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Valeri M. Mladenov
Plamen Ch. Ivanov (Eds.)

Communications in Computer and Information Science 438

Nonlinear Dynamics
of Electronic Systems
22nd International Conference, NDES 2014
Albena, Bulgaria, July 4–6, 2014
Proceedings

123
Communications
in Computer and Information Science 438

Editorial Board
Simone Diniz Junqueira Barbosa
Pontifical Catholic University of Rio de Janeiro (PUC-Rio),
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Phoebe Chen
La Trobe University, Melbourne, Australia
Alfredo Cuzzocrea
ICAR-CNR and University of Calabria, Italy
Xiaoyong Du
Renmin University of China, Beijing, China
Joaquim Filipe
Polytechnic Institute of Setúbal, Portugal
Orhun Kara
TÜBİTAK BİLGEM and Middle East Technical University, Turkey
Igor Kotenko
St. Petersburg Institute for Informatics and Automation
of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Russia
Krishna M. Sivalingam
Indian Institute of Technology Madras, India
Dominik Śle˛zak
University of Warsaw and Infobright, Poland
Takashi Washio
Osaka University, Japan
Xiaokang Yang
Shanghai Jiao Tong University, China
Valeri M. Mladenov Plamen Ch. Ivanov (Eds.)

Nonlinear Dynamics
of Electronic Systems
22nd International Conference, NDES 2014
Albena, Bulgaria, July 4-6, 2014
Proceedings

13
Volume Editors
Valeri M. Mladenov
Technical University Sofia
Faculty of Automation
Department of Theory of Electrical Engineering
Kliment Ohridski Blvd. 8
Sofia, 1000, Bulgaria
E-mail: valerim@tu-sofia.bg
Plamen Ch. Ivanov
Boston University
Physics Department
590 Commonwealth Avenue
Boston, MA 02215, USA
E-mail: plamen@buphy.bu.edu

ISSN 1865-0929 e-ISSN 1865-0937

ISBN 978-3-319-08671-2 e-ISBN 978-3-319-08672-9
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-08672-9
Springer Cham Heidelberg New York Dordrecht London

Library of Congress Control Number: 2014942072

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 Preface

These proceedings comprise papers presented during the International Confer-

ence on Nonlinear Dynamics of Electronic Systems (NDES) 2014. The unique
feature of the conference is to bring together theoretical aspects of nonlinear
science in electrical engineering, physics, and mathematics, as well as related
applications. Nonlinear oscillations, synchronization, chaotic behavior, neural
networks, and complex systems together with power electronics, biomedical sys-
tems and neurocomputing, networks of infrastructure and social interactions are
a few topical examples of the need for expertise in the wide field of nonlinear
science.
The NDES conference series was founded in 1993, and through the years has
been established as one of the most prominent series of conferences in the field of
nonlinear science and its applications. NDES conferences took places in Dresden
(1993), Krakow (1994), Dublin (1995), Seville (1996), Moscow (1997), Budapest
(1998), Rønne (1999), Catania (2000), Delft (2001), Izmir (2002), Scuol (2003),
Vora (2004), Potsdam (2005), Dijon (2006), Tokushima (2007), Nizhniy Nov-
gorod (2008), Rapperswil (2009), Dresden (2010), Kolkata (2011), Wolfenbüttel
(2012) and Bari (2013). The organizer of this 22nd issue of NDES was the Techni-
cal University of Sofia, Bulgaria. The conference was held during July 4–6, 2014,
in Albena, one of the preeminent resorts in Europe located on the Bulgarian
Black Sea coast.
During NDES 2014 seven plenary talks were given by some of the most fa-
mous researchers in the world of nonlinear science: Vadim Anishchenko from
Saratov State University, Russia; Alain Arneodo from Ecole Normale Superi-
ore, Lyon, France; Shlomo Havlin from Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan, Israel;
Juergen Kurths from Humboldt-Universität Berlin, Germany; Ruedi Stoop from
the University and ETH of Zürich, Switzerland; Wolfgang Mathis from Institut
für Theoretische Elektrotechnik, Hannover, Germany; and Ronald Tetzlaff from
Technische Universität Dresden, Germany.
In total 65 manuscripts were submitted to NDES 2014. All manuscripts
passed a multistep review process before the final decisions. After a thorough
peer-review process, the program co-chairs selected 47 papers. The quality of
all manuscripts received was high, and it was not possible to include all good
papers in the final conference program. The selected papers were divided by sub-
ject into the following main topics: nonlinear oscillators, circuits and electronic
systems; networks and nonlinear dynamics; and nonlinear phenomena in biologi-
cal and physiological systems. In parallel to NDES 2014, a satellite workshop on
“Electro-physiological Signals in Living Beings: Data and Methods of Nonlinear
Analysis” was organized by Prof. Plamen Ch. Ivanov from Boston University,
Harvard Medical School, and Bulgarian Academy of Sciences and by Prof. Anto-
nio Scala from the London Institute for Mathematical Sciences and Institute for
VI Preface

Complex Systems at CNR, Italy. The workshop was partially supported by the
FET Open EU project PLEASED (Plants Employed as Sensing Devices). Eight
lectures, not included in these proceedings, were presented at the workshop.
We thank all NDES 2014 participants for their contributions to the confer-
ence program and to these proceedings. Many thanks also go to the Bulgarian
organizers for their support and hospitality. We also express our sincere thanks
to all reviewers for their help during the manuscript review procedure and for
their valuable comments and recommendations to ensure the high quality of the
contributions in this proceedings volume.

April 2014 Valeri M. Mladenov

Plamen Ch. Ivanov
 Organization

Program Committee Chairs

Valeri M. Mladenov
Plamen Ch. Ivanov

International Program Committee

Alain Arneodo Martin Hasler

Alexandar Pisarchik Ned Corron
Alexander Dmitriev Nikos Mastorakis
Bert Kappen Oreste Piro
Boris Bezruchko Plamen Ch. Ivanov
Celso Grebogi Ronald Tetzlaff
Daniele Marinazzo Ruedi Stoop
Erik Lindberg Sebastano Stramaglia
Giuliano Scarcelli Shlomo Havlin
Hans Hermann Syamal K. Dana
Ivan Angelov Thomas Ott
Jesus M. Cortes Toshimichi Saito
Josè R. Croca Vadim Anishchenko
Jürgen Kurths Valeri Mladenov
Kyandoghere Kyamakya Vladimir Nekorkin
Kristina Kelber Wolfgang Mathis
Leon Chua Wolfgang Schwarz
Maciej Ogorzalek Yoshifumi Nishio
Marcelo O. Magnasco

Local Organizing Committee

Georgi Tsenov
Agata Manolova
 Table of Contents

Poincaré Recurrences Near the Critical Point of Feigenbaum Attractor

Birth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Yaroslav Boev, Galina Strelkova, and Vadim Anishchenko
Quasi-periodic Oscillations in the System of Three Chaotic
Oscillators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Alexander P. Kuznetsov, Yuliya V. Sedova, and Ludmila V. Turukina
Taming Chaos by Using Induced External Signals: Experimental
Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Arturo Buscarino, Carlo Famoso, Luigi Fortuna, and Mattia Frasca
A Study on Performance Improvement of Natural Synchronization
Scheme Base on Noise-Induced Synchronization Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Hiroyuki Yasuda and Mikio Hasegawa
Experiments on an Ensemble of Globally and Nonlinearly Coupled
Oscillators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Amirkhan A. Temirbayev, Zeunulla Zh. Zhanabaev,
Yerkebulan Nalibayev, Aisha Zh. Naurzbayeva, and
Akmaral K. Imanbayeva
A Stability Analysis Method for Period-1 Solution in Two-Mass Impact
Oscillator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Hiroki Amano, Hiroyuki Asahara, and Takuji Kousaka
Manifold Piecewise Linear Chaotic System on Cylinder and Super
Expanding Chaos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Shotaro Suzuki, Kazuyuki Kimura, Tadashi Tsubone, and
Toshimichi Saito
Spectrum Sensor Based on a Self-Organizing Feature Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Artūras Serackis and Liudas Stašionis
A Collision PSO for Search of Periodic Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Kazuki Maruyama and Toshimichi Saito
Minimum Description Length Principle for Fat-Tailed Distributions . . . . 68
Bono Nonchev
Historical Remarks on Andronov-Witt’s Jump Postulate and Its
Generalization to Nonlinear Reciprocal Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Wolfgang Mathis, Tina Thiessen, and Michael Popp
X Table of Contents

Note on Lossless Transmission Lines Terminated by Triode Generator

Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Vasil Angelov

Using the Transfer Entropy to Build Secure Communication Systems . . . 92

Fabiano Alan Serafim Ferrari, Ricardo Luiz Viana, and
Sandro Ely de Souza Pinto

A PROMETHEE – Based Approach for Multiple Objective Voltage

Regulator Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Galia Marinova and Vassil Guliashki

