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GRADUATE STUDIES
I N M AT H E M AT I C S 171
Nonlinear
Elliptic Equations
of the Second
Order
Qing Han
American Mathematical Society

https://doi.org/10.1090//gsm/171
GRADUATE STUDIES
I N M AT H E M AT I C S 171
Nonlinear
Elliptic Equations
of the Second
Order
Qing Han
American Mathematical Society

Providence, Rhode Island
EDITORIAL COMMITTEE
Dan Abramovich
Daniel S. Freed
Rafe Mazzeo (Chair)
Gigliola Staffilani
2010 Mathematics Subject Classification. Primary 35J60, 35J25, 35J93, 35J96.
For additional information and updates on this book, visit

www.ams.org/bookpages/gsm-171
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Han, Qing, 1964–
Title: Nonlinear elliptic equations of the second order / Qing Han.
Description: Providence, Rhode Island : American Mathematical Society, [2016] | Series: Gradu-
ate studies in mathematics; volume 171 | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2015043419 | ISBN 9781470426071 (alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Differential equations, Elliptic. | Differential equations, Nonlinear. | AMS:
Partial differential equations – Elliptic equations and systems – Nonlinear elliptic equations.
msc | Partial differential equations – Elliptic equations and systems – Boundary value problems
for second-order elliptic equations. msc | Partial differential equations – Elliptic equations and
systems – Quasilinear elliptic equations with mean curvature operator. msc | Partial differential
equations – Elliptic equations and systems – Elliptic Monge-Ampère equations. msc
Classification: LCC QA377 .H31825 2016 | DDC 515/.3533–dc23 LC record available at http://
lccn.loc.gov/2015043419
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established to ensure permanence and durability.
Visit the AMS home page at http://www.ams.org/
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 21 20 19 18 17 16
To Yansu, Raymond, and Tommy
Contents
Preface vii
Introduction 1
Chapter 1. Linear Elliptic Equations 7
§1.1. The Maximum Principle 8
§1.2. Krylov-Safonov’s Harnack Inequality 23
§1.3. The Schauder Theory 42
Part 1. Quasilinear Elliptic Equations

Chapter 2. Quasilinear Uniformly Elliptic Equations 51
§2.1. Basic Properties 52
§2.2. Interior C 1 -Estimates 55
§2.3. Global C 1 -Estimates 58
§2.4. Interior C 1,α -Estimates 61
§2.5. Global C 1,α -Estimates 68
§2.6. Dirichlet Problems 73
Chapter 3. Mean Curvature Equations 79
§3.1. Principal Curvatures 80
§3.2. Global Estimates 87
§3.3. Interior Gradient Estimates 100
v
vi Contents
Chapter 4. Minimal Surface Equations 115

§4.1. Integral Formulas 116
§4.2. Differential Identities 127
§4.3. Interior Gradient Estimates 136
§4.4. Interior Curvature Estimates 141
§4.5. Differential Identities: An Alternative Approach 151
Part 2. Fully Nonlinear Elliptic Equations

Chapter 5. Fully Nonlinear Uniformly Elliptic Equations 163
§5.4. Interior C 2,α -Estimates 200
§5.5. Global C 2,α -Estimates 208
Chapter 6. Monge-Ampère Equations 219
§6.4. The Bernstein Problem 241
Chapter 7. Complex Monge-Ampère Equations 253
Chapter 8. Generalized Solutions of Monge-Ampère Equations 277
§8.1. Monge-Ampère Measures 278
§8.3. Global Hölder Estimates 313
§8.4. Interior C 1,α -Regularity 325
§8.5. Interior C 2,α -Regularity 340
Bibliography 355
Index 365
Preface
The theory of nonlinear elliptic partial differential equations of the second or-
der has flourished in the past half-century. The pioneering work of de Giorgi
in 1957 opened the door to the study of general quasilinear elliptic differ-
ential equations. Since then, the nonlinear elliptic differential equation has
become a diverse subject and has found applications in science and engi-
neering. In mathematics, the development of elliptic differential equations
has influenced the development of the Riemannian geometry and complex
geometry. Meanwhile, the study of elliptic differential equations in a geo-
metric setting has provided interesting new questions with fresh insights to
old problems.
This book is written for those who have completed their study of the
linear elliptic differential equations and intend to explore the fascinating field
of nonlinear elliptic differential equations. It covers two classes of nonlinear
elliptic differential equations, quasilinear and fully nonlinear, and focuses
on two important nonlinear elliptic differential equations closely related to
geometry, the mean curvature equation and the Monge-Ampère equation.
This book presents a detailed discussion of the Dirichlet problems for
quasilinear and fully nonlinear elliptic differential equations of the second
order: quasilinear uniformly elliptic equations in arbitrary domains, mean
curvature equations in domains with nonnegative boundary mean curvature,
fully nonlinear uniformly elliptic equations in arbitrary domains, and Monge-
Ampère equations in uniformly convex domains. Global solutions of these
equations are also characterized. The choice of topics is influenced by my
personal taste. Some topics may be viewed by others as too advanced for
a graduate textbook. Among those topics are the curvature estimates for
minimal surface equations, the complex Monge-Ampère equation, and the
vii
viii Preface
generalized solutions of the (real) Monge-Ampère equations. Inclusion of

these topics reflects their importance and their connections to many of the
most active current research areas.
There is an inevitable overlap with the successful monograph by Gilbarg
and Trudinger. This book, designed as a textbook, is more focused on basic
materials and techniques. Many results in this book are presented in special
forms. For example, the quasilinear and fully nonlinear uniformly elliptic
differential equations studied in this book are not in their most general
form. The study of these equations serves as a prerequisite to the study of
the mean curvature equation and the Monge-Ampère equation, respectively.
More notably, our discussion of the Monge-Ampère equations is confined
to the pure Monge-Ampère equations, instead of the Monge-Ampère type
equations.
This book is based on one-semester courses I taught at Peking Univer-
sity in the spring of 2011 and at the University of Notre Dame in the fall
of 2011. Part of it was presented in the Special Lecture Series at Peking
University in the summer of 2007, in the Summer School in Mathematics at
the University of Science and Technology of China in the summer of 2008,
and in a graduate course at Beijing International Center of Mathematical
Research in the spring of 2010.
During the writing of the book, I benefitted greatly from comments
and suggestions of many friends, colleagues, and students in my classes.
Chuanqiang Chen, Xumin Jiang, Weiming Shen, and Yue Wang read the
manuscript at various stages. Chuanqiang Chen and Jingang Xiong helped
write Chapter 8. Bo Guan, Marcus Khuri, Xinan Ma, and Yu Yuan provided
valuable suggestions on the arrangement of the book.
It is with pleasure that I record here my gratitude to my thesis advisor,
Fanghua Lin, who guided me into the fascinating world of elliptic differential
equations more than twenty years ago.
I am grateful to Arlene O’Sean, my editor at the American Mathematical
Society, for reading the manuscript and guiding the effort to turn it into a
book. Last but not least, I thank Sergei Gelfand at the AMS for his help in
bringing the book to press.
The research related to this book was partially supported by grants from
the National Science Foundation.
Qing Han
https://doi.org/10.1090//gsm/171/01
Introduction
The primary goal of this book is to study nonlinear elliptic differential equa-
tions of the second order, with a focus on quasilinear and fully nonlinear
elliptic differential equations. Chapter 1 is a brief review of linear elliptic
differential equations. Then in Part 1 and Part 2, we study quasilinear el-
liptic differential equations and fully nonlinear elliptic differential equations,
respectively.
In Chapter 1, we review briefly three basic topics in the theory of lin-
ear elliptic equations: the maximum principle, Krylov-Safonov’s Harnack
inequality, and the Schauder theory. These topics form the foundation for
further studies of nonlinear elliptic differential equations.
Part 1 is devoted to quasilinear elliptic differential equations and consists
of three chapters.
In Chapter 2, we discuss quasilinear uniformly elliptic equations. We
derive various a priori estimates for their solutions, the estimates of the L∞ -
norms of solutions and their first derivatives by the maximum principle, and
the estimates of the Hölder semi-norms of the first derivatives by Krylov-
Safonov’s Harnack inequality. As a consequence of these estimates, we solve
the Dirichlet boundary-value problem by the method of continuity.
In Chapter 3, we discuss equations of the prescribed mean curvatures,
or the mean curvature equations. We derive various a priori estimates for
their solutions, in particular, the boundary gradient estimates, the global
gradient estimates, and the interior gradient estimates. As a consequence,
we solve the Dirichlet boundary-value problem by the method of continuity.
Difficulties in studying the mean curvature equations are due to a lack of
1
2 Introduction
the uniform ellipticity. The structure of the equation plays an important

