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Nonprofit MANAGEMENT
Principles and Practice
Fourth Edition
2
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Los Angeles | London | New Delhi | Singapore | Washington DC
3
Nonprofit MANAGEMENT
Principles and Practice
Fourth Edition
Michael J. Worth
The George Washington University
Los Angeles
London
New Delhi
Singapore
Washington DC
4
Copyright © 2017 by SAGE Publications, Inc.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by
any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any
information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.
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Printed in the United States of America
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Worth, Michael J., author.
Title: Nonprofit management : principles and practice / Michael J. Worth.
Description: Fourth edition. | Los Angeles : SAGE, [2017] | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2015040089 | ISBN 9781483375991 (pbk. : alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Nonprofit organizations—Management.
Classification: LCC HD62.6 .W675 2017 | DDC 658/.048—dc23 LC record available at

http://lccn.loc.gov/2015040089
This book is printed on acid-free paper.
16 17 18 19 20 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
6
Brief Contents
1. Acknowledgments
2. Preface
3. PART I. Understanding Nonprofit Management, the Nonprofit Sector, and
Nonprofit Organizations
4. 1. Nonprofit Management as a Profession and a Field of Study
5. 2. Overview of the Nonprofit Sector
6. 3. Theories of the Nonprofit Sector and Nonprofit Organizations
7. PART II. Governing and Leading Nonprofit Organizations
8. 4. Nonprofit Governing Boards
9. 5. Executive Leadership
10. PART III. Managing the Nonprofit Organization
11. 6. Ensuring Accountability and Measuring Performance
12. 7. Developing Strategy and Building Capacity
13. 8. Collaborations, Partnerships, and Mergers
14. 9. Managing Staff and Service Volunteers
15. 10. Marketing and Communications
16. 11. Advocacy and Lobbying
17. PART IV. Obtaining and Managing Resources
18. 12. Financial Management
19. 13. Philanthropic Fundraising
20. 14. Earned-Income Strategies
21. 15. Government Grants and Contracts
22. PART V. Special Topics
23. 16. Social Entrepreneurship and Innovation
24. 17. Governing and Managing International and Global Organizations
1. Conclusion
2. Appendix: Cases for Discussion
1. 1. New York City Opera
2. 2. Share Our Strength
3. 3. The Y
3. References
4. Index
5. About the Author
7
Detailed Contents
Acknowledgments
Preface
PART I. Understanding Nonprofit Management, the Nonprofit Sector, and
Nonprofit Organizations
1 Nonprofit Management as a Profession and a Field of Study
A Revolution in Management
A Distinct Profession
Nonprofit Management as a Field of Study
Toward a Balanced Approach
Proceeding With Realism and Pride
Chapter Summary
Key Terms and Concepts
Questions for Discussion
Suggestions for Further Reading
Books/Journals
Articles
Websites
2 Overview of the Nonprofit Sector
America’s Nonprofit Sector: A Historical Overview
Searching for a Common Vocabulary
Alternatives to Nonprofit
Size of the U.S. Nonprofit Sector
Differentiating the Nonprofit Sector
National Taxonomy of Exempt Entities
IRS Classifications
Salamon’s Anatomy
The Spectrum of Organizations
Emerging New Models
Commercialization and Tax Exemption
Implications for Nonprofit Managers
Chapter Summary
Notes
◼ Case 2.1. A Hybrid Organization: The GlobalGiving
Foundation and ManyFutures Inc.
◼ Case 2.2. A Double Bottom Line: Ben & Jerry’s
Books
8
Articles
Websites
3 Theories of the Nonprofit Sector and Nonprofit Organizations
Explaining the Nonprofit Sector
Nonprofit Theory Across the Disciplines
The Failure Theories
Market and Government Failure
Nonprofits as Gap Fillers
Supply-Side Theories
Theories of Altruism and Giving
Theory of the Commons: An Interdisciplinary Approach
Changing Definitions of Private, Public, and Common
Explaining Nonprofit Organizations
Characteristics of Nonprofit Organizations
Nonprofits as Open Systems
Resource Dependency
Isomorphism
Explaining Nonprofit Organizational Structures
Organizational Culture
Chapter Summary
Note
◼ Case 3.1 The Smithsonian Institution and the Catherine B.
Reynolds Foundation
◼ Case 3.2 The National Trust for Historic Preservation
Books
Articles
PART II. Governing and Leading Nonprofit Organizations