A Design Procedure for Stable High Order, High Performance

Sigma-Delta Modulator Loopfilters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Georgi Tsenov and Valeri Mladenov

Application of Generalized Instantaneous Reactive/Non-active Power

Theories in the Control of Shunt Active Power Line Conditioners:
Practical Evaluation under Nonideal Voltage and Unbalanced Load . . . . . 125
Mihaela Popescu, Cristina Alexandra Pătraşcu, and
Mircea Dobriceanu

Maximizing Power Transfer in Induction Heating System with Voltage

Source Inverter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Alexandru Bitoleanu, Mihaela Popescu, and Vlad Suru

General Solutions of Nonlinear Equations for the Buck Converter . . . . . . 142

Yuri Tanovitski, Gennady Kobzev, and Danil Savin

Transient Response Analysis of Shunt Active Power Compensators

under Asymmetric Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Constantin-Vlad Suru, Cristina Alexandra Patrascu, and
Mihaita Linca

Unfolding the Threshold Switching Behavior of a Memristor . . . . . . . . . . . 156

Stefan Slesazeck, Alon Ascoli, Hannes Mähne, Ronald Tetzlaff, and
Thomas Mikolajick

Spatiotemporal Dynamics of High-Intensity Ultrashort Laser Pulses in

Strongly Nonlinear Regime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Maria Todorova, Todor Todorov, Michail Todorov, and
Ivan Koprinkov

Laser Synapse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173

Alexander N. Pisarchik, Ricardo Sevilla-Escoboza,
Rider Jaimes-Reátegui, Guillermo Huerta-Cuellar, and
Victor B. Kazantsev
 Table of Contents XI

EM Algorithm for Estimation of the Offspring Probabilities in Some

Branching Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Nina Daskalova
An Introduction to Interdependent Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Michael M. Danziger, Amir Bashan, Yehiel Berezin,
Louis M. Shekhtman, and Shlomo Havlin
Experimental Dynamics Observed in a Configurable Complex Network
of Chaotic Oscillators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Carlo Petrarca, Soudeh Yaghouti, and Massimiliano de Magistris
Basin Stability in Complex Oscillator Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Peng Ji and Jürgen Kurths
Amplitude Death in Oscillators Network with a Fast Time-Varying
Network Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Yohiski Sugitani, Keiji Konishi, and Naoyuki Hara
A Novel Concept Combining Neuro-computing and Cellular Neural
Networks for Shortest Path Detection in Complex and Reconfigurable
Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Jean Chamberlain Chedjou and Kyandoghere Kyamakya
Cellular Neural Networks Proposed for Image Predictive Coding . . . . . . . 237
Tang Tang and Ronald Tetzlaff
Phase Dynamics on Small Hexagonal Lattices with Repulsive
Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
Petar Tomov and Michael Zaks
Novel Forecasting Techniques Using Big Data, Network Science and
Economics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
Irena Vodenska, Andreas Joseph, Eugene Stanley, and
Guanrong Chen
Complex Networks of Harmonic Structure in Classical Music . . . . . . . . . . 262
Florian Gomez, Tom Lorimer, and Ruedi Stoop
Coexisting Forms of Coupling and Phase-Transitions in Physiological
Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
Ronny P. Bartsch and Plamen Ch. Ivanov
A Wavelet-Based Method for Multifractal Analysis of Medical Signals:
Application to Dynamic Infrared Thermograms of Breast Cancer . . . . . . . 288
Evgeniya Gerasimova, Benjamin Audit, Stephane-G. Roux,
André Khalil, Olga Gileva, Françoise Argoul, Oleg Naimark, and
Alain Arneodo
XII Table of Contents

Information Flow in Ising Models on Brain Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301

Sebastiano Stramaglia, Jesus M. Cortes, Leonardo Angelini,
Mario Pellicoro, and Daniele Marinazzo
Deviation from Criticality in Functional Biological Networks . . . . . . . . . . 309
Tom Lorimer, Florian Gomez, and Ruedi Stoop
Cardiodynamic Complexity: Electrocardiographic Characterization of
Arrhythmic Foci . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
Oriol Pont and Binbin Xu
Stochastic Modeling of Excitable Dynamics: Improved Langevin Model
for Mesoscopic Channel Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
Igor Goychuk
Typical Dynamics of Bifurcating Neurons with Double Base Signal
Inputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
Yusaku Yanase, Shota Kirikawa, and Toshimichi Saito
On the Mechanisms for Formation of Segmented Waves in Active
Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
Andrey Polezhaev and Maria Borina
Single Optical Fiber Probe Spectroscopy for Detection of Dysplastic
Tissues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
Murat Canpolat, Tuba Denkçeken, Ayşe Akman-Karakaş,
Erkan Alpsoy, Recai Tuncer, Mahmut Akyüz,
Mehmet Baykara, Selçuk Yücel, Ibrahim Başsorgun,
M. Akif Çiftçioğlu, Güzide Ayşe Gökhan, Elif İnanç-Gürer,
Elif Peştereli, and Şeyda Karaveli
A Hierarchical Coding-Window Model of Parkinson’s Disease . . . . . . . . . . 355
Andres Daniela Sabrina, Gomez Florian, Cerquetti Daniel,
Merello Marcelo, and Stoop Ruedi
Using Coherence for Robust Online Brain-Computer Interface (BCI)
Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
Martin Spüler, Wolfgang Rosenstiel, and Martin Bogdan
Applying Nonlinear Techniques for an Automatic Speech Recognition
System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
Daniela Şchiopu
The Challange of Clustering Flow Cytometry Data from Phytoplankton
in Lakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
Stefan Glüge, Francesco Pomati, Carlo Albert, Peter Kauf, and
Thomas Ott
 Table of Contents XIII

Air Quality Forecasting by Using Nonlinear Modeling Methods . . . . . . . . 387

Elia Georgiana Dragomir and Mihaela Oprea

Bifurcation Analysis of Time Delayed Ecological Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395

Tibor Kmet and Maria Kmetova

Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403

 Poincaré Recurrences Near the Critical Point
of Feigenbaum Attractor Birth

Yaroslav Boev, Galina Strelkova, and Vadim Anishchenko

Department of Physics, Saratov State University,

Astrakhanskaya str. 83, 410012 Saratov, Russia
boev.yaroslav@gmail.com
{wadim,strelkovagi}@info.sgu.ru
http://chaos.sgu.ru

Abstract. The evolution of the Afraimovich–Pesin dimension of a se-

quence of Poincaré recurrence times is analyzed when approaching the
critical point of Feigenbaum attractor birth. It is shown for two one-
dimensional maps that the Afraimovich–Pesin dimension abruptly in-
creases at the critical point. This indicates that this point is singular
and requires a special theoretical analysis.

Keywords: Poincaré recurrence, Afraimovich–Pesin dimension.

1 Introduction
Poincaré recurrences are one of the fundamental properties of the temporal evo-
lution of dynamical systems. By now, the mathematical theory of Poincaré re-
currences has been rather fully developed. It describes the statistics of return
times both in a local neighborhood of a given initial state (the so-called local ap-
proach [1,2,3]) and in a whole set of the system phase space (the global approach
[4,5]).
In the framework of the local approach, it has been established that the mean
return time is related to the probability (Kac’s lemma [2]) and the distribution
of recurrence times obeys an exponential law in systems with mixing [3]. In the
framework of the global approach, recurrence times are considered in all covering
elements of the whole set and their statistics is then studied.
In our paper we apply the global theory of Poincaré recurrences and analyze
the features of the Afraimovich–Pesin dimension (the AP dimension) in two
one-dimensional maps near the critical point of Feigenbaum attractor birth.

2 Problem Statement
The considered set of phase trajectories of a system is covered with balls of size
ε ≡ 1. A minimal time of the first recurrence τinf (εi ) is defined for each covering
element εi (i = 1, 2, . . . , m) and its mean value is then found as follows:
m
1 
∪τinf (ε)≥ = τinf (εi ). (1)
m i=1

V.M. Mladenov and P.C. Ivanov (Eds.): NDES 2014, CCIS 438, pp. 1–8, 2014.
∈
c Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2014
2 Y. Boev, G. Strelkova, and V. Anishchenko

