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S E c o n d E d i t i o n
EnErgy EfficiEncy
and rEnEwablE EnErgy
Handbook
EnErgy EfficiEncy
and rEnEwablE EnErgy
hanDbook
E ditEd by
D . Y o g i g o s wa m i
Frank kreith
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Preface...............................................................................................................................................xi
Acknowledgments.........................................................................................................................xv
Editors........................................................................................................................................... xvii
Contributors.................................................................................................................................. xix
vii
© 2016 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
viii Contents
18. Outlook for U.S. Energy Consumption and Prices, 2011–2040.................................. 375
Andy S. Kydes, Mark J. Eshbaugh, and John J. Conti
Purpose
The goal of this handbook is to provide information necessary for engineers, energy pro-
fessionals, and policy makers to plan a secure energy future. The time horizon of the
handbook is limited to approximately 20 years because environmental conditions vary,
new technologies emerge, and priorities of society continuously change. It is therefore not
possible to make reliable projections beyond that period. Given this time horizon, the book
deals only with technologies that are currently available or that are expected to be ready
for implementation in the near future.
Energy is a mainstay of an industrial society. As the population of the world increases
and people strive for a higher standard of living, the amount of energy necessary to sus-
tain our society is ever increasing. At the same time, the availability of nonrenewable
sources, particularly liquid fuels, is rapidly shrinking. Therefore, there is general agree-
ment that to avoid an energy crisis, the amount of energy needed to sustain society will
have to be contained and, to the extent possible, renewable sources will have to be used. As
a consequence, conservation and renewable energy (RE) technologies are going to increase
in importance and reliable, up-to-date information about their availability, efficiency, and
cost is necessary for planning a secure energy future.
The timing of this handbook also coincides with a new impetus for the use of RE. This
impetus comes from RE policies in Europe, Japan, China, India, and Brazil and the emer-
gence of renewable portfolio standards (RPS) in many states of the United States. Germany
introduced electricity feed-in laws that value electricity produced from RE resources much
higher than that from conventional resources, which have created demand for photovol-
taic and wind power. Following the success of Germany, other European countries intro-
duced feed-in laws, which accelerated the deployment of RE in Europe. Other countries,
such as China and India, have adopted modified versions of feed-in laws, whereby RE
power companies bid discounts to the feed-in tariffs determined by the governments. RPS
policies adopted by many states in United State require that a certain percentage of energy
used be derived from renewable resources. RPSs and other incentives for RE are currently
in place in 34 of the 50 states of the United States and the District of Columbia (DC) and
Puerto Rico. The details of the RPS for RE and conservation instituted by state govern-
ments vary, but all of them essentially offer an opportunity for the industry to compete
for the new markets. Thus, to be successful, renewable technologies will have to become
more efficient, reliable, and cost-effective. RPSs have already demonstrated that they can
reduce market barriers and stimulate the development of RE. The use of conservation and
RE can help meet critical national goals for fuel diversity, price stability, economic devel-
opment, environmental protection, and energy security and thereby play a vital role in
national energy policy. The expected growth rate of RE from portfolio standards and other
stimulants in the United States is impressive. As a result of various policy initiatives in
the world, the global growth in solar photovoltaics (PV) production has averaged over 43%
per year from 2000 to 2012 and 61% from 2007 to 2012, with Europe showing the maximum
growth. The average annual growth in worldwide wind energy capacity from 2001 to 2012
was over 25%. The average annual growth in the United States over the same period was
xi
© 2016 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
xii Preface
37.7%. More recently, China has increased its capacity faster than any other country. China
accounted for more than a quarter of the global wind capacity in 2012. With appropriate
regulations and careful planning, the technical information in this handbook will ensure
an orderly and peaceful transition to a sustainable energy future.
The first chapter is a survey of current and future worldwide energy issues. A discus-
sion of sound finance policies and stimulants for energy efficiency and RE is treated in
Chapter 2. State and federal policies for RE in the United States are described in Chapter 3.
Chapters 4 through 11 give an assessment of policies in Europe, China, India, Brazil, Israel,
Australia, and Japan. Economic assessment methods for conservation and generation tech-
nologies are covered in Chapter 12, and the environmental costs of various energy genera-
tion technologies are discussed in Chapter 13. The use of renewables and conservation
will initiate a paradigm shift toward distributed generation and demand-side manage-
ment procedures, which are covered in Chapter 14 and 15. Although renewables, once
in place, produce energy from natural resources and cause very little environmental
d
amage, energy is required in their initial construction. One measure of the energy effec-
tiveness of a renewable technology is the length of time required, after the system begins
operation, to repay the energy used in its construction, called the energy payback period.