4 Nonprofit Governing Boards
Types of Governing Boards
Elected Boards
Self-Perpetuating Boards
Appointed and Hybrid Boards
Advisory Boards and Councils
The Governing Board’s Responsibilities
The Governing Board’s Legal Responsibilities
The Governing Board’s Functional Responsibilities
The Board and the CEO
Carver’s Policy Governance Model
Chait, Ryan, and Taylor: Governance as Leadership
9
Herman and Heimovics: Psychological Centrality and Board-
Centered Leadership
Explaining Board Behavior
Managing Nonprofit Boards
Role of the Chair
Governance Committee
Board Professionals
Nonprofit Board Effectiveness
Critics of Board Performance
The Search for Best Practices
The Challenge of Nonprofit Governance
Chapter Summary
Note
◼ Case 4.1 The American University
◼ Case 4.2 The Hershey Trust
Books
Websites
5 Executive Leadership
The CEO’s Job
Management and Leadership
Overview of Leadership Theories
Transformational Leadership
Charismatic Leadership
The Effective Nonprofit CEO
Focus on Mission
Focus on the Board
Focus on External Relationships
Share Leadership and Empower Others
Focus on Key Roles and Priorities
Use the “Political Frame”
Right Person, Right Place, Right Time
Founder Syndrome
Executive Transitions
Leading Change
Chapter Summary
Note
◼ Case 5.1 A Change in Leadership at Habitat for Humanity
◼ Case 5.2 Challenge and Change at United Way
10
Books
Article
Websites
PART III. Managing the Nonprofit Organization
6 Ensuring Accountability and Measuring Performance
Defining and Ensuring Accountability
Mechanisms for Accountability
Requirements of Law
Self-Regulation: Standards and Accreditation
Transparency
Measuring Performance
Financial Ratios
Benchmarking
Outcomes
Common Indicators
Balanced Scorecard
Social Return on Investment
Blended Value
Performance Measurement: The Continuing Debate
Chapter Summary
◼ Case 6.1 Greg Mortenson and the Central Asia Institute
◼ Case 6.2 Youth Villages
Books
Articles/Report
Websites
7 Developing Strategy and Building Capacity
Understanding Strategy
Strategic Planning and Strategic Management
The Strategic Planning Process
Planning to Plan
Defining Mission, Values, and Vision
Assessing the Situation
Identifying Strategic Issues
Setting Goals
Developing Strategies
Setting Objectives
Writing the Strategic Plan
11
Developing an Operational Plan
Benefits and Limitations of Strategic Planning
Building Organizational Capacity
Defining and Understanding Capacity
Capacity Building in Action
A Model for Capacity Building
Capacity and Organizational Life Cycles
Capacity Building Evaluated
Chapter Summary
◼ Case 7.1 New Hope Housing Strategic Plan 2011–2016
Books/Brochure
Websites
8 Collaborations, Partnerships, and Mergers
Growing Interest in Collaboration
A Continuum of Relationships
Exploring Collaborations and Mergers
Drivers of Collaborations and Mergers
Obstacles to Collaboration and Merger
Motivations
Culture
Egos
Brand Identity
Community or Political Objections
Costs
Conditions for Success
Driven by Mission
Commitment From Top Leadership
Trust
Relatedness
Process
Collaborations and Mergers Within National Nonprofits
Cross-Sector Collaboration
A Continuum of Cross-Sector Collaboration
Advantages and Disadvantages of CSCs
Obstacles and Conditions for Success
Achieving Collective Impact
Chapter Summary
◼ Case 8.1 N Street Village and Miriam’s House
12
Books
Articles/Report
Websites
Notes
9 Managing Staff and Service Volunteers
Human Resources Management
An Overview of Management Theories
Understanding Human Motivations
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
McGregor: Theory X and Theory Y
McClelland: Three Needs Theory
Myers and Briggs: Personality Types
Herzberg: Motivators and Dissatisifers
Motivations of Nonprofit Staff
Life Cycles and Generations
Applying Theories to Managing the Nonprofit Workforce
Managing Volunteers
Types of Volunteers
Motivations of Volunteers
Volunteer Program Practices
Volunteer Management as a Career Field
The Future of Volunteerism
Chapter Summary
◼ Case 9.1 Getta Grant
◼ Case 9.2 Rita Writer
◼ Case 9.3 Bob the Builder
◼ Case 9.4 Myra the Volunteer Manager
Books
Websites
10 Marketing and Communications
Defining and Understanding Marketing
Marketing Serves the Mission
Marketing Means Action
Marketing as a Process
The Marketing Mix
Product
Place
13
Promotion
Market Segmentation
Price
Defining the Exchange
Building the Brand
