Transformers

Contents
1. Introduction
2. Constructional Features
3. Principle of Transformer Action
4. Ideal Transformer
a) Induced emf flux relation
b) Phasor diagram
c) Impedance transformation
5. Transformer rating
6. Transformer losses
7. Practical transformer
a) Equivalent circuit
b) Approximate equivalent circuit
c) Exact equivalent circuit
8. Voltage regulation
9. Efficiency of a transformer
10. Autotransformer
11. Three phase transformer




Introduction
A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to
another through inductively coupled conductors, the transformer's coils.
A varying current in the first or primary winding creates a varying magnetic
flux in the transformer's core and thus a varying magnetic field through
the secondary winding.
This varying magnetic field induces a varying electromotive force (EMF) or
"voltage" in the secondary winding. This effect is called mutual induction.
Transformers provide much needed capability of changing the voltage and
current levels easily.
They are used to step-up generator voltage to an appropriate voltage level for
power transfer. (Step-up transformer)
Stepping down the transmission voltage at various levels for distribution and
power utilization. (Step-down transformer)
Various transformers in interconnected power system

Figure 10.1: Various transformers in interconnected power system
Step-down
Transformers
Constructional Features
Based on core type
Air core transformer: magnetic coupling through air
Iron core transformer: magnetic core made of high permeability
Ferro-magnetic material
Based on construction
Core type
Shell type

Core type
One Magnetic Circuit
Shell type
Two Magnetic Circuits
Core type construction has larger mean length of flux path and a shorter mean length of coil
turns.
To reduce the leakage flux in a core type transformer, half LV winding and half HV winding are
wound on one limb.
LV winding is placed near core to reduce the insulation requirement and thus the cost.
To reduce the leakage flux in a shell type transformer, sandwiched type of winding is used.
Transformer core is laminated to reduce eddy current losses.
Transformer core along with windings are placed in a tank, filled with transformer oil to
prevent the moisture and a deterioration of winding insulation
Mutual flux

HV

LV

LV

HV

Core
(a) Core type
Sandwiched LV & HV
Winding
/
2

/
2
(b) Shell type
Figure 1.1 Core type and shell type constructions
Why do we laminate the core?
I
S
I
S
Large Number of flux lines cut
High voltage generated across core

Eddy currents are large & losses are great
Why do we laminate the core?
I
S
Small Number of flux lines cut
Low voltage generated across core

Eddy currents are small & losses are reduced
Why do we laminate the core?
Principle of Transformer Action

Its a static device working on the principle of Faradays law of induction.
Faradays law states that a voltage appears across the terminals of an electric coil
when the flux linkages associated with the same changes. This emf is
proportional to the rate of change of flux linkages.

Putting mathematically:


Where, e is the induced emf in volt and is the flux linkages in Weber turn.
For a coil with N number of turns link flux lines Weber resulting the flux
linkages. So,

And
d
e
dt

| N|
N | =
d
e N
dt
|
=
Principle of Transformer Action cont'd




The total flux produced by current will be:
1
=
l1
+
If applied voltage is alternating, will also be alternating at the same
frequency. Thus a voltage e
1
is induced in coil-1 and e
2
in coil-2 as
shown polarity.
The dots indicated on two coils are the polarity marks.
N
2

N
1

e
1

e
2
v
2

v
1

+
-
-
+

i
1

i
2

1
( ) i t
[Figure 1.2: Single-phase two-winding transformer]
Ideal transformer
An ideal transformer has the following properties:

Magnetic circuit is linear and has infinite permeability. The consequence is that a
vanishingly small current is enough to establish the given flux. Hysteresis loss is negligible.
As all the flux generated confines itself to the iron, there is no leakage flux.

Windings do not have resistance.
v
1
Primary Voltage
v
2
Secondary Voltage
e
1
Primary induced Voltage
e
2
Secondary induced Voltage
N
1
:N
2
Transformation ratio
turns ratio

Induced voltage e
1
in primary coil

1 1 1
u
= =
d
v e N
dt
Induces voltage e
2
in secondary winding
2 2 2
u
= =
d
v e N
dt
(4.1)
(4.2)
From (4.1) and (42)
1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2
e v V N
a
e v V N
= = = =
(4.3)
Under no load condition
a
The reluctance of the magnetic circuit having cross-sectional area A and magnetic
flux path length (mean) l will be


Thus, the inductance of primary coil will be


Since secondary current is zero, the total mmf will be . Thus,


Equation (4. 6) shows that primary current is ideally zero, when secondary
current is zero (No load condition) for an ideal transformer.