role.
In Chapter 4, we discuss minimal surface equations. Needless to say, the
minimal surface equation is a special class of the mean curvature equations;
namely, the mean curvature vanishes identically. It might appear that this
chapter should be included in the previous one. However, there is a reason
for an independent chapter. Results in this chapter are proved by analysis
“upon surfaces”. In other words, we treat minimal surfaces as submanifolds
in the ambient Euclidean spaces and write equations on these submanifolds.
In this chapter, we will derive an improved interior gradient estimate and
an interior curvature estimate for solutions of the minimal surface equation.
Part 2 is devoted to fully nonlinear elliptic differential equations and
consists of four chapters.
In Chapter 5, we discuss fully nonlinear uniformly elliptic equations. We
derive various a priori estimates for their solutions, the estimates of the L∞ -
norms of solutions and their first and second derivatives by the maximum
principle, and the estimates of the Hölder semi-norms of the second deriva-
tives by Krylov-Safonov’s Harnack inequality. As a consequence of these
estimates, we solve the Dirichlet boundary-value problem by the method of
continuity.
In Chapter 6, we discuss Monge-Ampère equations. We derive various
a priori estimates for their solutions, in particular, the boundary Hessian
estimates, the global Hessian estimates, and the interior Hessian estimates.
As a consequence, we solve the Dirichlet boundary-value problem by the
method of continuity. Difficulties in studying the Monge-Ampère equations
are due to a lack of the uniform ellipticity. The structure of the equation
plays an important role.
In Chapter 7, we extend results in the previous chapter to the complex
case and discuss complex Monge-Ampère equations.
In Chapter 8, we discuss generalized solutions of (real) Monge-Ampère
equations. Such solutions are defined only for convex functions, which are
not assumed to be C 2 to begin with. We prove various regularity results un-
der appropriate assumptions on the corresponding Monge-Ampère measures.
In particular, we prove the strict convexity and the interior C 1,α -regularity
for solutions if the Monge-Ampère measures satisfy a doubling condition.
We also derive the optimal interior C 2,α -regularity for solutions under the
condition that the Monge-Ampère measures are induced by positive Hölder
continuous functions. The discussion is based on the level set approach.
Introduction 3
Concerning the arrangement of this book, Part 1 is not a prerequisite for

Part 2. Those who are interested only in fully nonlinear elliptic equations
can skip Part 1 entirely.
We now list some basic notations to be used in this book.

We denote by x points in Rn and write x = (x1 , . . . , xn ) in terms of
its coordinates. For any x ∈ Rn , we denote by |x| the standard Euclidean
norm, unless otherwise stated. Namely, for any x = (x1 , . . . , xn ), we have
n 1
2
|x| = 2
xi .
i=1
Sometimes, we need to distinguish one particular direction and write points

in Rn as (x , xn ) for x = (x1 , . . . , xn−1 ) ∈ Rn−1 . We also denote by Rn+ the
upper half-space; i.e., Rn = {x ∈ Rn : xn > 0}.
Let Ω be a domain in Rn , that is, an open and connected subset in Rn .
We denote by L∞ (Ω) the collection of all bounded functions in Ω and define
the L∞ -norm by
|u|L∞ (Ω) = sup |u|.
Ω
We denote by C(Ω) the collection of all continuous functions in Ω, by C m (Ω)
the collection of all functions with continuous derivatives up to order m,
for any integer m ≥ 1, and by C ∞ (Ω) the collection of all functions with
continuous derivatives of arbitrary order. For any u ∈ C m (Ω), we denote by
∇m u the collection of all partial derivatives of u of order m. For m = 1 and
m = 2, we usually write ∇m u in special forms. For first-order derivatives,
we write ∇u as a vector of the form
∇u = (∂1 u, . . . , ∂n u).
This is the gradient vector of u. For second-order derivatives, we write ∇2 u
in the matrix form
⎛ ⎞
∂11 u ∂12 u · · · ∂1n u
⎜ ∂21 u ∂2n u · · · ∂2n u ⎟
⎜ ⎟
∇2 u = ⎜ . .. .. .. ⎟ .
⎝ .. . . . ⎠
∂n1 u ∂n2 u · · · ∂nn u
This is a symmetric matrix, called the Hessian matrix of u. For derivatives of
order higher than two, we need to use multi-indices. A multi-index β ∈ Zn+
is given by β = (β1 , . . . , βn ) with nonnegative integers β1 , . . . , βn . We write

n
|β| = βi .
i=1
4 Introduction
The partial derivative ∂ β u is defined by
∂ β u = ∂1β1 · · · ∂nβn u,
and its order is |β|. For any positive integer m, we define
⎛ ⎞1

2
|∇ u| =
m ⎝ β 2⎠
|∂ u| ,
|β|=m
and the C m -norm by

m
|u|C m (Ω) = |∇k u|L∞ (Ω) .
k=0
For a constant α ∈ (0, 1), we denote by C α (Ω) the collection of all Hölder
continuous functions in Ω with the Hölder exponent α and by C m,α (Ω) the
collection of all functions in C m (Ω) whose derivatives of order m are Hölder
continuous in Ω with the Hölder exponent α. We define the Hölder semi-
norm by
|u(x) − u(y)|
[u]C α (Ω) = sup ,
x,y∈Ω |x − y|α
x=y
and the C α -norm by

|u|C α (Ω) = |u|L∞ (Ω) + [u]C α (Ω) .
For any positive integer m and a contant α ∈ (0, 1), we also define the
C m,α -norm by

|u|C m,α (Ω) = |u|C m (Ω) + [∇β u]C α (Ω) .
|β|=m
Accordingly, we can define C(Ω̄), C α (Ω̄), C m (Ω̄), C m,α (Ω̄), and C ∞ (Ω̄) if
∂Ω is appropriately regular and define [ · ]C α (Ω̄) , | · |C α (Ω̄) , | · |C m (Ω̄) , and
| · |C m,α (Ω̄) similarly.
We adopt the summation convention on repeated indices throughout the
book. The general form of the linear equations of the second order is given
by
aij (x)∂ij u + bi (x)∂i u + c(x)u = f (x) in Ω,
where aij , bi , c, and f are given functions in Ω. Very often, we write deriva-
tives as ui = ∂i u and uij = ∂ij u for brevity. In this way, we can express
linear equations in the following form:
aij uij + bi ui + cu = f in Ω.
Introduction 5
Subscripts here have different meanings for coefficients and solutions. Sim-
ilarly, the general forms of the quasilinear equations and the fully nonlinear
equations of the second order are given, respectively, by
aij (x, u, ∇u)uij = f (x, u, ∇u) in Ω
and
F (x, u, ∇u, ∇2 u) = 0 in Ω.
A significant portion of the book is devoted to the derivation of a priori
estimates, where certain norms of solutions are bounded by a positive con-
stant C depending only on a set of known quantities. In a given context,
the same letter C will be used to denote different constants depending on
the same set of quantities.
https://doi.org/10.1090//gsm/171/02
Chapter 1
Linear Elliptic
Equations
In this chapter, we review briefly three basic topics in the theory of lin-
ear elliptic equations: the maximum principle, Krylov-Safonov’s Harnack
inequality, and the Schauder theory.
In Section 1.1, we review Hopf’s maximum principle. The maximum
principle is an important method to study elliptic differential equations of
the second order. In this section, we review the weak maximum principle and
the strong maximum principle and derive several forms of a priori estimates
of solutions.
In Section 1.2, we review Krylov-Safonov’s Harnack inequality. The
Harnack inequality is an important result in the theory of elliptic differential
equations of the second order and plays a fundamental role in the study of
nonlinear elliptic differential equations.
In Section 1.3, we review the Schauder theory for uniformly elliptic linear
equations. Three main topics are a priori estimates in Hölder norms, the
regularity of arbitrary solutions, and the solvability of the Dirichlet problem.
Among these topics, a priori estimates are the most fundamental and form
the basis for the existence and the regularity of solutions. We will review
both the interior Schauder theory and the global Schauder theory.
These three sections play different roles in the rest of the book. In the
study of quasilinear elliptic equations in Part 1, the maximum principle
will be used to derive estimates of derivatives up to the first order, the
Harnack inequality will be used to derive estimates of the Hölder semi-
norms of derivatives of the first order, and the Schauder theory will be used
7
8 1. Linear Elliptic Equations
to solve the linearized equations. In the study of fully nonlinear elliptic

equations in Part 2, the maximum principle will be used to derive estimates
of derivatives up to the second order, the Harnack inequality will be used to
derive estimates of the Hölder semi-norms of derivatives of the second order,
and the Schauder theory will be used to solve the linearized equations.
It is not our intention to present a complete review of the linear theory.
Notably missing from this short review are the W 2,p -theory for linear equa-
tions of the nondivergence form and the H k -theory and the de Giorgi-Moser
theory for linear equations of the divergence form. Refer to Chapters 2–9 of
[59] for a complete account of the linear theory.
1.1. The Maximum Principle