Integrated Marketing Communication (IMC)
Crafting an Effective Message
Crisis Communications
Online Media
Evaluating Marketing and Communication
Chapter Summary
Note
◼ Case 10.1 AARP
◼ Case 10.2 Susan G. Komen Foundation
Books/Journals
Websites
11 Advocacy and Lobbying
Basic Distinctions
Overview of Lobbying Law
Option I: Substantial Part Test
Option II: 501(h) Expenditure Test
Political Campaign Activity
Implementing an Advocacy Program
Continuing Issues and Debate
Chapter Summary
Note
◼ Case 11.1 Mothers Against Drunk Driving (MADD)
◼ Case 11.2 CASA
Books
Articles
Websites
PART IV. Obtaining and Managing Resources
12 Financial Management
Definitions of Key Concepts
Overview of Nonprofit and Personal Finances
Nonprofit Financial Statements
14
Statement of Financial Position
Statement of Activities
Statement of Cash Flows
Statement of Functional Expenses
Using Financial Ratios
Managing Endowment Funds
Developing and Managing the Budget
Risk Management, Financial Policies, and Controls
Chapter Summary
Notes
◼ Case 12.1 Hull House
◼ Case 12.2 Corcoran Gallery of Art and Corcoran School of the
Arts and Design
Books
Websites
13 Philanthropic Fundraising
Definitions and Distinctions
Motivations for Giving
Understanding Corporate Philanthropy
Foundation Giving
Motivations of Individual Donors
The Fundraising Process
Identifying Priorities and Developing the Case
Identifying and Qualifying Prospects
Cultivating Prospects
Soliciting the Gift
Acknowledging and Recognizing Donors
Stewarding the Gift and the Relationship
Individual Donor Life Cycles
Planned Giving
Campaigns
Managing Fundraising Programs
Advancement Services
Prospect Management
Fundraising Efficiency and Effectiveness
Staff Performance and Accountability
Ethics and Professional Standards
Chapter Summary
Note
15
◼ Cases 13.1a–g Fundraising Ethics
Books
Articles
Websites
14 Earned-Income Strategies
Why Earned Income?
Partnerships With Business
Licensing
Sponsorships
Cause Marketing
Operational Relationships
Putting Partnerships Together
Nonprofit Business Ventures
Identifying Business Opportunities
Feasibility Analysis and Business Planning
Earned-Income Strategies: Issues and Decisions
Sorting Out the Issues
Evaluating Opportunities Against Mission
A Continuing Debate
Chapter Summary
◼ Case 14.1 Minnesota Public Radio
◼ Case 14.2 Aspire CoffeeWorks
Books
Websites
15 Government Grants and Contracts
Changes in Sources and Patterns of Support
Grants, Contracts, and Fees
Government Support: Opportunities and Challenges
Seeking Government Support
Identifying Grant Opportunities
Evaluating Grant Opportunities
Preparing and Submitting an Application or Proposal
Nonprofits in the Policy Arena
Chapter Summary
◼ Case 15.1 SEED Foundation
16
Books/Reports
Websites
PART V. Special Topics
16 Social Entrepreneurship and Innovation
Defining and Understanding Social Entrepreneurship
Social Enterprise School
Social Innovation School
History of Social Entrepreneurship as a Field
Theories of Social Entrepreneurship
Social Entrepreneurship Across Fields and Around the World
Building High-Impact Nonprofits
Sustaining Innovation
The Future of Social Entrepreneurship
Chapter Summary
◼ Case 16.1 KaBOOM!
◼ Case 16.2 Harlem Children’s Zone
Books/Articles
Websites
17 Governing and Managing International and Global Organizations
Definitions and Scope of International Organizations
International Philanthropy and Fundraising
International Giving
Global Fundraising
International Nonprofit Governance and Management
Managing Across Cultures
Governing International and Global Organizations
Structuring International NGOs
Chapter Summary
◼ Case 17.1 Médecins Sans Frontières/Doctors Without Borders
◼ Case 17.2 Haitian Earthquake Relief and Recovery
Books
Websites
Conclusion
Appendix: Cases for Discussion
17
Ancillaries
Ancillary materials further support and enhance the learning goals of the fourth edition of
Nonprofit Management. These ancillary materials include:
Instructor Resources
Test banks with multiple choice, true/false and essay questions for each chapter
Editable chapter-specific PowerPoint slides
Sample course syllabi
Chapter outlines
Case activities
Discussion questions for each chapter
Student Resources
Video and multimedia links
EXCLUSIVE! Access to certain full-text SAGE journal articles that have been
carefully selected for each chapter
Visit study.sagepub.com/worth4e to access the support materials for Nonprofit