Under load condition: The secondary winding will produce an mmf equal to N
2
i
2
in the core.

total mmf in the magnetic circuit producing flux will be
0

9 = =
l
A
2
= =
N
L
R
1 1 1
0 = u9 = N i i
(because = )
(4.5)
(4.4)
(4.6)
1 1 2 2
F N i N i =
(4.7)
Since mmf required is zero (F= = 0 as is zero), equation (7) will become
= 0
or

From equation (4.3) and (4.9)

u9 9
1 1 2 2
N i N i
1 2
2 1
1 i N
i N a
= =
(4.9)
(4.8)

1 1
2 2
1 i v
i v a
= =

1 1 2 2
v i v i =
In ideal transformer:
Primary side total mmf = Secondary side total mmf
Primary side volt-ampere = Secondary side volt-ampere
(4.10)
Induced emf Flux Relationship

With applied voltage 1
sin cos ( 2) e e t = = +
m m
v V t V t
Flux
1
cos cos e e
e
u = = u
m
m
V
t t
N
The induced emf in primary winding
1 1 1
sin
|
e e = = u
m
d
e N N t
dt
1
cos ( )
2
t
e e = u +
m
N t
1
cos( )
2
t
e = +
m
E t
1 1
1
. . 2
2 2
m m
rms
E N f
E E
t u
= = =
Hence 1 1 1
4.44 4.44
m m
E N f N f B A = u =
2 2 2
sin e e
u
= = u
m
d
e N N t
dt
2
2 cos ( )
2
m
N f t
t
t e = u +
2
2 2
.2
4.44
2
m
rms m
N f
E E N f
t u
= = = u
Induced voltage in secondary winding
or,
In an ideal transformer:
voltages are transformed in the direct ratio of turns, currents in the inverse ratio,
power, frequency and volt-amperes are unchanged.
(4.11)
(4.12)
(4.13)
(4.14)
(4.15)
Phasor diagram of ideal transformer
2 I
1 I
1 1 E V =
2 2 E V =
u


i
et

[Figure 4.1: Phasor diagram of ideal transformer]
[Figure 4.2 : Time varying flux in the core]
Impedance Transformation
Z
2
I
2
I
1
V
1
V
2
With load in the secondary side, input impedance ( ) will be 1 Z
1
1
1
=
V
Z
I
2 1
1
1 2
2
N V I
N
V I
= =
As
1 2
1 2 1 2
2 1
,
N N
V V I I
N N
| | | |
= =
| |
\ . \ .
We will get
(4.14)
(4.15)
Using (4.14) and (4.15), we can write
1
2 2
2
2 2 1
1
2
2
2 2
2
1
'
2
.
N
V
N N V
Z a Z
N I N
I
N
Z
| |
|
| |
\ .
= = =
|
| |
\ .
|
\ .
= = secondary impedance referred to as primary
Where,

Number of turns in primary winding
Number of turns in secondary winding
a =
I
1
Z
2
I
2
(4.16)
'
1
1
2
Z
Z
a
=
Transformer Rating

A transformer capability is given by the product of voltage and current in volt-amperes
(S) which is equal for both the windings.

For a practical transformer, magnitude of complex power, S (kVA or MVA), is used as
rating of transformer.

Also mentioned in the nameplate rating.
Example:

Single (or Three)-phase, 100 MVA, 220 kV/132 kV, 50 Hz
Losses in Transformer


Hysteresis losses are associated with the rearrangement of the magnetic domains in the core during
each half-cycle. They are a complex, nonlinear function of the voltage applied to the transformer.
The induced emf in the core winding having N turns due to flux in the core will be

d
e N
dt
u
=
The energy transfer during interval t
1
to t
2
due to current flow i will be

2 2 2
1 1 1
t t
t t
d
W ei dt N i dt N i d
dt
u
u
u
= = = u
} } }
2 2
1 1
. . . . .
B B
B B
H l
W N A dB A l H dB
N
= =
} }