It has been shown in [4,5] that in the general case, the mean minimal return
time can be estimated by the following expression:
d
∪τinf (ε)≥ ∼ φ−1 (ε αC ), ε≡1, (2)

where d is the fractal dimension of the set under study, αC is the dimension of a
sequence of return times, i.e., the AP dimension, and φ is a calibration function
that depends on the topological entropy hT of the system in the considered
regime. If the dynamical mode is chaotic, then hT > 0 and the calibration
function is φ(t) ∼ exp(−t). In this case, from (2) we have [4,6]

d
∪τinf (ε)≥ ∼ − ln ε, ε ≡ 1. (3)
αC

When hT = 0, the calibration function is φ(t) ∼ 1/t and (2) can be rewritten as
follows [4,6]:
d
ln∪τinf (ε)≥ ∼ − ln ε, ε ≡ 1. (4)
αC
The dependence of ∪τinf (ε)≥ on ln ε given by (3) represents a straight line with
slope k = −d/αC . A similar plot can be obtained for the expression (4). Thus,
the slope k can be defined numerically from the corresponding plots. Knowing
its values and the fractal dimension d we can easily calculate the AP dimension
αC = d/|k|.
It has been shown in [7] that the topological entropy can be evaluated by the
positive Lyapunov exponent (for one-dimensional maps in a chaotic regime) or
the Kolmogorov–Sinai entropy, which equals to the sum of positive Lyapunov
exponents for 2- and higher-dimensional systems [8].
Properties of the AP dimension can be analyzed using simple discrete-time
systems. We exemplify this with a one-dimensional logistic map in the form:

xn+1 = rxn (1 − xn ), (5)

where r is the control parameter. For r > r∗ = 3.569946 . . ., a chaotic attractor

is realized in (5) and characterized by the positive Lyapunov exponent λ > 0.
The envelope λ(r) is described by the law [9]:

λ = 0.87(r − r∗ )0.45 , r∗ = 3.5699, (6)

where r∗ is the critical parameter value that corresponds to the birth of the
Feigenbaum attractor. We study the statistics of Poincaré recurrences when ap-
proaching the critical value r = r∗ from above (r > r∗ ). It is expected that (3)
is valid when r > r∗ and (4) holds at r = r∗ .
From both mathematical and physical points of view, it is important to an-
alyze the evolution of the AP dimension for the indicated transition, i.e., from
the case of hT > 0 to the case of hT = 0. The aim of our paper is to study the
features of this transition.
 Poincaré Recurrences Near the Critical Point 3

3 Numerical Results

Numerical calculations performed for the system (5) show that the dependence
(3) holds to a high accuracy (the error is less than 1%) in the parameter range
r∗ < r ≤ 4. This is exemplified by the numerical results shown in Fig. 1 for the
parameter value r = 3.5723, which is close to r∗ .

Fig. 1. Mean minimal return time →τinf ∈ on ε for r = 3.5723

In this case, the slope of the plot is k = −16.6. When one approaches the
critical value r = r∗ from above, the value of |k| dramatically increases. This is
illustrated in Fig. 2, where the slope |k| is shown as a function of the parameter
r of the system (5).

Fig. 2. Slope coefficient |k| of the plot →τinf ∈ on ln ε for different values of the parameter
r of the system (5)
4 Y. Boev, G. Strelkova, and V. Anishchenko

Besides the slope |k|, we need to know the value of the fractal dimension d to
find the AP dimension αC using (3). For r > r∗ , the system (5) has an attractor
consisting of a countable set of intervals on a one-dimensional set of x. The
fractal dimension of the attractor is d = 1. To corroborate this, we calculate the
capacity dimension dC according to the definition [10]:

ln N (ε)
dC = − lim , (7)
ε→0 ln ε
where N (ε) is the number of elements covering the attractor with line segments
of size ε. Calculation results are presented in Fig. 3 and indicate that dC , which
evaluates the fractal dimension d, is approximately equal to unity in the interval
r > r∗ and sharply decreases to the value dC ≈ 0.66 near the critical point
r  r∗ . The Lyapunov exponent and the topological entropy become zero at the

Fig. 3. Capacity dimension dC of attractors in the system (5) for different values of
the control parameter r

critical point. According to the theory, we must use the expression (4) in this
case. Figure 4 shows two plots for the mean minimal return time on ε near the
critical parameter value r∗ .
As can be seen from Fig. 4,a, the dependence of ∪τinf ≥ on ln ε plotted in the
scale of the expression (3) is not, indeed, a straight line at r = r∗ . Figure 4,b
shows the same dependence constructed in a double logarithmic scale according
to (4). It is clearly seen that this plot is well approximated by a straight line
with slope |k| ← 0.63. As follows from (4), the AP dimension is αC = d/|k| in
this case.
According to the theory [10], the Feigenbaum attractor dimension at the crit-
ical point is d ← 0.543. It is a bit less than the calculated value, i.e., dC ← 0.645.
Our calculations give the AP dimension αC = d/|k| ← 1.025. Using the theoret-
ical value d = 0.543, we obtain αC ← 0.86. The difference between these results
can be explained by the calculation error, which grows when we approach the
 Poincaré Recurrences Near the Critical Point 5

a b

Fig. 4. Mean minimal return time →τinf ∈ on ε plotted in different scales for the control
parameter r = 3.569946 (this is the closest point to the critical value)

critical point. However, the main point to be noted is that the AP dimension
αC is significantly greater than zero, regardless of the calculation error.
The final result is illustrated in Fig. 5 where the Lyapunov exponent λ and
the AP dimension αC are shown as functions of the parameter r for the system
(5). As can be seen from the plots, for r > r∗ , the numerical results are in
complete agreement with theoretical ones, i.e., αC ≈ λ and tends to zero when
one approaches r = r∗ from above. In this parameter region, the theoretical
expression (3) is confirmed numerically as mentioned earlier in [7,8,11]. However,
αC abruptly increases from almost zero value to unity at the critical point. In
addition, the linear dependence in Fig. 4,b corroborates that (4) is suitable to
describe the dependence τinf (ε) at the critical point.

1 zero level

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

-0.2

3.57 3.575 3.58 3.585 3.59 3.595 3.6

Fig. 5. Lyapunov exponent λ and the AP dimension αC as functions of the control

parameter r of the map (5)

The abrupt increase of the AP dimension at the critical point of Feigenbaum

attractor birth is unexpected for us, at least from a physical viewpoint. To make
6 Y. Boev, G. Strelkova, and V. Anishchenko

sure that the obtained result is correct and general, we conduct analogous nu-
merical experiments for the one-dimensional cubic map:
 2
xn
xn+1 = (axn − xn ) exp
3
, (8)
b

where a is the control parameter, and b = 10 is fixed. This map can also have the
Feigenbaum attractor at the critical parameter value a∗ = 2.4738 . . .. Numerical
results are shown in Fig. 6 and confirm the corresponding data obtained for the
logistic map (5) and presented in Fig. 5. The dependence ln∪τinf (ε)≥ corresponds
to the theoretical law (4) near the critical point a∗ . When we approaches this
point from above, the AP dimension sharply increases up to the value αC ≈ 0.9.
As for the map (5), for a > a∗ , the AP dimension and the Lyapunov exponent
coincide within the calculation accuracy [11].

1
b 0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
zero level
-0.2

-0.4

2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9

Fig. 6. Numerical results for the map (8). (a) Dependence of ln→τinf ∈ on ln ε calculated
through (4) at the critical point a∗ ≈ 2.4738, and (b) the AP dimension αC and
Lyapunov exponent λ as functions of the parameter a.
 Poincaré Recurrences Near the Critical Point 7

4 Discussion and Conclusions

Analysis of the numerical results presented in Figs. 5 and 6 enables us to draw
the following conclusion. The statistics of Poincaré recurrences is described by
the theoretical expression (3) in the parameter range that corresponds to the
chaotic dynamics with positive values of the topological entropy hT and the
Lyapunov exponent λ > 0. Moreover, the relationship λ ← αC holds within
the accuracy of calculation error. Since αC corresponds to hT and λ, the AP
dimension in the regime of a chaotic attractor can be treated as a measure of
complexity of the system dynamics.
Both the AP dimension and the Lyapunov exponent vanish when a system
parameter approaches from above the critical point of Feigenbaum attractor
birth. We have hT = λ = 0 at the critical point. According to the theory, at
this point the statistics of Poincaré recurrences is defined by (4). This fact is
corroborated by the numerical data shown in Figs. 4 and 6,a. However, the AP
dimension drastically increases at the critical point and takes the value αC ≈ 1.
Besides the Feigenbaum attractor, there are another minimal sets having zero
topological entropy, for example, shifts on the circle for an irrational winding
number. These motions are ergodic but without mixing. One can assume that
for such systems, the AP dimension describes different properties of a system.
In particular, it is shown that for irrational rotations on the circle, the AP
dimension characterizes the rate of approximations of an irrational number [4,5].
The physical meaning of the AP dimension at the critical point of Feigenbaum
attractor birth is still unclear and requires further investigations.

Acknowledgments. We are grateful to Prof. V. Afraimovich for fruitful dis-

cussions. The reported study was partially supported by RFBR, research project
No. 13-02-00216a and by the Russian Ministry of Education and Science (project
code 1008).