Management, Fourth Edition.
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{314}
MODUS VIVENDI, Alaskan Boundary.
See (in this volume)

ALASKA BOUNDARY QUESTION.
MODUS VIVENDI, The Newfoundland.

NEWFOUNDLAND: A. D. 1899-1901.
MOMBASA-VICTORIA RAILWAY, The.

UGANDA RAILWAY.
----------MONETARY QUESTIONS AND MEASURES: Start--------
MONETARY QUESTIONS AND MEASURES: A. D. 1895.

The situation of the Treasury of the United States.
Contract for replenishing its gold reserve.

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1895 (JANUARY-
FEBRUARY).
MONETARY QUESTIONS AND MEASURES: A. D. 1895-1896.

The gold reserve in the U. S. Treasury again imperilled.
Refusal of relief by the Senate.

MONETARY QUESTIONS AND MEASURES:
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1895-1896 (DECEMBER-FEBRUARY).
The Silver Question in the United States
Presidential elections.

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1896 (JUNE-NOVEMBER);
and
1900 (MAY-NOVEMBER).

Movements for monetary reforms in the United States.

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1896-1898.

Renewal of the privileges of the Bank of France.
The privileges of the Bank of France, as the fiscal agent of

the French Government, expired with the close of the year
1897, and renewal of them was opposed by the Radicals and
Socialists, who demanded the creation of a State Bank. The
government succeeded, however (June, 1897), in carrying the
measure necessary for continuing the existing system, on terms
somewhat more favorable to the state than before.
MONETARY QUESTIONS AND MEASURES: A. D. 1897 (March).

Adoption of the gold standard in Japan.
By a law of the Japanese Parliament, passed in March, 1897, to

come into force October 1, a gold monetary standard was
adopted, at the ratio of 32½ to 1, the silver dollar to be
legal tender until six months after notice given of its
withdrawal.
MONETARY QUESTIONS AND MEASURES: A. D. 1897 (April-

October).
Negotiation by American Commissioners in Europe for an
international bi-metallic agreement.
In fulfilment of the pledge given by the Republican party, at

its national convention, in 1896, that it would use efforts to
bring about an international agreement for free coinage of
gold and silver at some common ratio, the following Act was
passed by the two Houses of Congress in January and February,
1897: "That whenever after March 4, 1897, the president of the
United States shall determine that the United States should be
represented at any international conference called by the
United States or any other country with a view to securing by
international agreement a fixity of relative value between
gold and silver as money by means of a common ratio between
these metals, with free mintage at such ratio, he is hereby
authorized to appoint five or more commissioners to such
international conference; and for compensation of said
commissioners, and for all reasonable expenses connected
therewith, to be approved by the secretary of state, including
the proportion to be paid by the United States of the joint
expenses of any such conference, the sum of $100,000, or so
much thereof as may be necessary, is hereby appropriated. That
the president of the United States is hereby authorized, in
the name of the government of the United States, to call, in
his discretion, such international conference, to assemble at
such point as may be agreed upon. And he is further
authorized, if in his judgment the purpose specified in the
first section hereof can thus be better attained, to appoint
one or more special commissioners or envoys to such of the
nations of Europe as he may designate, to seek by diplomatic
negotiations an international agreement for the purpose
specified in the first section hereof. And in case of such
appointment so much of the appropriation herein made as shall
be necessary shall be available for the proper expenses and
compensation of such commissioners or envoys." Pursuant to
this Act, President McKinley, on the 12th of April, appointed
Senator Edward O. Wolcott; of Colorado, ex-Vice-President
Adlai E. Stevenson, of Illinois, and General Charles J. Paine,
of Massachusetts, to be commissioners for the purpose which
the bill describes. The commissioners first visited Paris, and
there obtained assurances from the French government of
cordial cooperation and support. They then proceeded to
London, for negotiation with the British authorities, on whose
attitude towards the movement for international action in the
matter its success was well known to depend. Some members of
the British government, conspicuously Mr. Balfour, were
outspoken advocates of bi-metallism, and much was hoped from
the discussion to be opened with them. The American
commissioners were cordially received, and they were invited
to a formal meeting, on the 12th of July, with Lord Salisbury,
the Prime Minister, Mr. Balfour, First Lord of the Treasury, Sir
Michael Hicks-Beach, Chancellor of the Exchequer, and Lord
George Hamilton, Secretary of State for India. The American
Ambassador, Mr. Hay, accompanied them to the conference, which
was held at the Foreign Office. A memorandum of the
conversation at this meeting, and at a second one held on the
15th, together with a correspondence which followed, were
published later in a parliamentary "blue book," from which the
following account is drawn. Mr. Wolcott explained the wish of
the American envoys to obtain the views of several
governments, preliminary to the inviting of an international
bi-metallic conference. He added that they expected to have,
in England, the full cooperation of the Ambassador of the
French Republic, who happened, for the moment, to be absent
from the country, but who had requested them to proceed with
the meeting in his absence. "Mr. Wolcott then presented some
reasons which, in the opinion of the Special Envoys, rendered
it desirable that some international agreement for the
restoration of bimetallism should be reached, and explained
why, in their opinion, the success of this effort depended
upon the attitude which England would take regarding the
question. He then stated that the Special Envoys requested
that England should agree to open English mints as its
contribution to an attempt to restore bimetallism by
international agreement, and dwelt upon the importance of the
fact that France and the United States were together engaged
in an attempt to bring about such an agreement, and were
cooperating together to that end. Lord Salisbury desired to
know if the French Government would co-operate upon the basis
of opening their mints to the free and unlimited coinage of
silver.
{315}
Mr. Wolcott answered in the affirmative. Lord Salisbury then
asked at what ratio, and was informed by Mr. Wolcott that the
French Government preferred the ratio of 15½ to 1, and that
the United States were inclined to yield this point and accept
this as a proper ratio. Considerable discussion on the
question of the ratio and the method by which it should be
settled then took place. … It was then suggested that further
proceedings should be deferred until the French Ambassador
might be also present. The Chancellor of the Exchequer, in
further conversation, said that if the suggestion of opening
the English mints was to be made, he thought an answer in the
negative would undoubtedly be given. The First Lord of the
Treasury asked whether, assuming this request for opening
English mints to be refused, it was desired that the subject
be discussed upon the basis of something different and less
than the opening of English mints. Upon a mutual understanding
that in the absence of the French Ambassador, anything said
should be considered as said informally, a discussion then
took place as to the concessions that England might make
towards an international solution of the question, if it
should refuse to open English mints. Mr. Wolcott, for the
Special Envoys, presented the following as a list of
contributions which, among others, England might make towards
bimetallism if an international agreement could be effected:
1. Opening of the Indian mints. Repeal of the order making the