Another measure is the energy return on energy investment ratio. The larger the amount
of energy a renewable technology delivers during its lifetime compared to the amount
of energy necessary for its construction, the more favorable its economic return on the
investment will be and the less its adverse environmental impact. But during the transi-
tion to renewable sources, a robust energy production and transmission system from fossil
and nuclear technologies is required to build the systems. Moreover, because there is a
limit to how much of our total energy needs can be met economically in the near future,
renewables will have to coexist with fossil and nuclear fuels for some time. Furthermore,
the supply of all fossil and nuclear fuel sources is finite, and their efficient use in meeting
our energy needs should be a part of an energy and CO2 reduction strategy. Therefore,
Chapters 16 and 17 give a perspective on the efficiencies, economics, and environmental
costs of the key fossil and nuclear technologies. Finally, Chapter 18 provides projections
for energy supply, demand, and prices of energy in the United States through the year
2040. Petroleum engineers predict that worldwide oil production will reach its peak within
the next 10 years and then begin to decline. At the same time, demand for liquid fuel
by an ever-increasing number of vehicles, particularly in China and India, is expected to
increase significantly. As a result, gasoline prices will increase precipitously unless we
reduce gasoline consumption by increasing the mileage of the vehicle fleet, reducing the
number of vehicles on the road by using mass transport, and producing synthetic fuels
from biomass and coal. The options to prevent an energy crisis in transportation include
plug-in hybrid vehicles, biofuels, diesel engines, city planning, and mass-transport sys-
tems. These are treated in Chapter 19; biofuels and fuel cells are treated in Chapters 50
and 53, respectively. It is an unfortunate fact of life that the security of the energy sup-
ply and transmission system has recently been placed in jeopardy from various sources,
including natural disasters and worldwide terrorism. Consequently, energy infrastructure
security and risk analysis are an important aspect of planning future energy transmis-
sion and storage systems, and these topics are covered in Chapter 20. Energy efficiency is
defined as the ratio of energy required to perform a specific task or service to the amount
of energy used for the process. Improving energy efficiency increases the productivity of
basic energy resources by providing the needs of society with less energy. Improving the
efficiency across all sectors of the economy is therefore an important objective. The least
expensive and most efficient means in this endeavor is energy conservation, rather than
more energy production. Moreover, energy conservation is also the best way to protect the
environment and reduce global warming.
Recognizing that energy conservation in its various forms is the cornerstone of successful
national energy strategy, 11 chapters (22 through 32) are devoted to conservation. The topics
covered include energy management strategies for industry and buildings, HVAC controls,
co-generation, and advances in specific technologies, such as motors, lighting, appliances,
and heat pumps. An important aspect of energy efficiency is efficient electric grid manage-
ment, which includes energy storage, advanced concepts in transmission and distribution,
and smart grid technology. These topics are covered in detail in Chapters 33 through 35.
The third section of the book deals with energy storage and energy generation from
renewable sources. Chapters 36 through 39 present the availability of renewable sources:
solar, wind, municipal waste, and biomass. The renewable generation technologies for
solar thermal, wind power, PV, biomass, and geothermal are then covered in Chapters 40
through 53.
At this time, it is not clear whether hydrogen will play a major role in the national energy
structure within the next 25 years, but there is an ongoing discussion about the feasibility
and cost of what is called the hydrogen economy. Energy experts recognize that the gener-
ation and use of hydrogen has a critical inefficiency problem that is rooted in basic thermo-
dynamics. There are also ground transportation options that are less expensive than using
hydrogen vehicles powered by fuel cells. But there is substantial support for continuing
research to eventually develop a viable place for hydrogen in a future energy structure.
Therefore, the topics of hydrogen energy and fuel cells are included in Chapters 52 and 53,
respectively. This information should be useful background for comparing competing
options for energy generation, storage, and distribution.
We hope that this handbook will serve as a useful reference to all engineers in the energy
field and pave the way for a paradigm shift from fossil fuels to a sustainable energy sys-
tems based on conservation and renewable technologies. But we also recognize the com-
plexity of this task, and we invite readers to comment on the scope and the topics covered.