The maximum principle is an important method to study elliptic differential
equations of the second order. In this section, we review the weak maximum
principle and the strong maximum principle and derive several forms of a
priori estimates of solutions. Refer to Chapter 3 of [59] for details.
Throughout this section, we let Ω be a bounded domain in Rn and let
aij , bi , and c be bounded and continuous functions in Ω, with aij = aji . We
consider the operator L given by
(1.1.1) Lu = aij ∂ij u + bi ∂i u + cu in Ω,
for any u ∈ C 2 (Ω). The operator L is always assumed to be strictly elliptic
in Ω; namely, for any x ∈ Ω and ξ ∈ Rn ,
(1.1.2) aij (x)ξi ξj ≥ λ|ξ|2 ,
for some positive constant λ. For later reference, L is called uniformly elliptic
if, for any x ∈ Ω and ξ ∈ Rn ,
(1.1.3) λ|ξ|2 ≤ aij (x)ξi ξj ≤ Λ|ξ|2 ,
for some positive constants λ and Λ, which are usually called the ellipticity
constants.
1.1.1. The Weak Maximum Principle. In this subsection, we review

the weak maximum principle and its corollaries. We first introduce subso-
lutions and supersolutions.
Definition 1.1.1. For some f ∈ C(Ω), a C 2 (Ω)-function u is called a sub-
solution (or supersolution) of Lw = f if Lu ≥ f (or Lu ≤ f ) in Ω.
If aij = δij , bi = c = 0, and f = 0, subsolutions (or supersolutions) are

subharmonic (or superharmonic).
Now we prove the weak maximum principle for subsolutions. Recall that
u+ is the nonnegative part of u, defined by u+ = max{0, u}.
1.1. The Maximum Principle 9
Theorem 1.1.2. Let Ω be a bounded domain in Rn and L be given by

(1.1.1), for some aij , bi , c ∈ L∞ (Ω) ∩ C(Ω) satisfying c ≤ 0 in Ω and
(1.1.2). Suppose that u ∈ C(Ω̄) ∩ C 2 (Ω) satisfies Lu ≥ 0 in Ω. Then, u
attains on ∂Ω its nonnegative maximum in Ω̄; i.e.,
max u ≤ max u+ .
Ω̄ ∂Ω
Proof. We first consider the special case Lu > 0 in Ω. If u has a local

nonnegative maximum at a point x0 in Ω, then u(x0 ) ≥ 0, ∇u(x0 ) = 0,
and the Hessian matrix ∇2 u(x0 ) is negative semi-definite. By (1.1.2), the
matrix aij (x0 ) is positive definite. Then,
Lu(x0 ) = (aij ∂ij u + bi ∂i u + cu) (x0 ) ≤ 0.
This leads to a contradiction. Hence, the nonnegative maximum of u in Ω̄
is attained only on ∂Ω.
Now we consider the general case Lu ≥ 0 in Ω. For any ε > 0, consider
w(x) = u(x) + εeμx1 ,
where μ is a positive constant to be determined. Then,
Lw = Lu + εeμx1 (a11 μ2 + b1 μ + c).
Since b1 and c are bounded and a11 ≥ λ > 0 in Ω, by choosing μ > 0 large
enough, we get
a11 μ2 + b1 μ + c > 0 in Ω.
This implies Lw > 0 in Ω. By the special case we just discussed, w attains
its nonnegative maximum only on ∂Ω and hence,
max w ≤ max w+ .
Ω̄ ∂Ω
Then,
max u ≤ max w ≤ max w+ ≤ max u+ + ε max eμx1 .
Ω̄ Ω̄ ∂Ω ∂Ω x∈∂Ω
We have the desired result by letting ε → 0 and using the fact that ∂Ω ⊂ Ω̄.

If c ≡ 0 in Ω, we can draw conclusions about the maximum of u rather

than its nonnegative maximum. A similar remark holds for the strong max-
imum principle.
A continuous function in Ω̄ always attains its maximum in Ω̄. Theorem
1.1.2 asserts that any subsolution continuous up to the boundary attains its
maximum on the boundary ∂Ω, but possibly also in Ω. Theorem 1.1.2 is
referred to as the weak maximum principle. A stronger version asserts that

subsolutions attain their maximum only on the boundary, unless they are
constant.
As a simple consequence of Theorem 1.1.2, we have the following result.
Corollary 1.1.3. Let Ω be a bounded domain in Rn and L be given by
(1.1.2). Suppose that u ∈ C(Ω̄) ∩ C 2 (Ω) satisfies Lu ≥ 0 in Ω and u ≤ 0 on
∂Ω. Then, u ≤ 0 in Ω.
More generally, we have the following comparison principle.

(1.1.2). Suppose that u, v ∈ C(Ω̄) ∩ C 2 (Ω) satisfy Lu ≥ Lv in Ω and u ≤ v
on ∂Ω. Then, u ≤ v in Ω.
The comparison principle provides a reason that functions u satisfying

Lu ≥ f are called subsolutions. They are less than a solution v of Lv = f
with the same boundary value.
In the following, we simply say by the maximum principle when we apply
Theorem 1.1.2, Corollary 1.1.3, or Corollary 1.1.4.
A consequence of the maximum principle is the uniqueness of solutions
of Dirichlet problems.
(1.1.2). Then for any f ∈ C(Ω) and ϕ ∈ C(∂Ω), there exists at most one
solution u ∈ C(Ω̄) ∩ C 2 (Ω) of
Lu = f in Ω,
u=ϕ on ∂Ω.
1.1.2. The Strong Maximum Principle. The weak maximum principle

asserts that subsolutions of linear elliptic equations attain their nonnegative
maximum on the boundary under suitable conditions. In fact, these subso-
lutions can attain their nonnegative maximum only on the boundary, unless
they are constant. This is the strong maximum principle.
For any C 1 -function u in Ω̄ that attains its maximum on ∂Ω, say at
x0 ∈ ∂Ω, we have ∂u ∂ν (x0 ) ≥ 0, where ν is the exterior unit normal to Ω at
x0 . The Hopf lemma asserts that this normal derivative is in fact positive if
u is a subsolution in Ω.
Theorem 1.1.6. Let B be an open ball in Rn with x0 ∈ ∂B and L be given
by (1.1.1), for some aij , bi , c ∈ L∞ (B) ∩ C(B) satisfying c ≤ 0 in B and
(1.1.2). Suppose that u ∈ C 1 (B̄)∩C 2 (B) satisfies Lu ≥ 0 in B, u(x) < u(x0 )

for any x ∈ B, and u(x0 ) ≥ 0. Then,
∂u
(x0 ) > 0,
∂ν
where ν is the exterior unit normal to B at x0 .
Proof. Without loss of generality, we assume B = BR for some R > 0. By

the continuity of u up to ∂BR , we have, for any x ∈ B̄R ,
u(x) ≤ u(x0 ).
For positive constants μ and ε to be determined, we set
w(x) = e−μ|x| − e−μR

2 2
and
v(x) = u(x) − u(x0 ) + εw(x).
We consider w and v in D = BR \ B̄R/2 .
A direct calculation yields

Lw = e−μ|x| 4μ2 aij xi xj − 2μaij δij − 2μbi xi + c − ce−μR
2 2

≥ e−μ|x|
2
4μ2 aij xi xj − 2μ aij δij + bi xi + c ,
where we used c ≤ 0 in BR . By the strict ellipticity (1.1.2), we have

1
aij (x)xi xj ≥ λ|x|2 ≥ λR2 in D.
4
Hence,

Lw ≥ e−μ|x|
2
μ2 λR2 − 2μ aij δij + bi xi + c ≥ 0 in D
if we choose μ sufficiently large. By c ≤ 0 and u(x0 ) ≥ 0, we obtain, for any