sovereign legal tender in India.
2. Placing one-fifth of the bullion in the Issue Department of
the Bank of England in silver.
3.
(a.) Raising the legal tender limit of silver to, say, £10.
(b.) Issuing the 20s. notes based on silver, which shall be
legal tender.
(c.) Retirement, gradual or otherwise, of the 10s. gold
pieces, and substitution of paper based on silver.
4. Agreement to coin annually £ … of silver [present silver

coinage average for five years about £1,000,000, less annual
withdrawal of worn and defaced coin for recoinage, £350,000].
5. Opening of English mints to coinage of rupees, and for

coinage of British dollar, which shall be full tender in
Straits Settlements and other silver standard Colonies, and
tender in the United Kingdom to the limit of silver legal
tender.
6. Colonial action, and coinage of silver in Egypt.
7. Something having the general scope of the Huskisson plan.
Some general conversation followed in regard to the preceding

suggestions, and the interview terminated, to be resumed on
the 15th July, 1897, when it was understood that the French
Ambassador would also be present."
At the second meeting, July 15, Baron de Courcol, Ambassador

of the French Republic, and M. L. Geoffray, French Minister
Plenipotentiary, were present, and the former spoke at length,
stating the position of the French government on the question
of the free coinage of silver. He said: "'Our population,
notably the agricultural population, finds that it has not at
its disposition sufficient resources in currency, in metallic
money. On the other hand, if the Government in the actual
state of affairs reopens the mints to the free coinage of
silver, we would be flooded by the abundance of this metal
coming from all other countries of the world, and we could not
resist the even greater evil of the inevitable depreciation of
one of our precious metals, that is to say, of the effective
destruction of the legal ratio upon which our monetary system
is based. … In other words, we think that the production of
silver, more active in certain quarters of the globe in the
last quarter of a century, is not of itself considerable
enough to change in an enduring manner the normal ratio
between gold and silver after these two metals will have been
scattered over the entire surface of the world among all
nations who are called upon to absorb them. There is, then, in
our eyes, a need which is perhaps transitory, but which is
actually common to all the commercial nations, of taking
measures adequate for assuring, by a common understanding, the
re-establishment of the normal ratio of 15½ between silver and
gold. If measures of this kind should be adopted by all the
commercial nations, we would be able to reopen our mints to
the free coinage of silver without fear of being submerged by
an excessive influx of this metal. The reopening of the mints
of all the commercial countries to the free coinage of silver
in the ratio of 15½ with gold would be the most natural and
the most efficacious means of arriving at the result sought
for. This is the desideratum which I am instructed to bring
forward here, and which I am particularly to urge upon the
English Government as a primordial condition of the success of
the common understanding. If the Government of the Queen, even
in consenting to reopen the mints in India, should refuse to
adopt the same measure for England, at least would they not be
able to take certain measures which would be, up to a certain
point, equivalent, in order to maintain the full value of
silver, and to prevent India from being the victim of a
depreciation of this metal in consequence of an unlimited
coinage? … By way of suggestion, I would indicate, as one of
the measures which the English Government might usefully
adopt, the annual purchase of a certain quantity of silver
metal, which might afterwards be disposed of as seemed
best-either it might be preserved in ingots, or it might be
used for regular consumption, or it might be sent to India.
This quantity might be fixed approximately, at least, for a
number of years, at a sum of £10,000,000 in nominal value.
This is, perhaps, only a palliative; it is, in any event, only
one of the expedients which would be deemed necessary. But I
am to urge strongly that the English Government determine to
take measures of this kind, or other equivalent measures, if,
as I believe, it recognizes with us the necessity of improving
the monetary situation in a great part of its Empire—I may
say, in a great part of the entire world.' Lord Salisbury then
asked whether the French Government would decline to open its
mints unless England would also open her mints. The French
Ambassador replied that he preferred to discuss the subject
upon the basis that France would go to open mints if England
would consent to open her mints, but that he would not exclude
from his view the question of contributions by England towards
maintaining the value of silver, short of open mints. The
Chancellor of the Exchequer, in response to this, stated
definitely that the English Government would not agree to open
English mints to the unlimited coinage of silver, and that,
whatever views he and his colleagues might separately hold on
the question of bimetallism, he thought he could say they were
united upon this point. …
{316}
The suggestions made by the Special Envoys at the interview on
the 12th July were again read, and the Special Envoys accepted
also as important and desirable the proposal that the English
Government should purchase annually, say, £10,000,000 of
silver, with proper safeguards and provisions as to the place
and manner of its use. The French Ambassador expressed his
approval generally of the suggestions of the Special Envoys,
as being serviceable in the consideration of the question. It
was then understood that the proposals submitted by the French
Ambassador and by the Special Envoys of the United States
should be considered, and due notice given when a reply could
be made."
The proposal for the reopening of the Indian mints to silver