References
1. P.H.: Sur le Probléme des Trois Corps et les Equations de la Dynamique. Acta
Mathematica 13, A3–A270 (1890)
2. Kac, M.: Lectures in Applied Mathematics. Interscience, London (1957)
3. Hirata, M., Saussol, B., Vaienti, S.: Statistics of Return Times: A General Frame-
wok and New Applications. Comm. in Math. Physics 206, 33–55 (1999)
4. Afraimovich, V.: Pesin’s Simension for Poincaré Recurrences. Chaos 7, 12–20 (1997)
5. Afraimovich, V., Ugalde, U., Urias, J.: Dimension of Poincaré Recurrences. Elsevier
(2006)
6. Afraimovich, V.S., Lin, W.W., Rulkov, N.F.: Fractal Dimension for Poincaré Recur-
rences as an Indicator of Synchronized Chaotic Regimes. Int. J. Bifurc. Chaos 10,
2323–2337 (2000)
7. Penne, V., Saussol, B., Vaienti, S.: Fractal and Statistical Characteristics of Recur-
rence Times. In: Talk at the Conference “Disorder and Chaos”, Rome, (September
1997), preprint CPT (1997)
8 Y. Boev, G. Strelkova, and V. Anishchenko

8. Anishchenko, V.S., Astakhov, S.V., Boev, Y.I., Biryukova, N.I., Strelkova, G.I.:
Statistics of Poincaré Recurrences in Local and Global Approaches. Commun. Non-
linear Sci. Numer. Simulat. 18, 3423–3435 (2013)
9. Huberman, B., Rudnik, J.: Scaling Behavior of Chaotic Flows. Phys. Rev. Lett. 45,
154–156 (1980)
10. Schuster, H.G.: Deterministic Chaos. Physik-Verlag, Weinheim (1984)
11. Anishchenko, V.S., Astakhov, S.V.: Poincaré Recurrence Theory and Its Applica-
tion to Nonlinear Physics. Physics – Uspekhi 56, 955–972 (2013)
 Quasi-periodic Oscillations in the System
of Three Chaotic Oscillators

Alexander P. Kuznetsov, Yuliya V. Sedova, and Ludmila V. Turukina

Kotel’nikov Institute of Radio-Engineering and electronics of RAS,

Saratov Branch,
410019, Saratov, Zelyenaya, 38, Russia

Abstract. The dynamics of three coupled chaotic Rössler systems is

considered. We discuss scenarios for the evolution of different types of regimes.
The possibility of two- and three-frequency quasi-periodicity is shown. We
considered the occurrence of resonanses on three-frequency torus, which leads
to two-freqiency quasi-periodic regimes. The illustrations in the form of charts
of the Lyapunov exponents, phase portraits of attractors plotted in the Poincare
section and bifurcation diagrams are presented. We discuss the type of quasi-
periodic bifurcation in the system.

Keywords: сhaotic oscillations, quasi-periodic oscillations, invariant tori,

bifurcation.

1 Introduction

The problem related to oscillations of coupled oscillators of different nature remains

the focus of researchers in different fields of physics, chemistry, biology. The
examples are radio-electronic oscillators , Josephson contacts, ion traps [1-4], etc.
One of the interesting aspects is the problem of synchronization of chaotic systems.
The traditional approach in this case is to study the regimes for which the dynamics is
chaotic, although it may be both synchronous and asynchronous [4,5]. In the works
[4,5] the corresponding structure of the parameter plane (frequency detuning –
parameter of coupling) is studied for two coupled Rossler oscillators. Also they
pointed to the existence of different windows of periodic regimes. We consider here
another situation when the dynamics of coupled chaotic systems becomes quasi-
periodic. This is explained by a stabilizing effect of dissipative coupling, which,
however, retains some basic oscillatory rhythm of the individual oscillators. We will
discuss this problem by the example of three chaotic Rössler oscillators. In this case
we found not only a two-frequency quasi-periodic regimes, but also three-frequency
quasi-periodic regimes.

2 Three Chaotic Oscillators

Let us consider the system of three coupled Rössler oscillators:

V.M. Mladenov and P.C. Ivanov (Eds.): NDES 2014, CCIS 438, pp. 9–14, 2014.
© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2014
10 A.P. Kuznetsov, Y.V. Sedova, and L.V. Turukina

x1 = − y1 − z1 ,
y1 = x1 + py1 + μ( y2 − y1 ) ,
z1 = q + ( x1 − r ) z1 ,
x2 = −(1 − Δ1 ) y2 − z 2 ,
(1)
y 2 = (1 − Δ1 ) x2 + py2 + μ( y1 + y3 − 2 y2 ) ,
z2 = q + ( x2 − r ) z 2 ,
x3 = −(1 − Δ 2 ) y3 − z3 ,
y 3 = (1 − Δ 2 ) x3 + py3 + μ( y2 − y3 ) ,
z3 = q + ( x3 − r ) z3 .

Here Δ1 is the frequency detuning between the first and second oscillators and Δ2 is
the frequency detuning between the first and third oscillators. We fix parameters
p=0.15, q=0.4 and r=8.5. This corresponds to the chaotic regime in individual
subsystems.
Let us disscus the question of how the regimes of different types are embedded in
parameter space. For this, we use the method of the charts of Lyapumov exponents
[6-10]. We calculate the spectrum of Lyapunov exponents at each grid point on the
parameter plane. Then we color these points in accordance with its signature. The
corresponding chart is given in Fig.1. It is plotted on the (Δ1, μ) plane. The periodic
regimes lettered by P, two- and three-frequency quasi-periodic regimes T2 and T3
(with one and two zero Lyapunov exponents respectively), regimes of chaos C (with
one positive Lyapunov exponent), regimes of hyperchaos HC2 and HC3 (with two
and three positive Lyapunov exponents respectively) are marked by different colors.
Regime of “amplitude death” AD is responsible for disappearance of oscillations due
to their suppression of a dissipative coupling. The color legend is at the right of the
figure.
The phase portraits of attractors plotted in the Poincaré section are shown in
Fig. 2 (The Poincaré section is defined by relations y=0 and x>0). Two-frequency
torus T2 exists for large values of coupling. In this case Poincaré section is the
invariant curve close to a circle. Three-frequency torus T3 arises softly from this
invariant curve as the parameter of coupling is decreased. One can see a very
intricately shaped invariant curve with a further decrease of coupling. This invariant
curve corresponds to one of the possible two-frequency resonant tori TR2. Note that
the number of resonance windows is sufficiently large for these values of the
frequency detuning. At small coupling the tori are destroyed with the appearance of
chaos and hyperchaos.
 Quasi-periodic Oscillations in the System of Three Chaotic Oscillators 11

Fig. 1. Chart of Lyapunov exponent for the system (1), Δ2=0.05

Fig. 2. Phase portraits of attractors at Poincaré section, Δ1=0.19 and Δ2=0.05

12 A.P. Kuznetsov, Y.V. Sedova, and L.V. Turukina

Fig. 3 shows the bifurcation diagram for the attractor in the chosen Poincare
section versus the coupling parameter. This Figure illustrates the bifurcations
responsible for the arising of invariant tori of different dimensions. Neumark-Sacker
bifurcation of two-frequency torus occurs at the point NS. The windows of resonant
limit cycles can be observed in the region of smaller values of coupling. The diagram
widens sharply at the point QH. This is a point of quasi-periodic Hopf bifurcation [10-
11], where three-frequency torus arises softly from two-frequency torus. Thus, the
upper boundary of the region of three-frequency tori corresponds to the quasi-periodic
Hopf bifurcation.

Fig. 3. Bifurcation diagram of system (1), Δ1=0.19 and Δ2=0.05

Quasi-periodic Hopf bifurcation QH is clearly visible in the enlarged fragment of

the chart of Lyapunov exponents (Fig. 4). It is a boundary between three-frequency
and two-frequency regions. One can see also a variety of tongues of two-frequency
resonant tori. They have characteristic rounded tops, which are located along the QH
line slightly above it. The tongues are destroyed with the appearance of chaos as the
coupling decreases. Chaotic dynamics of individual oscillators is responsible for this.
Note, the transition region from the three-frequency quasi-periodicity to chaos has a
complex organization. In this region one can see a large number of resonances, which
are much more numerous than in the case of regular oscillators [9].
 Quasi-periodic Oscillations in the System of Three Chaotic Oscillators 13

Fig. 4. Enlarged fragment of the parameter plane from Fig. 1, QH is a quasi-periodic Hopf
bifurcation

3 Conclude

Thus, the effect of dissipative coupling on the chaotic oscillators can lead not only to
the chaotic synchronization and appearance of periodic regimes, but also to the
appearance of two- and three-frequency quasi-periodic oscillations. And quasi-
periodic Hopf bifurcation is responsible for this. The reason is probably that chaotic
regime is characterized by presence of large number of unstable limit cycles [4].
Adding of coupling can stabilize these cycles and this leads to appearance of the set of
the resonant tori of different types in the dynamics of the system. With increasing of
the number of chaotic oscillators the tori of higher and higher dimensions can be
observed. We can expected, that this behavior would be typical for other chaotic
systems.
This work was supported by the GrantNSc-1726.2014.2.