ε > 0,
Lv = Lu + εLw − cu(x0 ) ≥ 0 in D.
Next, we discuss v on ∂D in two cases. First, on ∂BR/2 , we have u−u(x0 ) <
0, and hence u−u(x0 ) < −ε for some ε > 0, by the continuity of u on ∂BR/2 .
Note that w < 1 on ∂BR/2 . Then for such an ε, we obtain v < 0 on ∂BR/2 .
Second, on ∂BR , we have w = 0 and u ≤ u(x0 ). Hence, v ≤ 0 on ∂BR and
v(x0 ) = 0. Therefore, v ≤ 0 on ∂D.
In conclusion, Lv ≥ 0 in D and v ≤ 0 on ∂D. By the maximum principle,
we have
v≤0 in D.
In view of v(x0 ) = 0, v attains at x0 its maximum in D̄. Hence, we obtain

∂v
(x0 ) ≥ 0,
∂ν
and then
∂u ∂w
(x0 ) = 2εμRe−μR > 0.
2
(x0 ) ≥ −ε
∂ν ∂ν
This is the desired result.
Theorem 1.1.6 still holds if we substitute for B any bounded C 1 -domain

which satisfies an interior sphere condition at x0 ∈ ∂Ω, namely, if there
exists a ball B ⊂ Ω with x0 ∈ ∂B. This is because such a ball B is tangent
to ∂Ω at x0 . We note that the interior sphere condition always holds for
C 2 -domains.
Now, we are ready to prove the strong maximum principle due to Hopf
[84].
(1.1.1), for some aij , bi , c ∈ C(Ω) satisfying c ≤ 0 in Ω and (1.1.2). Suppose
that u ∈ C(Ω̄) ∩ C 2 (Ω) satisfies Lu ≥ 0 in Ω. Then, u attains only on ∂Ω
its nonnegative maximum in Ω̄ unless u is constant.
Proof. Let M be the nonnegative maximum of u in Ω̄ and set

D = {x ∈ Ω : u(x) = M }.
We prove either D = ∅ or D = Ω by contradiction. Suppose D is a nonempty
proper subset of Ω. It follows from the continuity of u that D is relatively
closed in Ω. Then, Ω \ D is open and we can find an open ball B ⊂ Ω \ D
such that ∂B ∩ D = ∅. In fact, we may choose a point x∗ ∈ Ω \ D with
dist(x∗ , D) < dist(x∗ , ∂Ω) and then take the ball centered at x∗ with the
radius dist(x∗ , D). Suppose x0 ∈ ∂B ∩ D. Obviously, we have
Lu ≥ 0 in B
and
u(x) < u(x0 ) for any x ∈ B and u(x0 ) = M ≥ 0.
By Theorem 1.1.6, we have
∂u
(x0 ) > 0,
∂ν
where ν is the exterior unit normal to B at x0 . On the other hand, x0 is
an interior maximum point of u in Ω. This implies ∇u(x0 ) = 0, which leads
to a contradiction. Therefore, either D = ∅ or D = Ω. In the first case, u
attains only on ∂Ω its nonnegative maximum in Ω̄, while in the second case,
u is constant in Ω.
The following result improves Corollary 1.1.3.

(1.1.1), for some aij , bi , c ∈ C(Ω) satisfying c ≤ 0 in Ω and (1.1.2). Suppose
that u ∈ C(Ω̄) ∩ C 2 (Ω) satisfies Lu ≥ 0 in Ω and u ≤ 0 on ∂Ω. Then, either
u < 0 in Ω or u ≡ 0 in Ω.
1.1.3. A Priori Estimates. As Corollary 1.1.5 shows, an important ap-

plication of the maximum principle is to prove the uniqueness of solutions
of boundary-value problems. Equally or more important is to derive a priori
estimates. In derivations of a priori estimates, it is essential to construct
auxiliary functions. We will provide proofs of all results in this subsection,
as constructing auxiliary functions is an important technique we will develop
in this book. We point out that we need only the weak maximum principle
in this subsection.
We first derive an estimate for subsolutions. In the next result, we write
u+ = max{u, 0} as before and f − = max{−f, 0}.
(1.1.2). Suppose that u ∈ C(Ω̄) ∩ C 2 (Ω) satisfies
Lu ≥ f in Ω,
for some f ∈ L∞ (Ω) ∩ C(Ω). Then,
sup u ≤ max u+ + Cd2 sup f − ,
Ω ∂Ω Ω
where d = diam(Ω) and C is a positive constant depending only on n, λ,

and d|bi |L∞ (Ω) , for i = 1, . . . , n.
Proof. Set
F = sup f − , Φ = max u+ .
Ω ∂Ω
Then, Lu ≥ −F in Ω and u ≤ Φ on ∂Ω. Without loss of generality, we

assume Ω ⊂ {0 < x1 < d} for some constant d > 0. For some constant
μ > 0 to be chosen later, set
μx1

v = Φ + d2 eμ − e d F.
We note that v ≥ Φ in Ω̄. Next, by a straightforward calculation and c ≤ 0

in Ω, we have
μx1
μx1

Lv = −(a11 μ2 + db1 μ)F e d + cΦ + cd2 eμ − e d F
≤ −(a11 μ2 + db1 μ)F.
Note that a11 ≥ λ in Ω by the strict ellipticity (1.1.2). We choose μ large

so that
a11 μ2 + db1 μ ≥ 1 in Ω.
Then, Lv ≤ −F in Ω. Therefore,
Lu ≥ Lv in Ω,
u≤v on ∂Ω.
By the maximum principle, we obtain
u≤v in Ω,
and hence, for any x ∈ Ω,
μx1

u(x) ≤ Φ + d2 eμ − e d F.
This yields the desired result.
The function v in the proof above is what we called an auxiliary function.

In fact, auxiliary functions were already used in the proof of Theorem 1.1.6.
If L in Theorem 1.1.9 does not involve the lower-order terms, i.e., L =
aij ∂ij , we may take
1
v =Φ+ F (d2 − x21 ).
2λ
In this case, a simple calculation yields
1
Lv = − a11 F ≤ −F,
λ
where we used the strict ellipticity (1.1.2).
By replacing u with −u, Theorem 1.1.9 extends to supersolutions and
solutions of the equation Lu = f .

(1.1.2). Suppose that u is a C(Ω̄) ∩ C 2 (Ω)-solution of
Lu = f in Ω,
u=ϕ on ∂Ω,
for some f ∈ L∞ (Ω) ∩ C(Ω) and ϕ ∈ C(∂Ω). Then,
sup |u| ≤ max |ϕ| + C sup |f |,
Ω ∂Ω Ω
where C is a positive constant depending only on n, λ, diam(Ω), and the

sup-norms of bi .
Next, we construct barrier functions for a large class of domains Ω and

discuss global properties of solutions. The geometry of ∂Ω plays an impor-
tant role. We consider the case where Ω satisfies an exterior sphere condition
at x0 ∈ ∂Ω in the sense that there exists a ball BR (y0 ) such that
Ω ∩ BR (y0 ) = ∅, Ω̄ ∩ B̄R (y0 ) = {x0 }.
Lemma 1.1.11. Let Ω be a bounded domain in Rn satisfying an exterior
sphere condition at x0 ∈ ∂Ω and L be given by (1.1.1), for some aij , bi ,
c ∈ L∞ (Ω) ∩ C(Ω) satisfying c ≤ 0 in Ω and (1.1.3). Then, there exists a
function wx0 ∈ C(Ω̄) ∩ C 2 (Ω) such that
Lwx0 ≤ −1 in Ω
and, for any x ∈ Ω̄ \ {x0 },
wx0 (x0 ) = 0, wx0 (x) > 0,
where wx0 depends only on n, λ, Λ, the L∞ -norms of bi , diam(Ω), and R
in the exterior sphere condition.
Proof. Set D = diam(Ω). For the given x0 ∈ ∂Ω, consider an exterior ball
BR (y) with B̄R (y) ∩ Ω̄ = {x0 }. Let d(x) be the distance from x to ∂BR (y);
i.e.,
d(x) = |x − y| − R.
Then, for any x ∈ Ω,
0 < d(x) < D.
Consider a C 2 -function ψ defined in [0, D), with ψ(0) = 0 and ψ > 0 in
(0, D). Set
w = ψ(d) in Ω.
We now calculate Lw. A direct calculation yields
xi − yi
∂i d(x) = ,
|x − y|
δij (xi − yi )(xj − yj )
∂ij d(x) = − .
|x − y| |x − y|3
Hence, |∇d| = 1, aij ∂i d∂j d ≥ λ, and
1 1
aij ∂ij d = aij δij − aij ∂i d∂j d
|x − y| |x − y|
nΛ λ nΛ − λ nΛ − λ
≤ − = ≤ .
|x − y| |x − y| |x − y| R
Next,
∂i w = ψ ∂i d, ∂ij w = ψ ∂i d∂j d + ψ ∂ij d.
Then,
Lw = ψ aij ∂i d∂j d + ψ (aij ∂ij d + bi ∂i d) + cψ.
We now require ψ > 0 and ψ < 0. Hence,

nΛ − λ
Lw ≤ λψ + + b0 ψ ,
R
where
1

n 2
b0 = sup b2i .
Ω i=1
We write this as
Lw ≤ λ ψ + aψ + b − 1,
where
nΛ − λ b0 1
a= + , b= .
λR λ λ
We need to find a function ψ in [0, D) such that
ψ + aψ + b = 0 in (0, D),