was submitted at once by the home authorities of the India
Office, at London, to the government of India, and the reply
of the latter was not received until the following October.
When the reply came, it extinguished hopes of the arrangement
which the American and French governments desired. In a long
despatch, the Indian government explained with clearness the
monetary situation in that country, and discussed the effect
which a return to the unrestricted mintage of silver would
have upon it, under the circumstances and prospects of the
time. "The currency system of India," said the despatch, "is
in a transition state; the Government of India in 1893 decided
to establish a gold standard, and the first step towards that
object was the closing of the mints to silver by Act VIII of
1893. The silver rupee is still the sole legal tender coin,
though the Government has by Executive orders undertaken to
receive gold and sovereigns under certain restrictions, … the
rate of exchange adopted being 16d. the rupee or 15 rupees=£1.
The measures to be taken when the transition period has passed
have not been laid down, but it is probable that the Indian mints
will be opened to gold, and gold coins will be made legal
tender to an unlimited amount; silver rupees would also
continue to be legal tender to an unlimited amount, and the
ratio between the rupee and the gold coins as legal tender
would at the same time be finally settled. The system towards
which India is moving is thus a gold standard of the same kind
as that which now exists in France and the United States, but
with a different ratio for legal tender; but for the present
the mints are closed both to gold and silver. The transition
period has lasted for more than four years, but there is
ground for hope that it is now drawing to a close. The changes
which are involved in the arrangements proposed to Her
Majesty's Government are the following. France and the United
States are to open their mints to the free coinage of silver,
continuing the free coinage of gold and the unlimited legal
tender of coins of both metals, the ratio remaining unchanged
in France and being altered to the French ratio of 15½ to 1 in
the United States. India is to open her mints to silver, to
keep them closed to gold, and to undertake not to make gold
legal tender. France and the United States would thus be
bimetallic: India would be monometallic (silver); while most
of the other important countries of the world would be
monometallic (gold). The object which the proposers have in
view is the establishment of a stable relation between the
values of gold and of silver. This would include the
establishment of a stable exchange between the rupee and
sterling currency, which was the object of the Government of
India in the proposals made in our financial despatch of the
21st June, 1892, which proposals ultimately resulted in the
adoption, in view to the attainment of that object, of the
policy of a gold standard, and in the closing of the mints to
the free coinage of silver. If, then, it were certain that the
suggested measures would result in the establishment of a
stable ratio, the Government of India might well consider
whether their adoption would not be preferable to the policy
to which they committed themselves in 1893 in the hope of
attaining the same result by isolated action on the part of
India alone. The principal questions therefore for us to
consider are whether the measures are more likely to succeed
than the policy of 1893, and what consequences to India may be
apprehended if the measures should fail of success after being
brought into operation. … The first result of the suggested
measures, if they even temporarily succeed in their object,
would be an intense disturbance of Indian trade and industry
by the sudden rise in the rate of exchange, which, if the
ratio adopted were 15½ to 1, would be a rise from about 16d.
to about 23d. the rupee. Such a rise is enough to kill our
export trade, for the time at least. If the public were not
convinced that the arrangement would have the effect intended,
or believed that it would not be permanent, the paralysis of
trade and industry would be prolonged and accompanied by acute
individual suffering, none of the advantages expected would be
attained, and the country would pass through a critical period
which would retard its progress for years. How long the crisis
would last before normal or stable conditions were restored it
is not possible to conjecture. It would be long even if the
mercantile and banking community saw that silver was being
steadily maintained at the prescribed ratio, while any
indication of unsteadiness would greatly prolong the period by
giving foundation for doubt. If the doubt should happen to be
justified by the results, the position would be disastrous
alike to the State, to individuals, and to trade generally. …
We cannot help seeing that if the policy of 1893 is now
abandoned, and if the triple union now proposed as a
substitute should fail in its operation or should terminate,
and in its failure subject Indian trade to the violent shocks
we have described, the Government of India could not, as a
responsible Government, call upon the commercial public to
face another prolonged period of doubt, suspense, agitation,
and difficulties. For it must be clearly and fully recognized
that if India joins in the proposed measures, we shall be left
dependent, as the sole means of attaining stability in
exchange, on the success of those measures, and that if they
should fail, India must be content to remain permanently under
the silver standard with all its admitted disadvantages. … We
have given very careful consideration to the question whether
France and the United States are likely, with the help of
India, to be able to maintain the relative value of gold and
silver permanently at the ratio they intend to adopt, and have
come to the conclusion that while we admit a possibility of
the arrangements proposed resulting in the permanent
maintenance of the value of gold and silver at the ratio of
15½ to 1, the probability is that they will fail to secure
that result, and that it is quite impossible to hold that
there is anything approaching a practical certainty of their
doing so.
{317}
One reason for this conclusion is, that the arrangement would
rest on too narrow a basis. A union consisting of two
countries, with a third lending assistance, is a very
different thing from the general international union of all or
most of the important countries of the world, which was
advocated by the Government of India in the despatches of
March and June 1892 and of February and September 1886. To
afford a hope that a monetary union will succeed in
establishing stability in the relative value of gold and
silver, it is essential that the nations adhering to it should
be of such number and importance that the metallic currency of
the whole body shall be of sufficient extent to allow of the
exercise of adequate influence on the value of the two metals.
We doubt whether any two, or even three, nations in the world,
unless, indeed, one of them was Great Britain, could comply
with this condition, and we have no hesitation in saying that
France and the United States and India certainly could not. …
We have no hesitation in recommending your Lordship to refuse
to give the undertaking desired by the Governments of France
and the United States. We are quite clearly of opinion that
the interests of India demand that her mints shall not be
opened as part of an arrangement to which two or three
countries only are parties, and which does not include Great
Britain." Immediately on receiving this reply, Lord Salisbury
informed Ambassador Hay that "Her Majesty's Government feel it
their duty to state that the first proposal of the United States
Representatives is one which they are unable to accept," and
expressing a wish to know "how far the views of the American
and French Governments are modified by the decision now
arrived at, and whether they desire to proceed further with
the negotiations at the present moment."
Great Britain, Parliamentary Publications