References
1. Temirbayev, A., Nalibayev, Y.D., Zhanabaev, Z.Z., Ponomarenko, V.I., Rosenblum, M.:
Autonomous and forced dynamics of oscillator ensembles with global nonlinearcoupling:
An experimental study. Phys. Rev. E 87, 062917 (2013)
14 A.P. Kuznetsov, Y.V. Sedova, and L.V. Turukina

2. Vlasov, V., Pikovsky, A.: Synchronization of a Josephson junction array in terms of global
variables. Phys. Rev. E 88, 022908 (2012)
3. Lee, T.E., Cross, M.C.: Pattern formation with trapped ions. Phys. Rev. Lett. 106, 143001
(2011)
4. Pikovsky, A., Rosenblum, M., Kurths, J.: Synchronization: A Universal Concept in
Nonlinear Sciences. Cambridge University Press (2001)
5. Osipov, G.V., Pikovsky, A.S., Rosenblum, M.G., Kurths, J.: Phase synchronization effects
in a lattice of nonidentical Rossler oscillators. Phys. Rev. E 55, 2353–2361 (1997)
6. Baesens, C., Guckenheimer, J., Kim, S., MacKay, R.S.: Three coupled oscillators: mode
locking, global bifurcations and toroidal chaos. Physica D 49, 387–475 (1991)
7. Broer, H., Simó, C., Vitolo, R.: The Hopf-saddle-node bifurcation for fixed points of 3D-
diffeomorphisms: The Arnol’d resonance web. Reprint from the Belgian Mathematical
Society, 769–787 (2008)
8. Emelianova, Y.P., Kuznetsov, A.P., Turukina, L.V.: Quasi-periodic bifurcations and
“amplitude death” in low-dimensional ensemble of van der Pol oscillators. Physics Letters
A 378, 153–157 (2014)
9. Emelianova, Y.P., Kuznetsov, A.P., Turukina, L.V., Sataev, I.R., Chernyshov, N.Y.: A
structure of the oscillation frequencies parameter space for the system of dissipatively
coupled oscillators. Communications in Nonlinear Science and Numerical Simulation 19,
1203–1212 (2014)
10. Kuznetsov, A.P., Kuznetsov, S.P., Sataev, I.R., Turukina, L.V.: About Landau–Hopf
scenario in a system of coupled self-oscillators. Physics Letters A 377, 3291–3295 (2013)
11. Broer, H., Simó, C., Vitolo, R.: Quasi-periodic bifurcations of invariant circles in low-
dimensional dissipative dynamical systems. Regular and Chaotic Dynamics 16, 154–184
(2011)
 Taming Chaos by Using Induced External
Signals: Experimental Results

Arturo Buscarino, Carlo Famoso, Luigi Fortuna, and Mattia Frasca

DIEEI, University of Catania, Italy

Abstract. The topic of chaos control is widely studied in literature.

In this paper, some new experimental results regarding an innovative
strategy for taming chaos are proposed. From the experimental trends,
it appears that a wide range of unstable limit cycles are extracted from
chaotic electronic circuits like the Chua’s circuit and the Lorenz system.

Keywords: Chaos control, nonlinear circuits.

1 Introduction
The concept of taming chaos is related to the stabilization of the unstable limit
cycles included in a strange attractor. The essential feature of taming chaos is
that the control strategy has to be as less invasive as possible exploiting a low
level forcing signal. Numerous strategies have been studied [1,2] including the
use of analog devices or digital control systems. In any case the control strategy
must be consistent in the sense that the original dynamics of the system must be
essentially maintained. This means that the control law must be not destructive
with respect to the internal dynamics of the system [3,4,5]. In this paper, it
is presented an experimental strategy that allow us to tame chaos by using an
impulsive signal transmitted to the controlled circuit by using a transformer.
This allowed us to decouple the main circuit from the control signal generator.
The obtained results are shown as a gallery of limit cycles that can be extracted
from the controlled electronic circuits.
The proposed control strategy can be considered as the introduction of a
small perturbation to the bifurcation parameter from a circuital point-of-view.
This resembles classical chaos control techniques which are based on parameter
perturbation with sinusoidal signal, but in this case the control is performed
acting directly on a circuital level.
The study is developed to the Chua’s circuit and to the Lorenz system. More-
over it is general. The paper is organized as follows: in Sec. 2 the control strategy
is presented, a fundamental section is dedicated to the experimental results. The
conclusive remarks will follow.

2 Strategy for Taming Chaos

The new strategy introduced in this paper for taming chaos is based on the
introduction of a weak control signal in a given electronic circuit implementing a

V.M. Mladenov and P.C. Ivanov (Eds.): NDES 2014, CCIS 438, pp. 15–21, 2014.

c Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2014
16 A. Buscarino et al.

Fig. 1. Circuit implementation of the Chua’s circuit. Components: R1 = 4kΩ, R2 =

13.3kΩ, R3 = 5.6kΩ, R4 = 20kΩ, R5 = 20kΩ, R6 = 380Ω (potentiometer), R7 =
112kΩ, R8 = 112kΩ, R9 = 1M Ω, R10 = 1M Ω, R11 = 12.1kΩ, R12 = 1kΩ, R13 =
51.1kΩ, R14 = 100kΩ, R15 = 100kΩ, R16 = 100kΩ, R17 = 100kΩ, R18 = 1kΩ,
R19 = 8.2kΩ, R20 = 100kΩ, R21 = 100kΩ, R22 = 7.8kΩ, R23 = 1kΩ, C1 = C2 =
C3 = 100nF , Vcc = 9V.

chaotic dynamics. We considered two paradigmatic examples of chaotic circuits,

i.e. the Chua’s circuit and the Lorenz system.
Let us consider the Chua’s circuit implementation based on State Controlled
Cellular Nonlinear Networks [6], as shown in Fig. 1. This circuit is governed by
the following equations:
⎧
⎪ dX R5 R5
⎨ C1 R6 dτ = −X + R3 Y + R2 h
C2 R18 dτ = −Y + R14 X + R
dY R17
R15 Z
17
(1)
⎪
⎩ C3 R23 dZ = −Z + R21 Z + R21 Y
dτ R20 R19

where:
R12 R9
h= R11 +R12 R8 (|X + 1| − |X − 1|) (2)
The component values, reported in the caption of Fig. 1, are chosen in order
to match Eqs. (1) with the adimensional equations of the Chua’s circuit:
⎧
⎨ ẋ = α(y − h(x))
ẏ = x − y + z (3)
⎩
ż = −βy
where β = 14.286 and h(x) represents the nonlinearity of the system:
1
h(x) = m1 + (m0 − m1 )(|x + 1| − |x − 1|) (4)
2
 Taming Chaos with External Signals 17

with m0 = − 71 and m1 = 27 .
A temporal rescaling κ = C2 1R18 = C31R23 = 10000 has been introduced and
the different dynamical behavior shown by the Chua’s circuit can be observed by
varying the single bifurcation parameter α implemented in the circuit by resistor
R6 , according to the relation α = R 5 R18
R3 R6 .
The external control signal is provided to the circuit introducing a slight
modification in the first integrator as reported in Fig. 2: the secondary winding
of a transformer with a fixed voltage ratio, which in the following is considered
1
equal to 10 , is inserted in series with the resistor R6 , i.e. the resistor directly
controlling the bifurcation parameter. The primary winding of the transformer is
connected to a signal generator providing a square pulse wave, with an amplitude
A = 1V and a 20% duty cycle. Varying the frequency of this control signal, we
are able to stabilize the limit cycles included in the chaotic attractor, as the
results presented in the following section will clearly demonstrate.

Fig. 2. Circuit scheme for the control strategy obtained including transformer T in the
first CNN cell of the Chua’s circuit implementation reported in Fig. 1

In order to emphasize the generality of the proposed control approach, a fur-

ther experiment has been considered starting from the circuital implementation
of the well-known Lorenz system. The circuit shown in Fig. 3 obeys to the fol-
lowing equations:
⎧
⎪ dX R4 R4 R4
⎨ C1 R5 dτ = −X − R1 X + R2 X + R3 Y
dY R10 R10
C2 R11 dτ = −Y − R7 XZ + R8 X (5)
⎪
⎩ C3 R17 dZ = −Z − R16 Z + R16 XY
dτ R13 R14

whose components are chosen according to the original Lorenz dynamics in which
an amplitude rescaling has been introduced in order to avoid saturations imposed
by voltage supply. In fact the values reported in the caption of Fig. 3 match Eqs.
(5) with the following set of dynamical equations:
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natural relationship of one idea to another—and its conscious
recognition at the time of observation, or later, during reflection, that
one’s memory is aided. This is what psychologists have always
called “the law of the association of ideas.” It is a natural law, which
even a child unconsciously recognizes. The baby subconsciously or
instinctively knows that food and its pleasant sensations of comfort
are associated with its mother’s breast. Star and sky, sea and ship,
automobile and swift travel, gun and war, cyclone and disaster, are
instances of natural and simple association that all people recognize.
In the cultivation, discipline, strengthening of the powers of the
memory, this natural law can be made to render marvelous service.
For not only can man avail himself of faculties of the mind
unconsciously exercised, he has the additional power of consciously
directing their exercise. Just as our domestic water systems are the
result of the conscious direction of the self-flowing water in the
course we wish it to flow, so is the enlarged power of our memories
the result of the conscious and purposeful direction of our
observation, reflection, and thought-linking to that end. Drawn from
personal experience there are five methods of thought-linking which
have proved themselves of great help. These are: First, Incidental.
Second, Accidental. Third, Scientific. Fourth, Pictorial. Fifth,
Constructive.