ψ < 0, ψ > 0 in (0, D), and ψ(0) = 0.
First, general solutions of the ordinary differential equation above are given
by
b C2 −ad
ψ(d) = − d + C1 − e ,
a a
for some constants C1 and C2 . For ψ(0) = 0, we need C1 = C2 /a. Hence
we have, for some constant C,
b C
ψ(d) = − d + (1 − e−ad ),
a a
which implies

b b
ψ (d) = Ce−ad − = e−ad C − ead ,
a a
ψ (d) = −Cae−ad .
b aD
In order to have ψ > 0 in (0, D), we need C ≥ e . Then, ψ > 0 in
a
(0, D), and hence ψ > ψ(0) = 0 in (0, D). Therefore, we take
b b
ψ(d) = − d + 2 eaD (1 − e−ad )
a
a
b 1 aD −ad
= e (1 − e ) − d .
a a
Such a ψ satisfies all the requirements we imposed.
Now we estimate the modulus of continuity of solutions with the help of

barrier functions constructed in Lemma 1.1.11.
Theorem 1.1.12. Let Ω be a bounded domain in Rn satisfying an exterior

c ∈ L∞ (Ω) ∩ C(Ω) satisfying (1.1.3). Suppose that u is a C(Ω̄) ∩ C 2 (Ω)-
solution of
Lu = f in Ω,
u=ϕ on ∂Ω,
for some f ∈ L∞ (Ω) ∩ C(Ω) and ϕ ∈ C(∂Ω). Then, for any x ∈ Ω,
|u(x) − u(x0 )| ≤ ω(|x − x0 |),
where ω is a nondecreasing continuous function in (0, D), with D = diam(Ω)
and limr→0 ω(r) = 0, depending only on n, λ, Λ, the L∞ -norms of bi and c,
diam(Ω), R in the exterior sphere condition, supΩ |u|, max∂Ω |ϕ|, supΩ |f |,
and the modulus of continuity of ϕ on ∂Ω.
Proof. Set
L0 = aij ∂ij + bi ∂i .
Then, L0 u = f − cu in Ω. Let w = wx0 be the function in Lemma 1.1.11 for
L0 , i.e.,
L0 w ≤ −1 in Ω,
and, for any x ∈ ∂Ω \ {x0 },
w(x0 ) = 0, w(x) > 0.
We set
F = sup |f − cu|, Φ = max |ϕ|.
Ω ∂Ω
Then,
L0 (±u) ≥ −F in Ω.
Let ε be an arbitrary positive constant. By the continuity of ϕ at x0 , there
exists a positive constant δ such that, for any x ∈ ∂Ω ∩ Bδ (x0 ),
|ϕ(x) − ϕ(x0 )| ≤ ε.
We then choose K sufficiently large so that K ≥ F and
Kw ≥ 2Φ on ∂Ω \ Bδ (x0 ).
We point out that K depends on ε through the positive lower bound of w
on ∂Ω \ Bδ (x0 ). Then,
L0 (Kw) ≤ −F in Ω,
and
|ϕ − ϕ(x0 )| ≤ ε + Kw on ∂Ω.
Therefore,
L0 ± (u − ϕ(x0 )) ≥ L0 (ε + Kw) in Ω,
± u − ϕ(x0 ) ≤ ε + Kw on ∂Ω.
By the maximum principle, we have ± u−ϕ(x0 ) ≤ ε +Kw in Ω, and hence
|u − ϕ(x0 )| ≤ ε + Kw in Ω.
Note that the second term in the right-hand side converges to zero as x → x0 .
Then, there exists a positive constant δ < δ such that
|u − ϕ(x0 )| ≤ 2ε in Ω ∩ Bδ (x0 ).
This yields the desired result.
Remark 1.1.13. It is clear from the proof that Theorem 1.1.12 is a local
result. If we assume that ϕ is continuous at x0 ∈ ∂Ω and, in addition, u
is bounded in a neighborhood of x0 , then we can estimate the modulus of
continuity of u at x0 .
By a similar method as in the proof of Theorem 1.1.12, we can derive a

boundary gradient estimate.
Theorem 1.1.14. Let Ω be a bounded domain in Rn satisfying an exterior

c ∈ L∞ (Ω) ∩ C(Ω) satisfying (1.1.3). Suppose that u is a C(Ω̄) ∩ C 2 (Ω)-
solution of
Lu = f in Ω,
u=ϕ on ∂Ω,
for some f ∈ L∞ (Ω) ∩ C(Ω) and ϕ ∈ C 2 (Ω̄). Then, for any x ∈ Ω,

|u(x) − u(x0 )| ≤ C sup |u| + |ϕ|C 2 (Ω̄) + sup |f | |x − x0 |,
Ω Ω
where C is a positive constant depending only on n, λ, Λ, the L∞ -norms of

bi and c, diam(Ω), and R in the exterior sphere condition.
If ∂Ω is C 1 at x0 and u is C 1 at x0 , taking the normal derivative at x0 ,

we obtain

∂u
(x0 ) ≤ C sup |u| + |ϕ| 2 + sup |f | .
∂ν C (Ω̄)
Ω Ω
Proof. Set
L0 = aij ∂ij + bi ∂i .
Then, L0 u = f − cu in Ω. By setting v = u − ϕ, we have
L0 v = f − cu − L0 ϕ in Ω,
v = 0 on ∂Ω.
Next, we set
F = sup |f − cu − L0 ϕ|.
Ω
Then,
L0 (±v) ≥ −F in Ω,
±v = 0 on ∂Ω.
Let w = wx0 be the function in Lemma 1.1.11 for L0 , i.e.,
L0 w ≤ −1 in Ω,
and, for any x ∈ ∂Ω \ {x0 },
w(x0 ) = 0, w(x) > 0.
Then,
L0 (±v) ≥ L0 (F w) in Ω,
±v ≤ F w on ∂Ω.
By the maximum principle, we have ±v ≤ F w in Ω, and hence
|v| ≤ F w in Ω.
With v = u − ϕ and u(x0 ) = ϕ(x0 ), we obtain
|u − u(x0 )| ≤ |u − ϕ| + |ϕ − ϕ(x0 )| ≤ F w + |ϕ − ϕ(x0 )|.
This implies the desired result.
A remark similar to Remark 1.1.13 holds for Theorem 1.1.14.

It does not seem optimal to require ϕ to be C 2 in Theorem 1.1.14. It
is natural to ask whether the result holds if ϕ ∈ C 1 (∂Ω). However, C 1 -
boundary values in general do not yield boundary gradient estimates, even
for harmonic functions in balls. It is a good exercise to derive the best
modulus of continuity for harmonic functions in balls with C 1 -boundary
values.
To end this section, we derive an estimate of the Hölder semi-norms near
the boundary.
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eBook.
Title: Memoirs of the life of David Rittenhouse, LLD. F.R.S., late

president of the American Philosophical Society, &c
interspersed with various notices of many distinguished
men : with an appendix, containing sundry
philosophical and other papers, most of which have not
hitherto been published
Author: William Barton
Release date: December 2, 2023 [eBook #72283]
Language: English
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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MEMOIRS

OF THE LIFE OF DAVID RITTENHOUSE, LLD. F.R.S., LATE
PRESIDENT OF THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY, &C
***
Transcriber’s Note:
Please consult the end notes for a discussion of the
handling of textual notes, and any other issues that arose
during the preparation of this transcription.
The front cover, which contained no text, has been
modified by adding a simplified version of the title page,
and, as so modified, is added to the public domain.
Any corrections are indicated as hyperlinks, which will
navigate the reader to the corresponding entry in the
corrections table in the note at the end of the text.
MEMOIRS
OF THE LIFE
OF
DAVID RITTENHOUSE, LLD. F.R.S.

