Nuoren
professorin tulot eivät riittäneet kylpymatkaan tai vuoristossa
oleskeluun, ja siksi hän vuokrasi pienen huoneen lähimmästä
kylästä, jatkaen siellä kaikessa hiljaisuudessa kasvitieteellisiä
tutkimuksiaan. Hän ei ollut maailmanmies eikä mikään romanttinen
haaveilija, häntä eivät juorut ja maalaiset rakkausseikkailut
viehättäneet, ja kuitenkin tuli hänestä Hannan romaanin sankari.

Tähän saakka Ewald ei koskaan ollut uskaltanut liittyä

naisseuraan. Hänen sydämensä oli yhtä neitseellisen puhdas kuin
naapurinsakin, ehkä puhtaampikin, sillä hän ei koskaan ollut
antautunut rakkaushaaveiluun. Sitä valtavammin vaikutti Hannan
kauneus häneen. Tuskin kahta viikkoa sen jälkeen, kun hän ensi
kerran näki tytön, hän kirjoitti jo kenraalittarelle kirjeen pyytäen neiti
Orfalvya omakseen. Hän oli saanut kuulla valittunsa olevan köyhän,
orvon tytön, joka ei kuulunut korkeimpaan seurapiiriin, ja siksi hänen
mieleensä ei juolahtanutkaan, ettei hänen naimatarjouksensa —
hyvinvoivan professorin, jolla oli edellytykset kerran päästä yliopiston
rehtoriksi, — tyydyttäisi molempia naisia.
 Hanna oli puolestaan jo aikoja sitten huomannut professorin ja
hänen ihailevat katseensa. Hannakin haaveili hänestä. Kalpea,
kasveja keräävä oppinut — mikä mieltäkiinnittävä olento! Sitäpaitsi
tämä mies riutui toivottomassa rakkaudessaan häneen… sen Hanna
tiesi varsin hyvin. Professori hiipi tuntikausia heidän asuntonsa
ympärillä saadakseen nähdä hänet ja lensi tulipunaiseksi
huomatessaan hänen tulevan.

»Mutta miksi hänen rakkautensa pitäisi olla toivoton?» ajatteli

Hanna jalomielisenä. »Jos rakastaisin, rakastaisin elinikäni.» (Hän
luulotteli joka ihmistä varten olevan olemassa määrätyn rakkauden,
joka yksin saattoi olla totinen ja ikuinen.) »Jos minä rakastaisin
häntä, miten antautuisinkaan sydämeni valitulle, olipa hänellä sitten
miten vaatimaton yhteiskunnallinen asema tahansa!…
Rakastankohan minä häntä?… Miksi sydämeni tykyttää niin kovasti,
nähdessäni hänet kaukaa?… Miksi hänen kuvansa seuraa minua
iltaisin unien maailmaan? Miksi se aamuisin väikkyy edessäni? Onko
se rakkautta?… Rakastanko todellakin?… Onko tämä kohtaloni?…»

Tällaisiin ajatuksiin vaipuneena Hanna istui eräänä aamuna

lempipaikallaan kirsikkapuun juurella. Kummitädin ääni herätti hänet
äkkiä.

»Hanna, tule huoneeseeni; tahdon puhua kanssasi.»

Hanna kiiruhti kenraalittaren jäljessä sisään. Hän astui matalaan,

kodikkaaseen tupaan, joka oli kenraalittaren asuinhuoneena.
Valkeita seiniä vasten erottuivat kaupungista tuodut huonekalut,
kirjavat uutimet, komea ompelupöytä ja messinkinen papukaijan
häkki.

»Tässä olen, Dori täti. Mistä tahdot puhua kanssani?»