The Incidental Method

The events, the incidents, of the day occur in a natural order: one
follows another. The days of the week with their respective incidents
follow in natural sequence. A full recognition of this fact is of far
greater help to the memory than one would believe on first thought.
Many a man has been able to recall a particularly important event by
going back, step by step, incident by incident, over the occurrences
of the day. It is related of Thurlow Weed, the eminent statesman,
that, when he entered political life, he had so poor and wretched a
memory that it was his bane. He determined to improve it, and,
realizing the importance of observation and reflection, he decided
upon the following method: As the incidents of the day followed each
other, in natural sequence, he would consciously note how they
followed. Then at the close of the day he sat down with his wife, and
relating the incidents exactly in the order they occurred, he would
review the events of the day, even to the most trivial and
inconsequential act. At other times he would relate the incidental
order backwards. It was not long before his memory so improved
that he began to be noted for it. Before he died, he had the
reputation of possessing a phenomenal memory. One will find this
same method a great help in seeking to recall a sermon, a lecture or
speech. There is a natural sequence in all well-thought-out
addresses, and the listener, carefully noting the change from one
thought to another—the progress of the address—will find it aid his
memory development wonderfully to take the last thought given, say,
and in reverse order, bring up the thoughts, the ideas given. Then let
the address be “incidentally” gone over from the first thought to the
second, the third, and so on to the end. Thus it can be recalled and
put away in the memory securely for future use.

The Accidental Method

Another natural method is what may be termed accidental. It is
purely accidental that Pike’s Peak is 14,147 feet high, but see how
this fact enables you to fix the figures in your mind. There are two
fourteens and the last figure is half of fourteen, namely, seven. It is a
purely accidental fact that the two Emperors of Germany died in
1888, but the fact that they did die in that year, the one year in the
whole century when the three eights occur, indelibly fixes the date in
mind. Again the year 1666 might have passed by unnoticed were it
not for the fact that that was the date of the Great Fire in London.
Now let us see how this accidental association may fix a relative
date for many other important events. The Great Fire purged the city
of London of the horrors caused by the Great Plague. This plague
was made the basis for Eugene Sue’s graphic novel, “The
Wandering Jew.” Wherever he went—so ran the legend—the plague
followed as the result of Christ’s curse. It was the Great Plague that
brought into existence the peculiar custom of all the Latin, as well as
the English, peoples exclaiming, “God bless you!” or its equivalent,
upon hearing one sneeze. The reason for the custom is that
sneezing was one of the first symptoms of the fearful plague, and
one, hearing his friend sneeze, immediately felt afraid he was seized
with the dread disease, and gave vent to this pious exclamation. The
custom persists to this day, but few know its origin. This plague also
brings to mind a noble example of heroism that is worthy of
enshrinement in every heart. It was found by those who watched the
progress of the plague that it went from place to place, dying out
here as soon as it appeared elsewhere. It was this phenomenon that
gave to Eugene Sue the dramatic element in his novel, for it
appeared to the ignorant people of those days that the plague
actually followed the cursed Jew. A country pastor, an humble but
devoted and true servant of God, in a little Derbyshire village, had
observed this fact. Although isolation for contagious diseases was
not thought of by physicians at that time, this man seemed to grasp
the idea. He determined that if ever the disease reached his village
he would endeavor to isolate his people from all others so that it
would stop there and no longer continue to slay its helpless victims.
In due time the plague did appear in his village. He had already
aroused in his simple-minded flock the spirit of true heroism, and
they pledged themselves to second his endeavors. Food was
brought from a near-by town and deposited near a watering-trough,
in which a small stream was continually flowing. In this flowing water
the villagers placed the money in payment for their food supplies.
Thus there was no contact of peoples, no contamination. The
villagers kept to themselves, no one going away and no one coming
in. The result was that in a very short time the plague was stayed,
and Europe breathed a great sigh of relief, attributing its cessation to
the goodness of God, when we now know it was owing to the self-
sacrificing wisdom of men.
But we are not yet through with our associations with the
accidental date of 1666. The most remarkable account we have of
the Great Plague is Daniel DeFoe’s “Journal of the Plague,” which
for many years was regarded as the genuine diary of an eye-
witness. As DeFoe, however, was not born until 1661, five years
before the plague, he could have had but the faintest and most
childish remembrances of that dread event. But it was he who wrote
the world-famous, ever-enjoyable “Robinson Crusoe.” This appeared
in 1719, and, while the association of this date with that of 1666 is
remote, it does approximately fix the date of the appearance of that
masterpiece.
Another literary masterpiece appeared, however, much nearer the
time of the plague. That was John Bunyan’s “Pilgrim’s Progress,”
which was written in Bedford Jail during the actual year of the plague
and fire.
One of the greatest lawyers of England was Sir Matthew Hale, and
it is a help to fix approximately the time he was on the bench when
we recall that it was he who sentenced John Bunyan to the twelve
years’ confinement that gave to the world his “Pilgrim’s Progress.”
On the other hand, Hale was a great personal friend of Richard
Baxter, who, at about the same time, wrote the well known “Saints’
Everlasting Rest.” Here, then, hung on to this accidental peg of the
year 1666, we find the following facts: First, the Great Fire; second,
the Great Plague; third, Eugene Sue’s novel “The Wandering Jew;”
fourth, the custom of saying “God bless you;” fifth, the heroism of the
Derbyshire villagers that stopped the plague; sixth DeFoe’s writing of
the “Journal of the Plague” and “Robinson Crusoe;” seventh,
Bunyan’s writing of “Pilgrim’s Progress;” eighth, Sir Matthew Hale on
the English bench; ninth, Richard Baxter’s writing of the “Saints’
Everlasting Rest.”
Every novelist uses this law of accidental association, for it is
habitually used by every class of people. Who is there who does not
recall certain events because they happened on days when other
and perhaps more important events occurred which fixed the date in
the mind? For instance, if an event occurred on the day of her first
child’s birth, and the mother was aware of it, you may rest fully
assured she would have no trouble recalling the date of the event. Its
accidental association will guarantee its remembrance.
Lawyers use this law constantly in seeking to extract evidences
from their witnesses. The dates of certain events are surely fixed in
the mind. Other events, less securely remembered, occurred at, or
about, the same time. The association once clearly established, the
memory invariably responds.

The Scientific Method

This method is merely a phase of reflection, for during that
process one naturally classifies his ideas, received through
observation. As David Pryde says in his “How to Read”:

See every fact and group of facts as clearly and distinctly

as you can; ascertain the fact in your past experience to
which it bears a likeness or relation, and then associate it with
that fact. And this rule can be applied in almost every case.
Take as an example that most difficult of all efforts, namely,
the beginning of a new study, where all the details are
strange. All that you have to do is to begin with those details
that can be associated with your past experience. In science,
begin with the specimens with which you are already familiar,
and group around them as many other specimens as you can.
In history and geography, commence with the facts relating to
the places and scenes which you actually know. And in
foreign languages, start with the words and phrases for the
most familiar objects and incidents of every-day life. In this
way you will give all your mind a clear and safe foundation in
your own experience.... The mind cannot master many
disconnected details. It becomes perplexed and then
helpless. It must generalize these details. It must arrange
them into groups, according to the three laws of association—
resemblance, contiguity, and cause and effect. This, it will be
granted at once, must be the method in all rigidly systematic
studies, such as the sciences, history, biography, and politics.
But it is valuable to ordinary people as well to know that the
same plan can be used in all kinds of descriptions. Every
collection of details can be arranged in groups in such a way
that they can be clearly understood and remembered. The
following is the manner in which this can be done: In studying
any interesting scene, let your mind look carefully at all the
details. You will then become conscious of one or more
definite effects or strong impressions that have been made
upon you. Discover what these impressions are. Then group
and describe in order the details which tend to produce each
of the impressions. You will then find that you have comprised
in your description all the important details of the scene. As
an instance, let us suppose a writer is out in the country on a
morning toward the end of May, and wishes to describe the
multitudinous objects which delight his senses. First of all, he
ascertains that the general impressions as produced on his
mind by the summer landscape are the ideas of luxuriance,
brightness and joy. He then proceeds to describe in these
groups the details which produce these impressions. He first
takes up the luxuriant features, the springing crops of grain
completely hiding the red soil; the rich, living carpet of grass
and flowers covering the meadows; the hedge-rows on each
side of the way, in their bright summer green; the trees
bending gracefully under the full weight of their foliage; and
the wild plants, those waifs of nature, flourishing everywhere,
smothering the woodland brook, filling up each scar and
crevice in the rock, and making a rich fringe along the side of
every highway and footpath. He then descants upon the
brightness of the landscape; the golden sunshine; the pearly
dew-drops hanging on the tips of every blade of grass, and
sparkling in the morning rays; the clusters of daisies dappling
the pasture-land; the dandelion glowing under the very foot of
the traveler; the chestnut trees, like great candelabra, stuck
all over with white lights, lighting up the woodlands; and lilacs,
laburnums, and hawthorne in full flower, making the farmer’s
garden one mass of variegated blossom. And last of all, he
can dwell upon the joy that is abroad on the face of the earth:
the little birds so full of one feeling that they can only trill it
forth in the same delicious monotone; the lark bounding into
the air, as if eager and quivering to proclaim his joy to the
whole world; the bee humming his satisfaction as he revels
among the flowers; and the myriads of insects floating in the
air and poising and darting with drowsy buzz through the
 floods of golden sunshine. Thus we see that, by this habit of
generalizing, the mind can grasp the details of almost any
scene.
This desire to unify knowledge, to see unity in variety, is
one of the most noted characteristics of great men in all
departures of learning. Scientific men in the present day are
eager to resolve all the phenomena of nature into force or
energy. The history of philosophy, too, is in a great measure,
taken up with attempts to prove that being and knowing are
identical. Emerson can find no better definition of genius than
that it is intellect constructive. Perhaps, he says, if we should
meet Shakspere, we should not be conscious of any great
inferiority, but of a great equality, only that he possesses a
great skill of using—of classifying—his facts, which we
lacked.