LATE PRESIDENT OF THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY, &c.
INTERSPERSED WITH
VARIOUS NOTICES OF MANY DISTINGUISHED MEN:
WITH
AN APPENDIX,
CONTAINING
SUNDRY PHILOSOPHICAL AND OTHER PAPERS,
MOST OF WHICH HAVE NOT HITHERTO BEEN PUBLISHED.
BY WILLIAM BARTON, M. A.
COUNSELLOR AT LAW;
Member of the American Philosophical Society, the Mass. Hist. Society, and the
Royal Economical Society of Valencia, in Spain.
PHILADELPHIA:
PUBLISHED BY EDWARD PARKER, NO. 178, MARKET-STREET.
W. Brown, Printer, Church-Alley.
1813.
DISTRICT OF PENNSYLVANIA, TO WIT:
BE IT REMEMBERED, That on the ninth day of October, in the
thirty-eighth year of the independence of the United States of
America, A. D. 1813, William Barton of the said district, hath
deposited in this office the Title of a book, the right whereof he
claims as Author, in the words following, to wit:
“Memoirs of the Life of David Rittenhouse, L. L. D. F.R.S, late
President of the American Philosophical Society, &c. Interspersed
with various notices of many distinguished men: with an Appendix,
containing sundry philosophical and other papers, most of which
have not hitherto been published. By William Barton, M. A.
Counsellor at Law; Member of the American Philosophical Society,
the Mass. Hist. Society, and the Royal Economical Society of
Valencia, in Spain.”
In conformity to the act of the Congress of the United States,
intituled, “An act for the encouragement of learning, by securing the
copies of maps, charts and books, to the authors and proprietors of
such copies during the times therein mentioned.”—And also to the
act entitled, “An act supplementary to an act, entitled, “An act for the
encouragement of learning, by securing the copies of maps, charts,
and books, to the authors and proprietors of such copies during the
times therein mentioned,” and extending the benefits thereof to the
arts of designing, engraving, and etching historical and other prints.”
D. CALDWELL,
Clerk of the District of Pennsylvania.
PREFACE.
Agreeably to the plan on which the following memoirs have been

conducted, it will be perceived, that they contain a great variety of
matter; of which, some particulars have a remote, others merely an
incidental connexion, with the chief object of the work. There may
perhaps be some readers, to whom the introduction of such matters
as the University of Pennsylvania and the Medical School connected
with it, the Pennsylvania Hospital, the Philadelphia Library, and the
like, into the Life of Rittenhouse, will, on a cursory view, seem to
have little or no affinity to that object. But when it is considered, that
this work is designed to comprehend Memoirs, not only of
Rittenhouse personally, but of several literary, scientific, and other
public institutions, as well as of many eminent men, with which his
individual history and the annals of his time were in various ways
associated, it is presumed, that the slight sketches which have been
taken of those matters, in passing along, will neither prove foreign to
the nature of the present undertaking, nor uninteresting in
themselves. As a citizen of Pennsylvania; as an inestimable public
and private character; as a distinguished son of science, of great
probity and extensive usefulness in society; in all these points of
view, the History of Dr. Rittenhouse may be contemplated, as holding
a relationship with almost every object connected with science and
the arts, in his day, that could in any wise contribute to the well being
of mankind in general, and his native country in particular.
Conspicuous and eminently meritorious as he was, yet an insulated
account of his talents, his virtues, and his personal services,—a bare
specification of such qualities and merits as he possessed,
abstracted from a due consideration of the state of society and
circumstances resulting from it, taken in connexion with them, during
the same period,—would not be equally intelligible and instructive;
and, consequently, must prove less useful. For these reasons, the
Memorialist has pursued that course which he conceives to be
perfectly congenial with the main design of his work; as best
calculated to promote its general usefulness, and most suitably
adapted to render it interesting, even to those who read for
amusement solely.
In the adoption of this plan, the writer has been chiefly influenced
by a desire to illustrate the history, genius and character of the times,
which his Memoirs embrace; together with the progress and
improvement of literature, science and the arts, within the same
compass, more especially in this country; and this consideration has
obviously led him to introduce, in conjunction with those objects, as
well as with the Life of the great American Philosopher, various
notices of many persons distinguished for their talents and merit, not
only in our own time, but at different periods in the annals of science.
He has thought it right to rescue from oblivion—to commemorate in
this way, if not to consecrate, the names of some men in this country,
more especially, who deserve to be ranked among the worthies of
America. All this the writer has done, too, in conformity to the mode
prosecuted by some of the most judicious biographers and
memorialists, together with other writers of the same class: It is
believed to be a manner of treating the interesting subjects, on which
the pens of such authors have been employed, which, while it
renders their works more pleasing, greatly increases their
usefulness.—If, therefore, some of the matter which has been
introduced into the present work should, at first sight, appear
irrelative, and even unimportant, the Memorialist nevertheless
flatters himself, that, on reflection, nothing will be deemed really so,
how remotely soever it may seem, on a transient view of the subject,
to be connected with the principal design of the undertaking;
provided it has a tendency to illustrate the great objects he was
desirous of accomplishing.[I1]
The diversity of the materials which are, by these means, blended

with the biographical account of Dr. Rittenhouse, in the Memoirs now
presented to the world, made it expedient, in the opinion of the
writer, to have recourse to the free use of notes, for the purposes of
illustration, reference, and explanation. In a work of such a
complexion—constituting a book composed of very various
materials, designed to elucidate and inform, as well as to please—it
became, in fact, necessary to throw a large portion of that matter into
the form of notes; in order to avoid, by numerous digressions on
subjects arising out of the primary object of the work, too much
disjointing of the text. There are persons, no doubt, by whom this
course will be disapproved. The able and learned author of the
Pursuits of Literature has been accused by some critics—while
others, who have no pretensions to those qualifications which entitle
a man to exercise the functions of a critic, have even affected to
laugh at him—for the multiplicity, the variety, and the length of the
notes, which he has appended to that poem. But its being a satirical
poem, is the circumstance to which may be fairly attributed the
censorious cavils which his work excited: his satire was felt; and it
roused the spleen of those who were its objects, and their partizans.
The present work, however, is far from being intended to satirise any
one; its author has no such object in view: for, although he has, in
some instances, expressed his disapprobation of certain principles,
theories, and even measures, which he believes to be not only
repugnant to true science, but destructive of both private and social
happiness—he has refrained as far as possible from personal
censure;—he would much rather be engaged in the functions of an
eulogist, than those of a censor. The numerous notes the
Memorialist has employed—many of them, too, pretty long—will not
therefore, he presumes, be objected to, on the ground of personality
or supposed ill-humour. He has introduced them into his Memoirs,
because he believed them to be not only useful, but peculiarly well
adapted to a work of this nature, and suited to answer the general
scope of its design. The author may then say, in the words of the
poetical writer just mentioned—as an apology for the frequency and
copiousness of the notes annexed to these Memoirs;—“I have made
no allusions which I did not mean to explain. But I had something
further in my intention. The notes are not always explanatory; they
are of a structure rather peculiar to themselves: many of them are of
a nature between an essay and an explanatory comment. There is
much in a little compass, suited to the exigency of the times. I
expatiated on the casual subject which presented itself; and when
ancient or modern writers expressed the thoughts better than I could
myself, I have given the original languages. No man has a greater
contempt for the parade of quotation (as such) than I have. My
design is not to quote words, but to enforce right sentiments in the
manner which I think best adapted to the purpose, after much
reflection.”
The method of disposing of the notes, in this work, may be thought

by some to impair the symmetry of the page: but so trivial a defect as
this may be, in the typographical appearance of the book, will, it is
supposed, be amply compensated by the convenience the reader
will experience, in having the annotations, almost always, on the
same pages with their respective references.
In the arrangement of the Memoirs, the author has placed the

incidents and circumstances relating to the Life of Dr. Rittenhouse, in
their chronological order, as nearly as could be conveniently done.
An Appendix,—containing sundry letters and other papers, which