(Papers by Command: Commercial, Number 8, 1897).
In the view of the American envoys, it seemed useless to

proceed, with no hope of cooperation from Great Britain, and
they returned to America with a discouraging report.
MONETARY QUESTIONS AND MEASURES: A. D. 1897 (December).
Adoption of the gold standard in Russia.
An imperial ukase declared the adoption of the gold standard

in Russia, authorizing the issue of a new five-rouble gold
piece.

Settlement of the monetary system in the United States.

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1900 (MARCH-
DECEMBER).
MONETARY QUESTIONS AND MEASURES: A. D. 1900 (November).

Withdrawal of legal tender silver coins in Germany.

GERMANY: A. D. 1900 (NOVEMBER).
----------MONETARY QUESTIONS AND MEASURES: End--------
MONGOLIA.

MANCHURIA AND MONGOLIA.
MONOPOLIES.

TRUSTS: UNITED STATES.
MONROE DOCTRINE, The:

As emphasized in the Treaty of International Arbitration.

PEACE CONFERENCE.
MONROE DOCTRINE, The:
Its discussion as involved in the Venezuela Boundary Question.

VENEZUELA; A. D. 1895 (JULY) and (NOVEMBER).
MONTAUK POINT, Removal of troops from Santiago de Cuba to.

A. D. 1898 (JULY-AUGUST: CUBA).
MONTENEGRO.

BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES.
MOROS, The.

PHILIPPINE ISLANDS; THE NATIVE INHABITANTS;
and A. D. 1899 (MAY-AuGUST).
MORTMAIN, Proposed restrictions on, in France.

FRANCE: A. D. 1901 (JANUARY).
MOSLEMS AND CHRISTIANS:

Conflicts in Armenia.

TURKEY: A. D. 1895.
MOSLEMS AND CHRISTIANS:

Conflicts in Crete.
TURKEY: A. D. 1897 (FEBRUARY-MARCH).
MOSQUITO, The, as a carrier of disease.

SCIENCE, RECENT: MEDICAL, AND SURGICAL.
MUKDEN.

MANCHURIA AND MONGOLIA; also,
RUSSIA IN ASIA: A. D. 1891-1900.
MUNICIPAL EVENTS, Notable.