A handbook such as this needs to be updated every 5–10 years, and we will respond to
readers’ comments and suggestions in the next edition.
D. Yogi Goswami
Frank Kreith
Editors-in-chief
At the time CRC suggested that the Handbook of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy
deserved a second edition, I was approaching my 90th birthday. I was reluctant at this
point in my life to undertake such a large and demanding assignment, but my long-time
associate and co-editor, Yogi Goswami, and Bev Weiler, my long-term assistant, offered to
help me in the endeavor. The new edition owes its existence to the invaluable contributions
that these two have made in contacting previous authors and helping to find new qualified
experts whenever necessary. I would also like to thank my wife Marion for having helped
me in many tangible and intangible ways to continue an active professional life in my
seventh decade as an engineering author.
Frank Kreith
xv
© 2016 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
© 2016 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
Editors
He has also received more than 50 other awards and certificates from major engineering
and scientific societies for his work in renewable energy.
xvii
© 2016 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
xviii Editors
xix
© 2016 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
xx Contributors
Steve F. Greenberg
Kenneth D. Kok
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
S&K Consulting
University of California, Berkeley
Richland, Washington
Berkeley, California
Moncef Krarti
Leonard M. Grillo Civil, Environmental and Architectural
Grillo Engineering Co. Engineering Department
Hollis, New Hampshire University of Colorado
Boulder, Colorado
Gershon Grossman (Emeritus)
Department of Mechanical Engineering Jan F. Kreider
Israel Institute of Technology K&A, LLC
Haifa, Israel Boulder, Colorado
Kirtan K. Trivedi
Exxon Mobil Research and Engineering Mark M. Wright
Company Department of Mechanical Engineering
Fairfax, Virginia Iowa State University
Ames, Iowa
W. Dan Turner
Building Energy Efficiency (Bee) Yue (Ada) Wu
Austin, Texas U.S.–China Energy Cooperation Program
Amcham, People’s Republic of China
Hari M. Upadhyaya
Department of Mechanical, Aerospace, and
Ming Yi
Civil Engineering
Beijing, People’s Republic of China
Brunel University
London, United Kingdom
Eduardo Zarza
Alex J. Valenti Plataforma Solar de Almería
Energy Efficiency Standards Group Centro de Investigaciones Energéticas,
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory Medioambientales y Tecnológicas
Berkeley, California Madrid, Spain
Contents
1.1 Global Energy Needs and Resources................................................................................... 4
1.2 Major Sectors of Primary Energy Use.................................................................................7
1.3 Electricity-Generating Capacity Additions to 2040........................................................... 8
1.4 Transportation.........................................................................................................................8
1.5 World Energy Resources...................................................................................................... 10
1.5.1 Conventional Oil....................................................................................................... 11
1.5.2 Natural Gas................................................................................................................ 12
1.5.3 Coal............................................................................................................................. 12
1.5.4 Summary of Fossil Fuel Reserves........................................................................... 13
1.5.5 Nuclear Resources.................................................................................................... 13
1.6 Present Status and Potential of Renewable Energy......................................................... 15
1.6.1 Wind Power............................................................................................................... 17
1.6.2 Solar Energy.............................................................................................................. 18
1.6.3 Biomass....................................................................................................................... 21
1.6.4 Summary of Renewable Energy Resources.......................................................... 23
1.7 Role of Energy Conservation.............................................................................................. 24
1.8 Forecast of Future Energy Mix........................................................................................... 29
References........................................................................................................................................ 31
A thing that will assume enormous importance quite soon is the exhaustion of our fuel
resources. Coal and oil have been accumulating in the earth over five hundred million
years, and at the present rates of demand for mechanical power, the estimates are that
oil will be all gone in about a century, and coal probably in a good deal less than five
hundred years. For the present purpose, it does not matter if these are under-estimates;
they could be doubled or trebled and still not affect the argument. Mechanical power
comes from our reserves of energy, and we are squandering our energy capital quite
recklessly. It will very soon be all gone, and in the long run we shall have to live from
year to year on our earnings.*
* Quote from The Next Millenium, 1953, by Charles Galton Darwin, the grandson of Charles Darwin, author of
On the Origin of Species.