could neither be incorporated with propriety into the text, nor inserted
in marginal notes,—is placed after the conclusion of the Memoirs. In
this part of the work the reader will find, among other interesting
documents, Dr. Rittenhouse’s Oration on the subject of Astronomy,
pronounced before the American Philosophical Society, in the year
1775. The addition of this treatise to the Life of our Philosopher, was
rendered the more proper,—independently of the intrinsic merit of
the performance,—by reason of the pamphlet having had, originally,
a very limited circulation, and its being now out of print. The Notes,
added to this little tract, as well as to some other papers in the
Appendix, by the Memorialist, are designated by the initials of his
name; in order to distinguish the annotations from either the notes
originally attached to them,—or from other matter, in the Text, not
written by himself.
The author has embellished his work with an elegantly engraved
likeness of Dr. Rittenhouse, executed by an able artist, from a
portrait painted by Mr. C. W. Peale, in-the year 1772,[I2] when our
Philosopher was forty years of age. At that time he wore a wig,—and
was so represented in the picture: but afterwards, when he resumed
the wearing of his own hair, (and which he continued to do during the
remainder of his life,) the portrait was altered accordingly, by Mr.
Peale. The original picture (now in the possession of Mrs. Sergeant,)
bore a strong resemblance to Dr. Rittenhouse, at that period of his
life in which it was taken; and the engraving, prefixed to these
Memoirs, is an excellent copy.
To a portion of the readers of this work, some of the matter it

contains may be thought superfluous,—because already familiar to
them: and, to men of extensive learning and research, much of the
information herein collected may really be so. But to persons of less
erudition and science, the knowledge thus communicated it may be
presumed, will prove in some degree useful; and the writer indulges
a confident belief, that the greater number of his readers will derive
both instruction and gratification, from a perusal of the Memoirs now
offered to their attention.
The favours which the Memorialist has received, in the

communication of sundry papers and some information for this work,
demand his thankful acknowledgments to the contributors. Among
these,—besides those gentlemen occasionally mentioned in the
Memoirs,—the writer returns his thanks to his worthy relatives, Mrs.
Sergeant, Mrs. Waters, and Dr. Benjamin Smith Barton; and also to
the Rt. Rev. Bishop White, Andrew Ellicott, Esq. John Vaughan, Esq.
the Rev. Dr. Samuel Stanhope Smith, Charles Smith, Esq. and the
Rev. Mr. Cathcart. To the friendship and politeness of these very
respectable characters, he holds himself indebted, on this occasion.
[I3]
It has been the earnest desire of the writer, to adhere strictly to

Truth, in every part of his narrative: he has not, therefore, introduced
into his work any thing, as a matter of Fact, which he did not believe
to be well founded. Wherever he has ventured to express an Opinion
of his own, on any subject of importance, it must be left to the
judgment and candour of others to determine, what weight it may be
entitled to.—In the various quotations which appear in his Memoirs,
the writer has endeavoured to observe the utmost fidelity, with
respect to the originals; and all his translations into the English, from
other languages, have been made with a like scrupulous attention to
correctness.—Some errors and inaccuracies have nevertheless, it
may be readily supposed, found their way into the following work;
though the writer trusts they are neither numerous nor very
important: and, as they are wholly unintentional, of whatever
description they may be, he hopes it will not be deemed
presumptuous in him, to claim for them the indulgence of a candid,
liberal, and discerning public.
Lancaster, in Pennsylvania,
April 11, 1813.
I1. The biographer of Rittenhouse entirely coincides with the

compilers of the Encyclopædia Britannica, in opinion, respecting the
utility and propriety of giving an account, in such Memoirs as the
present, of things as well as persons, connected in various ways with
the main object of the work.
In the preface to that useful dictionary of arts, sciences and

miscellaneous literature, are the following observations: the
consideration they merit; is submitted to the good sense of the
reader.
“While one part of our readers,” say the encyclopedists, when

referring to the biographical department of their work, “will regret that
we have given no account of their favourite philosopher, hero, or
statesman, others may be disposed to remark, that we have dragged
from obscurity the names of many persons who were no proper
objects of such public regard. To these we can only reply, that, with
the greatest biographer of modern times, we have long thought that
there has rarely passed a life, of which a faithful narrative would not
be useful; and that in the lives of the most obscure persons, of whom
we have given any account, we saw something either connected
with recent discoveries and public affairs, or which we thought
capable of affording a lesson to great multitudes in similar
circumstances.”—“Between eminent achievements and the scenes
where they were performed, there is a natural and necessary
connexion. The character of the warrior is connected with the fields
of his battles; that of the legislator, with the countries which he
civilized; and that of the traveller and navigator, with the regions
which they explored. Even when we read of the persons by whom,
and the occasions on which, any particular branch of knowledge has
been improved, we naturally wish to know something of the places
where such improvements were made.”
I2. Mr. C. W. Peale painted at the same time another portrait of

him, for himself; which is likewise altered from the original painting. It
has a place in Mr. Peale’s Gallery of Portraits. There is a third, by the
same hand, in the possession of the American Philosophical Society.
Another good picture of Dr. Rittenhouse was also then made, by

Mr. James Peale, for the Rev. Mr. Barton. This (which represents him
with a wig) is now in the possession of John Moore White, Esq. of
New-Jersey, who married Mr. Barton’s youngest daughter.
A pretty good mezzotinto, in a large size,—done from Mr. C. W.

Peale’s painting of our Philosopher,—was executed by Mr. E.
Savage, in the winter of 1796: and since that time, some small
engravings have been made from different pictures of him; but these
do not so well preserve the likeness.
I3. Some interesting information was likewise communicated by

the late Professor Rush. The death of that gentleman having
occurred since the completion of the present work, the author has
inserted a concise biographical notice of him, in the Appendix, in
place of the mention originally made of his name in this preface.
INTRODUCTION.
The individuals in society, who present to the view of their

cotemporaries, and transmit to posterity, Memorials of illustrious
men,—more especially those of their own country,—discharge
thereby a debt of gratitude: because every man is, directly or
indirectly, interested in the benefits conferred on his species, by
those who enlarge the sphere of human knowledge, or otherwise
promote the happiness of mankind.
But the biographer of an highly meritorious character aims at more

than the mere performance of that duty, which a grateful sense of
obligation exacts from him, in common with every member of the
community, in commemorating the beneficence of the wise and the
good: he endeavours to excite in great and liberal minds, by the
example of such, an ambition to emulate their talents and their
virtues;—and it is these, that, by their union, constitute true
greatness of character.
The meed of applause which may be sometimes, and too often is,
bestowed on meretricious worth, is ever unsteady and fleeting. The
pseudo-patriot may happen to enjoy a transient popularity; false
philosophy may, for a while, delude, if not corrupt, the minds of an
unthinking multitude; and specious theories in every department of
science,—unsupported by experience and untenable on principles of
sound reason,—may give to their projectors a short-lived reputation:
But the celebrity which is coveted by the man of a noble and
generous spirit,—that estimable species of fame, which alone can
survive such ephemera of error as are often engendered by the
vanity of the individual and nurtured by the follies or vices of the
many,—must ever rest on the permanent foundation of truth,
knowledge and beneficence.
Virtue is essentially necessary to the constitution of a truly great

character. For, although brilliant talents are sometimes found
combined with vicious propensities,[1]—the impulse given to men of
this description, often renders their great abilities baneful to society:
they can seldom, if ever, be productive of real public good. Should
eminent talents, possessed by a man destitute of virtue, even take a
right direction in their operation, by reason of some extraordinary
circumstance,—such an event ought never to be calculated on: It is
not the part of common sense,—much less of a cautious prudence,
acquired by a knowledge of mankind,—to expect praise-worthy
conduct from any one, whose predominating passions are bad,
however great may be his capability of doing good.
While, therefore, the mind may view, with a sort of admiration, the
achievements of a magnanimous soldier, it turns with indignation
from the atrocities of a military tyrant: and at the same time that it
may be induced to contemplate even with complacency, at the first
view, the plausible, yet groundless speculations of ingenious
theorists, in matters of science,—still the fallacy of their systems,
when developed by experience, strips them of all their tinseled glare
of merit. Thus, too, the applause which the world justly attaches to
the character of a patriot-hero, deserts the unprincipled ruffian-
warrior, however valiant and successful he may prove: In like
manner, reason and experience expose to the censure of the good
and the derision of the wise, the deleterious doctrines of
metaphysical statesmen and philosophers.[2] Such estimable
qualities as they may possess, in either character, are merged in the
mischievous or base ones, with which they are combined: thus,
infamy or contempt eventually become the merited portion of crime
or of folly, as either one or the other may prevail. A Cæsar,[3] a
Cromwell and a Robespierre, with other scourges of mankind, of like
character, will therefore be viewed as objects of execration by
posterity, while the memories of an Alfred, a Nassau, and a
Washington—a Chatham, a Burke, and an Ames,—will be
venerated, to the latest posterity.
Much of the glory of a nation results from the renown of illustrious