Herbert Spencer was a master at the classification of facts. By the

classification of all the known languages of the world, the scientists
are seeking to find out accurately, as never before, the relationships
of mankind. Men have been writing the different languages of widely
diverse people for centuries, but never before has an attempt been
made on so vast a scale to bring all this isolated knowledge to bear
upon the solution of one great question—the origin of the human
race. All scientific knowledge is based upon the association of
isolated and detached facts. These are then reflected upon, and,
finally, theories begin to form themselves in the mind of the student,
the philosopher. He then brings his facts and theories into close
relationship and sees whether they “fit.” If he is assured that they do,
he presents his thought to the world, and, according to its
reasonableness, it is received or rejected.

The Pictorial Method

Most children make mental pictures with great ease, but,
unfortunately, as they grow older, they allow this faculty to lose its
power by disuse. In the cultivation and use of the memory, however,
it can be of the greatest possible help. All books of travel and
description, all novels, all history, are made up of a series of word
pictures. Do not be content merely to read the words of these
pictures. Go further! Actually picture each scene in your imagination
and you will thus materially aid your original power of observation.
Let your pictures be definite, positive, explicit as to details, for the
more careful you are in making a picture real to your mind, the easier
it will be recalled.
Now, if you desire to recall the whole course of a book, you will
find these vividly-made mental pictures have a natural order of
sequence, and one will recall the next following, and so on. There is
great joy in learning to make pictorial thought-links, and then in the
ability they give to the memory to recall them.

Methods of Constructive Thought-Linking

We now come to the active making of artificial links as aids to the
memory where none naturally appear. A thought-link of this type is
the generally known doggerel:

Thirty days hath September,

April, June and November,
All the rest have thirty-one
Save February which alone
[18]Has twenty-eight, and one day more
We add to it one year in four.

In like manner how do we remember the order of the prime colors?

Few there are who do not know the coined word, made from the
initial letters of Violet, Indigo, Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange, Red—
Vibgyor. Again, the student of geology, who forgets the order of his
great epochs or eras, might recall them by formulating a sentence
that presents the initial letters of the names of these epochs. Thus,
“Careful men pay easily,” suggests Cenozoic, Mesozoic, Paleozoic,
Eozoic. Of course no one of common sense presumes to assert that
these constructive thought-links are any other than crutches,
footbridges over streams too wide to stride or jump unaided. They
should frankly be recognized as such, and only reverted to in case of
necessity, or as a last resort. But it is equally foolish in view of the
testimony of their almost universal usage and helpfulness, to deny
that they are an aid to most memories.

Think of the Impressions

To “think of the impressions.” This is the final admonition of
Stokes’s golden rule of memory. One word conveys his idea—
review. The things to be remembered must be thought over. They
must be re-collected—again collected. You will thus re-observe
them, re-reflect upon them, re-strengthen your original mental
impressions and the ideas that have grown around them. Experience
demonstrates that all memory impressions are lasting. One may
have forgotten something for twenty, thirty, forty years, when
suddenly a chance word, sound, sight, or even odor, will recall it with
an intensity and reality that are startling. All works on mental
philosophy give illustrations of this asserted fact. The practical need
of all men, however, is to cultivate the ability to call up mental
impressions at will.
Ready recollection is the great desideratum. Hidden knowledge is
of slight use. It is as if one had a fortune stored away in some hidden
dungeon, carefully locked up, but he had lost the key. Availability,
readiness, promptness are essentials to efficiency. The hat-boy at
the hotel dining-room would be useless did his memory not act
promptly, instantly. To-morrow will not do. Now is the accepted time.
This efficient, prompt, responsive memory is the one you need and
desire. It is worth striving for. The prospector wanders over the
mountains, canyons, deserts, for years, seeking the precious ore in
most unlikely places. He is always buoyed up with the hope, some
day, of striking it rich. Are you as earnest in your desire for memory
development as he? If so, careful, systematic, daily exercise of the
various faculties of the mind and memory will give to you this golden
possession. Reread here what has been quoted earlier from David
Pryde’s “What Books to Read and How to Read.” The hints therein
contained are worth their weight in gold to the really earnest student.
But rest assured of this: If you would have a good memory, you must
work for it. Give your whole attention to whatever you read or hear.
Concentrate. Compare the parts of the composition with the whole.
Seek its excellencies, study its deficiencies. Reflect upon it from
every angle. Write out in your own language the facts, or the ideas of
what you have heard or read. Then use daily what you have gained.
Knowledge stored away in the mind is not only useless, it is
positively injurious. Use is the law of life. Give your knowledge, your
ideas, your reflections away. Tell them to your intimates, your friends.
Write them to your correspondents. For the more you give the more
you will find you have. There is a giving that increases and a
withholding that impoverishes, and in nothing is this more apparent
than in the giving of the riches of the mind or memory. Each time one
recites a well-liked poem for the benefit and blessing of others, the
more firmly he fixes it in his own mind. “There is that which
scattereth, and yet increaseth.” In the scattering of your gems of
mind and heart, you are increasing your own store.
Not only give freely, but give often. The daily use of what you have
gained is an advantage. Avail yourself of every reasonable
opportunity to use your newly acquired powers, and your newly
acquired knowledge. Let me repeat, use is the law of life. To learn
something new daily is a good motto, but to use what you have
learned is even better. You gain ease of recollection by daily
exercising the faculty of recollection. And if your memory balks,
refuses to act, compel it to obey you. If you make a demand upon it
and it fails to respond—you cannot remember—do not let the matter
go by. Demand of the memory that it bring back that which you
require. Keep the need before you.
In this constant, persistent, cheerful, willing use of the memory lies
great happiness and content. “It is more blessed to give than to
receive.” The more, in reason, the athlete uses his muscles the
stronger they become. And think of the radiant joy that is the natural
accompaniment of a healthy, vigorous body. What constant pleasure
is his who calls upon a physical body which readily and willingly
responds! Equally so is it with the memory and all the mind. Activity
keeps it in health. In this glorious condition it readily responds to all
calls, it is radiantly alive, and I know of no joy greater that can be
given to man than that in body, mind, and soul he is a radiating
center of activity, receiving and giving on every hand.
In conclusion, here are a few practical words upon the other side
of the question, on forgetting, for there is a forgetting that is of great
help to the power of remembering. Fix these precepts firmly in your
mind:
Forget evil imaginations.
Forget the slander you have heard.
Forget the meanness of small souls.
Forget the faults of your friends.
Forget the injuries done you by your enemies.
Forget the misunderstandings of yesterday.
Forget all malice, all fault-finding, all injuries, all hardness, all
unlovely and distressing things.
Start out every day with a clean sheet. Remember only the sweet,
beautiful and lovely things, and you will thus be as a human sun of
righteousness, with healing in your rays.
 FOOTNOTES
[1] Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1884, by
George Wharton James, in the office of the Librarian of Congress,
at Washington, D. C.
[2] Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1885, by
George Wharton James, in the office of the Librarian of Congress,
at Washington, D. C.
[3] Scripture, “Stuttering and Lisping,” p. 3.
[4] Pauline B. Camp, “Correction of Speech Defects in a Public
School System.” “The Quarterly Journal of Public Speaking” for
October, 1917, p. 304.
[5] By contact is meant the point of greatest resistance of the
vocal organs to the column of air.
[6] Lawyer, Senator from Nebraska, 1895—born at Montpelier,
Vt., 1847.
[7] Pronounced “Sombray.”
[8] Adobe, pronounced A-do´by, a thick clay of which sun-dried
bricks are made.
[9] Robert Lloyd was an English poet of the middle eighteenth
century.
[10] This remarkable poem relates to revelry in India at a time
when the English officers serving in that country were being
struck down by pestilence. It has been correctly styled “the very
poetry of military despair.”
[11] Some of the greatest literature of this war has been written
by British Tommies—in the trenches or in hospitals; but nothing
finer or better interpreting the psychology of the men at the front
has yet appeared in print than this poem by Bombardier B.
Bumpas, of the Australian contingent, wounded at Gallipoli and
while convalescing in a hospital at Cairo, minus a leg and an eye.
[12] From “Madrigali.”
 [13] From Hiawatha.
[14] Mr. Miller gives the following interesting note to the above
poem:
“We had been moving West and West from my birth, at Liberty,
Union County, Indiana, November 10, 1841 or 1842 (the Bible
was burned and we don’t know which year), and now were in the
woods of the Miami Indian Reserve. My first recollection is of
starting up from the trundle-bed with my two little brothers and
looking out one night at father and mother at work burning brush-
heaps, which threw a lurid flare against the greased paper
window. Late that autumn I was measured for my first shoes, and
Papa led me to his school. Then a strange old woman came, and
there was mystery and a smell of mint, and one night, as we three
little ones were hurried away through the woods to a neighbor’s,
she was very cross. We three came back alone in the cold, early
morning. There was a little snow, rabbit tracks in the trail, and
some quail ran hastily from cover to cover. We three little ones
were all alone and silent, so silent. We knew nothing, nothing at
all, and yet we knew, intuitively, all; but truly the divine mystery of
mother nature, God’s relegation of His last great work to woman,
her partnership with Him in creation—not one of us had ever
dreamed of. Yet we three little lads huddled up in a knot near the
ice-hung eaves of the log cabin outside the corner where
mother’s bed stood and—did the new baby hear her silent and
awed little brothers? Did she feel them, outside there, huddled
close together in the cold and snow, listening, listening? For lo! a
little baby cry came through the cabin wall; and then we all rushed
around the corner of the cabin, jerked the latch and all three in a
heap tumbled up into the bed and peered down into the little pink
face against mother’s breast. Gentle, gentle, how more than ever
gentle were we all six now in that little log cabin. Papa doing
everything so gently, saying nothing, only doing, doing. And ever
so and always toward the West, till 1852, when he had touched
the sea of seas, and could go no farther. And so gentle always!
Can you conceive how gentle? Seventy-two years he led and
lived in the wilderness and yet never fired or even laid hand to a
gun.”
[15] There is a Scandinavian legend that Siegfried, the “Viking,”
feeling that he was at the point of death, caused himself to be
placed on the deck of his ship; the sails were hoisted, the vessel
set on fire, and in this manner he drifted out to sea, alone, and
finished his career.
[16] In the “days of old, the days of gold, and the days of ’49,”
water was brought from the Sierran heights in wooden viaducts,
or “flumes,” to be used in the mines. The fifth stanza refers to the
process of hydraulic mining, where the water, projected through
huge nozzles (somewhat after the fashion used by fire-engines),
washed down the mountain-sides into the sluice-boxes where the
dirt was washed away and the gold retained. Now the flume’s
waters are mainly diverted to purposes of irrigation.
[17] “‘The Arrow and the Song’ came into my mind and glanced
on to the paper with an arrow’s speed—literally an improvisation,”
said Longfellow. The poem has been exceedingly popular, both
when recited and also when sung to the beautiful music
composed for it by the Italian song-writer, Ciro Pinsuti.
[18] Here is a variant of the last two lines:

“Has twenty-eight and this in fine

One year in four has twenty-nine.”
 INDEX
All titles to chapters are in capitals.
All titles to selections are in italics.
Names of authors are given in ordinary type.

A
Abraham Lincoln Walks at Midnight, 520
Adams, Charles F., 338, 393
Advance, The Great, 534
Adventure, A Startling, 150
” An Unexpected, 258
AFTER DINNER SPEAKING, 711
Ain’t It the Truth (exercise), 35
Aldrich, Thomas B., 490, 665
All in the Emphasis, 311
Alexander, S. J., 641, 642, 643
Alexandra, A Welcome to, 633
Americanism, Creed of, 677
America and Its Flag, 559
” Music of, 21
Analysis, Progressive, 112
Ancient Mariner, 49
Andersen, Hans C., 191
Anderson, Alexander, 427
” John, My Jo, 574
Annabel Lee, 430
” The Lover of, 431
Apostrophe to the Ocean, 536
Apple Blossoms, 588
Arena, A Combat in the, 272
Arrow and the Song, The, 630
ARTICULATION EXERCISES, 27 et seq.
As I Came Down from Lebanon, 587
Aspirates, 28
As You Like It (quoted), 658-59
At Grandma’s, 391
Authors, Study Great, 2
Author’s Thought, Getting the, 7

B
Baby, Rocking the, 434
Bacon, Francis, 49
Bad Night, A, 131
Ballad of the King’s Singer, The True, 498
Banishment Scene, 662
Bansman, William, 538
Barnes, W. H. L., 683
Barrett, Wilson, 187
Bashford, Herbert, 414, 416, 456, 460, 612, 624
Battle Field, The Children of the, 452
Beecher, Henry Ward, iv, 100
Belief, Author’s Purpose, 113
Bedford-Jones, H., 337
Bell Buoy, The, 70
Bells of San Gabriel, 631
” of Shandon, 636
” The Minaret, 621
Bennett, Henry Holcomb, 525
Beside the Dead, 433
Betty Botter, 30
Bill and His Billboard, 35
Billee, Little, 360
Bishop and the Convict, The, 220
Bishop, Justin Truitt, 142
Black Sailor’s Chanty, The, 408
Blacksmith of Limerick, The, 503
Bland, Henry Meade, 568
Blossom Time, In, 607
Blossoms, Apple, 588
Booth, Gov. Newton, 678
Boy Wanted, A, 285
” The Whistling, 358
Bosher, Kate Langley, 132
Bravest Battle, The, 519
Break! Break! Break!, 433
Breath Sounds, 28
Brook and the Wave, The, 590
Brook, Song of the, 603
Brooks, Fred Emerson, 331, 343, 345, 348, 357, 358, 385, 408,
481
Brookside, The, 579
Brotherhood, 540
Browne, J. Ross, 131, 146, 150, 245
Browning, Elizabeth, 19, 442, 539, 542
Browning, Robert, 57, 63, 64, 66, 99, 304, 305, 321, 429, 548,
627
Brother, Little, 177
Brown Wolf, 183
Bryant, William Cullen, 53
Bullets, The Song of the, 644
Bumpas, Bombardier B., 423
Bunner, Henry C., 336
Burdette, Robert, 24, 148, 157, 158
Buried Heart, The, 434
Burns, Robert, 547, 574, 617
Butterfly, To a February, 642
Byron, Lord, 536

C
Cable, George W., 204
California, 606
Camp-Meeting at Bluff Springs, 142
Camp, Pauline B., 76
Captain, O, My Captain, 171
Carleton, Will, 507
Carmichael, Sarah B., 67, 453
Carruth, W. H., 469
Cary, Alice, 334, 609
Castles, Irish, 344
Catacombs of Palermo, 146
Cavalier’s Song, The, 473
Cave, The Tiger’s, 239
Champlain, Legend of Lake, 207
Channing’s Symphony, 324
Chapman, Arthur, 587
Charge, Pickett’s, 481
Charlie Jones’s Bad Luck, 412
Cheney, Annie Elizabeth, 600, 606
Chesterfield, Lord, 27
Child, R. W., 250
Child of My Heart, 613
Child’s Almanac, A, 392
Children of the Battlefield, The, 452
Chip of the Old Block, A, 193
Christmas at Sea, 510
” in India, 634
” Present for a Lady, A, 137
Christmas Ring, The, 348
Cicely, 332
Clarence, The Dream of, 501
Clark, James Gowdy, 452, 594
Classification of Selections, 113
Clearness and Precision in Speech, 85 et seq.
Clearness of Thought, 113
Coleridge, S. T., 49
Colloquial Selections, 327 et seq.
Colum, Padraic, 616
Columbus, by Joaquin Miller, 626
” Analysis of, 105
” by A. H. Clough, 340
Combat in the Arena, A, 272
Combination Sounds, 29
Co’n Pone’s Hot, When the, 397
Conversational Style, 672
Convict, The Bishop and the, 220
Cooke, Edmund Vance, 396, 404
Coolbrith, Ina, 433, 535, 538, 604, 605, 607
Cooper, Peter, 585
Copper Sin, A Son of, 262
Cornwall, Barry, 533
Coronation, 521
Correct Speech, 12
Corson, Hiram, 97, 101