BOSTON, CHICAGO, NEW YORK, TOLEDO, LONDON.
MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENTS:
Institution in Cuba.

CUBA: A. D. 1900 (JUNE-NOVEMBER).
MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENTS:
Institution in the Philippines.

PHILIPPINE ISLANDS: A. D. 1900 (MARCH).
MUSIC: In the Nineteenth Century.

NINETEENTH CENTURY: THE MUSICAL CENTURY.
N.
NABONIDOS, Discovery of an inscription of.

ARCHÆOLOGICAL RESEARCH: BABYLONIA:
DISCOVERY OF AN INSCRIPTION.
NANSEN'S EXPEDITION, Return of.

POLAR EXPLORATION, 1896.
NASHVILLE EXPOSITION.

TENNESSEE: A. D. 1897.
NATAL.

SOUTH AFRICA.
NATIONAL DEMOCRATIC PARTY OF 1896.

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1896 (JUNE-NOVEMBER.)
NATIONAL PARTY, The.

A. D. 1896 (JUNE-NOVEMBER); and
1900 (MAY-NOVEMBER).
NATIONAL SILVER PARTY.

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1896 (JUNE-NOVEMBER).
{318}
NATIONAL STEEL COMPANY, The.

TRUSTS: UNITED STATES.
NATIONALISTS, FRENCH, Revolutionary conspiracy of.

FRANCE: A. D. 1899-1900 (AUGUST-JANUARY).
NAVAL POLICY, German.

GERMANY: A. D. 1900 (FEBRUARY-JUNE).
NAVIES OF THE SEA POWERS: A. D. 1900.
The following tables are compiled from a return issued by the

British Admiralty in the spring of 1900, showing the state of
the fleets of Great Britain, France, Russia, Germany, Italy,
the United States, and Japan, including vessels then built and
in progress of construction.
Of battle-ships, there were built and building in the several

navies:
Count with a displacement

of
Great Britain. 70 821,605
France. 35 339,599
Russia. 24 262,912
Germany. 25 191,259
Italy. 19 193,001
United States. 16 184,144
Japan. 7 92,420
Of armored and protected cruisers, there were built and

building:

of
France. 60 297,486
Russia. 23 144,673
Germany. 22 107,844
Italy. 25 93,673
Japan. 23 114,479
Of unprotected cruisers, armored coast-defence vessels,

and special vessels there were built and building:

of
France. 29 93,385
Russia. 26 66,886
Germany. 35 59,617
Italy. 3 13,821
Japan. 13 24,065
Of torpedo vessels and torpedo-boat destroyers

the number built and building was:
of
France. 305 34,002
Russia. 233 37,735
Germany. 130 20,094
Italy. 180 24,863
Japan. 71 9,537
A consolidation of the above figures shows a

total of ships in the principal navies as follows:
Great Britain, 486;

France, 429;
Russia, 306;
Germany, 212;
Italy, 227;
United States, 122;
Japan, 114.
A writer in the "Fortnightly Review," discussing the above

returns, points out the imperfectness of the representation
which such gross figures give of the actual naval strength of
the several Powers, and he has undertaken to correct them by a
calculation of what he calls the "fighting weight" of the
ships, based on the age of each and its displacement in tons.
He says: "The scale of depreciation for age that I have used
is as follows: Ships, built and now building, that were
launched, or which will be launched, during 1895-1899 (and
later), are reckoned at their full value of fighting weight;
i. e., at 100 per cent. Ships launched during 1890 1894 are
reckoned as now worth only 80 per cent. of their fighting
weight. The other depreciations being: Ships launched
1885-1889 are valued at 60 per cent. of their nominal fighting

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MODUS VIVENDI, Alaskan Boundary.

See (in this volume)

MODUS VIVENDI, The Newfoundland.

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MOMBASA-VICTORIA RAILWAY, The.

See (in this volume)

----------MONETARY QUESTIONS AND MEASURES: Start--------

MONETARY QUESTIONS AND MEASURES: A. D. 1895.

See (in this volume)

MONETARY QUESTIONS AND MEASURES: A. D. 1895-1896.

See (in this volume)

See (in this volume)

MONETARY QUESTIONS AND MEASURES: A. D. 1896-1898.

See (in this volume)

MONETARY QUESTIONS AND MEASURES: A. D. 1897.

The privileges of the Bank of France, as the fiscal agent of

MONETARY QUESTIONS AND MEASURES: A. D. 1897 (March).

By a law of the Japanese Parliament, passed in March, 1897, to

MONETARY QUESTIONS AND MEASURES: A. D. 1897 (April-

In fulfilment of the pledge given by the Republican party, at

1. Opening of the Indian mints. Repeal of the order making the

4. Agreement to coin annually £ … of silver [present silver

5. Opening of English mints to coinage of rupees, and for