men, among its citizens: a country which has produced many great
men, may justly pride itself on the fame which those individuals had
acquired. The community to which we belong is entitled to such
services as we can render to it: these the patriot will cheerfully
bestow; and, in promoting the honour and prosperity of his country, a
large portion of the lustre which the exertion of his talents shall have
shed upon it, are again reflected on himself.[4]
The cultivator of those branches of natural science which

constitute practical and experimental philosophy;—equally with the
teacher of religion and morals,—extends the beneficial effects of his
researches and knowledge beyond the bounds of his particular
country. Truth is every where the same; and the promulgation of it
tends, at all times and in all places, to elevate to its proper station
the dignity of man. The more extensively, then, true science can be
diffused, the greater will be the means—the fairer will be the rational
prospect, of enlarging the sphere of human happiness. The
philosopher may, pre-eminently, be considered as a citizen of the
world; yet without detracting in any degree from that spirit of
patriotism, which ever stimulates a good man to contribute his
primary and most important services to his own country. There are,
indeed, some species of aids, which are exclusively due to a
community, by all its citizens; and, consequently, such as they are
bound to withhold from other national communities, in certain
contingencies and under peculiar circumstances. But a knowledge of
those truths which lead to the acquisition of wisdom and practice of
virtue, serves to meliorate the condition of mankind generally, at all
times, and under all circumstances;—inasmuch as they greatly
assist in banishing error, with its frequent concomitant, vice, not only
from the more civilized portions of the world, but also by their
inherent influence, from among nations less cultivated and refined.
The truths promulgated by means of a natural and sublime
philosophy—corresponding, as this does, with the dignity of an
enlightened spirit—must ever emanate from a virtuous heart as well
as an expanded intellect. Hence, the real philosopher,—he whose
principles are unpolluted by the sophisticated tenets of some modern
pretenders to the appellation,—can scarcely fail to be a good man.
Such was the immortal Newton; such were a Boyle, a Hale and a
Barrow,—a Boerhaave, a Stephen Hales and a Bradley; with many
worthies equally illustrious,—whose glories will, for ever, retain their
primitive splendour.
Even the most celebrated sages of antiquity, extremely imperfect

as we know the philosophy of the early ages to have been,
elucidated, by the purity of their lives and the morality of their
doctrines, the truth of the position,—that the cultivation of natural
wisdom, unaided as it then was by the lights of revelation, encreased
every propensity to moral virtue. Such were Socrates, Plato his
disciple, and Anaxagoras; who flourished between four and five
centuries before the Christian era.
The life of Socrates, who is styled by Cicero the Father of

Philosophers, afforded a laudable example of moderation, patience,
and other virtues; and his doctrines abound with wisdom.
Anaxagoras and Plato united with some of the nobler branches of
natural science, very rational conceptions of moral truth. Both of
them had much higher claims to the title of philosophers, than
Aristotle, who appeared about a century afterwards. This
philosopher, however,—for, as such, he continued for many ages to
be distinguished in the schools,—was, like Socrates, more a
metaphysician than an observer of the natural world. His morality is
the most estimable part of his works; though his conceptions of
moral truths were much less just than those of Anaxagoras and
Plato:[5] for his physics are replete with notions and terms alike
vague, unmeaning and obscure.[6] The intimate connexion that
subsists between the physical and moral fitness of things, in relation
to their respective objects, was more evidently known to Anaxagoras
and Plato, than to either Socrates or Aristotle: and the reason is
obvious;—both of the former cultivated the sublime science of
Astronomy.
To this cause, then, may be fairly attributed the half-enlightened

notions of the Deity,[7] and of a future state, entertained by these
pagan searchers after truth. To the same cause may be traced the
sentiment that dictated the reply made by Anaxagoras,—when, in
consequence of his incessant contemplation of the stars, he was
asked, “if he had no concern for his country?”—“I incessantly regard
my country,” said he, pointing to Heaven.
Plato’s attention to the same celestial science unquestionably

enlarged his notions of the Deity, and enabled him to think the more
justly of the moral attributes of human nature. According to Plato—
whose morality, on the whole, corresponds with the system
maintained by Socrates,[8]—the human soul is a ray from the Divinity.
He believed, that this minute portion of infinite Wisdom, Goodness
and Power, was omniscient, while united with the Parent stock from
which it emanated; but, when combined with the body, that it
contracted ignorance and impurity from that union. He did not, like
his master Socrates, neglect natural philosophy; but investigated
many principles which relate to that branch of knowledge:—and,
according to this philosopher, all things consisted of two principles,—
God and matter.
It is evident that Plato believed in the immortality of the soul of

man; but he had, at the same time, very inadequate conceptions of
the mode or state of its existence, when separated from the body. It
seems to have been reserved for the Christian dispensation, to
elucidate this great arcanum, hidden from the most sagacious of the
heathen philosophers.[9] It was the difficulty that arose on this
subject, the incapability of knowing how to dispose of the soul, or
intellectual principle in the constitution of our species, after its
disentanglement from the body; a difficulty by which all the
philosophers, antecedent to the promulgation of Christianity, were
subjected to unsurmountable perplexities;—it was this, that rendered
even the expansive genius of Anaxagoras utterly incompetent to

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Nonlinear Elliptic Equations of the

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2010 Mathematics Subject Classiﬁcation. Primary 35J60, 35J25, 35J93, 35J96.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Part 1. Quasilinear Elliptic Equations

Chapter 4. Minimal Surface Equations 115

Part 2. Fully Nonlinear Elliptic Equations

generalized solutions of the (real) Monge-Ampère equations. Inclusion of

the uniform ellipticity. The structure of the equation plays an important

Concerning the arrangement of this book, Part 1 is not a prerequisite for

We now list some basic notations to be used in this book.

Sometimes, we need to distinguish one particular direction and write points

The partial derivative ∂ β u is deﬁned by

and the C m -norm by

and the C α -norm by

to solve the linearized equations. In the study of fully nonlinear elliptic

1.1. The Maximum Principle

1.1.1. The Weak Maximum Principle. In this subsection, we review

If aij = δij , bi = c = 0, and f = 0, subsolutions (or supersolutions) are

Theorem 1.1.2. Let Ω be a bounded domain in Rn and L be given by

Proof. We ﬁrst consider the special case Lu > 0 in Ω. If u has a local

If c ≡ 0 in Ω, we can draw conclusions about the maximum of u rather

referred to as the weak maximum principle. A stronger version asserts that

More generally, we have the following comparison principle.

The comparison principle provides a reason that functions u satisfying

1.1.2. The Strong Maximum Principle. The weak maximum principle

(1.1.2). Suppose that u ∈ C 1 (B̄)∩C 2 (B) satisﬁes Lu ≥ 0 in B, u(x) < u(x0 )

Proof. Without loss of generality, we assume B = BR for some R > 0. By

For positive constants μ and ε to be determined, we set

w(x) = e−μ|x| − e−μR

where we used c ≤ 0 in BR . By the strict ellipticity (1.1.2), we have

if we choose μ suﬃciently large. By c ≤ 0 and u(x0 ) ≥ 0, we obtain, for any

In view of v(x0 ) = 0, v attains at x0 its maximum in D̄. Hence, we obtain

Theorem 1.1.6 still holds if we substitute for B any bounded C 1 -domain

Proof. Let M be the nonnegative maximum of u in Ω̄ and set

The following result improves Corollary 1.1.3.

1.1.3. A Priori Estimates. As Corollary 1.1.5 shows, an important ap-

where d = diam(Ω) and C is a positive constant depending only on n, λ,

Then, Lu ≥ −F in Ω and u ≤ Φ on ∂Ω. Without loss of generality, we

We note that v ≥ Φ in Ω̄. Next, by a straightforward calculation and c ≤ 0

Note that a11 ≥ λ in Ω by the strict ellipticity (1.1.2). We choose μ large

This yields the desired result.

The function v in the proof above is what we called an auxiliary function.

Theorem 1.1.10. Let Ω be a bounded domain in Rn and L be given by

where C is a positive constant depending only on n, λ, diam(Ω), and the

Next, we construct barrier functions for a large class of domains Ω and

We now require ψ > 0 and ψ < 0. Hence,

Now we estimate the modulus of continuity of solutions with the help of

Theorem 1.1.12. Let Ω be a bounded domain in Rn satisfying an exterior

By the maximum principle, we have ± u−ϕ(x0 ) ≤ ε +Kw in Ω, and hence

|u − ϕ(x0 )| ≤ 2ε in Ω ∩ Bδ (x0 ).

This yields the desired result.