3
© 2016 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
4 Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Handbook
4500
4000
3500
3000 Coal
Oil
2500
Gas
2000 Nuclear
Renewable energy
1500
1000
500
0
1971 2002 2008 2011
Figure 1.1
World primary energy demand (MTOE). (Data from IEA, World Energy Outlook, 2004; IEA, World Energy Outlook
2010, International Energy Agency, Paris, France, 2010; IEA, World Energy Outlook 2013, International Energy
Agency, Paris, France, 2013.)
* The energy data for this chapter came from many sources, which use different units of energy, making it
difficult to compare the numbers. The conversion factors are given here for a quick reference.
MTOE = Mega tons of oil equivalent; 1 MTOE = 4.1868 × 104 TJ (Terra Joules) = 3.968 × 1013 Btu.
GTOE = Giga tons of oil equivalent; 1 GTOW = 1000 MTOE.
Quadrillion Btu, also known as Quad: 1015 British Thermal Units or Btu; 1 Btu = 1055 J.
1 TWh = 109 kilowatt hours (kWh), 1 kWh = 3.6 × 106 J.
Il n’y a pas de mystère qui nous soit extérieur. Tout est en nous,
et quand une lumière s’allume, c’est d’une façon brusque. Peut-être
l’huile de la lampe a-t-elle été versée depuis longtemps, la mèche
mouchée à notre insu mais la clarté est soudaine.
Mon cousin, le sot de Goa était de passage à Singapour.
Il n’était pas aussi sot que je l’avais cru. Il ne s’occupait que
d’écailles, dont il faisait le commerce. Il n’aimait parler que d’écailles,
toucher que des écailles, il les comparait, les évaluait, les achetait
avec amour. Mais c’est une solution convenable à la vie que de se
spécialiser dans l’étude d’une forme de la matière et d’en chérir les
variétés infinies.
Il était mon hôte, et ce fut pour l’obliger, pour lui tenir compagnie,
connaître la difficulté qu’il avait à se procurer des écailles jaspées et
des écailles de l’Ile de la Réunion que je le suivis, ce soir-là, à
travers le quartier pourri du vieux port, sur la bosse du chameau,
dans la fumerie où l’on pénètre en passant sous la porte du Tigre.
Inès avait souri d’un étrange sourire chargé d’une satisfaction
contenue, quand nous avions exprimé notre intention de sortir sans
elle.
— Je sortirai sans doute aussi, avait-elle dit, et je rentrerai peut-
être tard.
Le Chinois saluait, l’escalier était gluant comme lorsque j’avais
pénétré là pour la première fois, l’air était opaque et étouffant, les
mêmes formes étaient étendues auprès des petites lampes, rien
n’était changé dans la fumerie. Je remarquai pourtant dans
l’obséquiosité du Chinois en nous indiquant une natte près de la
fenêtre, un je ne sais quoi de haineux et de terrifié, une manière
d’éviter de frôler mes vêtements, qu’il n’avait pas eue lors de ma
première visite.
Notre entrée avait suscité des chuchotements, et lorsque nous
nous fûmes installés à droite et à gauche de la lampe, nos voisins
immédiats, des Malais ou des Hindous, que sais-je ? se levèrent
silencieusement et allèrent s’étendre un peu plus loin, dans la fumée
à travers laquelle nous distinguions des éclairs de regards hostiles.
Mon cousin me le fit remarquer avec une certaine crainte et me
demanda s’il n’était pas plus opportun de repartir. Mais je souris en
lui montrant ma cravache que j’avais posée à côté de moi.
D’ailleurs, il avait commencé la description de certaines
incrustations que des artistes de Delhi font sur des écailles
parfaitement blanches dont on fabrique des boîtes de grand prix. Il
brûlait de continuer. Il continua en faisant griller avec agilité l’opium
sur la lampe, en fumant et en me faisant fumer.
Et ce fut dans cette nuit, au milieu des évocations de boîtes
blanches garnies d’émaux de Delhi, d’éventails dont les tissus
viennent de Perse, de peignes dont le travail a d’incomparables
spécialistes à Benarès que s’alluma parmi les petites lampes qui
jonchaient le sol, parmi les nattes et les coussins de cuir dur, une
lampe que mon cousin ne vit pas, qu’ignorèrent les misérables
hommes de la fumerie, une lampe invisible, une éclatante lampe
intérieure.