Let , the energy transfer over one cycle will be

. A l v =
. .
cycle
W v H dB =
}
v = volume area of B-H loop = W
h

The power loss due to hysteresis effect will be
= B.A and
H l
i
N
= ( )
. .
h h
P v W f = ( )
W
P
t
=
.
n
h h m
P K B f =

( )
n
h m
W K B =
Hysteresis loss:
(5.1)
(5.2)
(5.3)
Losses in Transformer contd
Eddy current losses are resistive heating losses in the core of the transformer. They are proportional to
the square of the voltage applied to the transformer.
Eddy current loss:
It can be reduced in two ways
2
2 2 2
e
e
R .
R
e
e e e m
e
P i K B f = = =
1. By using core of high resistivity (Few % of silicon with iron increases the resistivity significantly).
2. By using laminated core


[Figure 5.1 : Eddy current flow]

e
i
Copper loss:
Due to finite resistances of windings, there are losses (real power) in both the windings (i
2
R)


(5.4)
Losses in Transformer contd
P
c
= P
h
+ P
e

Core loss:
When there is no loss in the core, the exciting current I
m
(also known as magnetizing current) will be
in phase with flux which lags by 90
o
by induced voltage E.


E
+
-
L
m

I
m


90
0

E
[Figure 5.2: Magnetization current]

Due to core loss, a current I
c
flows in phase with E along with magnetizing current I
m
which lags E
I
m

I
o

I
c

E
I
m

L
m
R
c

I
c

+
-
E
[Figure 5.3: Core loss current]
(5.5)
Practical transformer
A practical transformer has
1. Copper resistance
2. Leakage flux
3. Finite core permeability (i.e., finite inductance)
4. Core loss
1
E
2
E
1
I
1
V
2
I
2
V

l2

l1

m

r
1

r
2

Leakage inductance of primary winding

1 1
1
1
l
l
N
L
I
u
=
Leakage inductance of secondary winding

2 2
2
2
l
l
N
L
I
u
=
(6.1)
(6.2)
[Figure 6.1: Winding resistance and leakage flux]
Equivalent circuit of leakage flux
1
E
2
E
1
V
1
V
2
I
2
V
2 l
jX
1 l
jX
N
2

N
1

m

r
1

r
2

From condition 3: Considering core loss and magnetising current
c
R
m
jX
1
jX
1
r
2
jX
2
r
2 V
1 V
1 E 2 E
2 I 1 I
[Figure 6.2 : Equivalent circuit of a practical transformer]

Equivalent circuit considering secondary circuit transferred to primary
2
' jX
2
' r
2
' V
c
R
m
jX
1
jX
1
r
1 V
1 I
2 V
2
I
2
' I
Ideal transformer
N
1
: N
2

[Figure 6.3: Secondary side quantities referred to primary side]

' 2
2 2
r a r =
' 2
2 2
X a X =
2
' jX
2
' r
2
' V
c
R
m
jX
1
jX
1
r
1 V
1 I
2
' Z
2
' I
(load)
Referred to primary side
[Figure 6.4: Equivalent circuit (referred to primary side)]

Approximate Equivalent Circuit

With small value of r1 and X1,

1 1
V E ~
1 V
1 I
2
' jX
2
' r
2
' V
c
R
m
jX
1
jX
1
r
2
' I
0 I
-
+
+
-
[Figure 6.5: Approximate equivalent circuit of transformer]
Simplified Approximate equivalent circuit
2 2
e 1 1 2 1 1 2
2 2
e 2 2 1 2 2 2
R ;
R ;
q eq
q eq
r a r X X a X
r r a X X X a
= + = +
= + = +
1
2
2 1
2
1 2
1 2
' , ' ,
' , '
V
V aV V
a
I
I aI I I
a
= =
= = =

1 V
1
I
+
2
' V
-
+
-
R
e 1 1
1
jX
q eq
Zeq

1
' V
1
I
+
2 V
-
+
-
2
R
e 2 2
eq
jX
q eq
Z

(a) Referred to primary side
(b) Referred to secondary side
[Figure 6.6: Simplified approximate equivalent circuit of transformer]
Exact Equivalent Circuit Analysis

'
2
r
'
2
jX
'
2 V c
R
m
jX
1
jX
1
r
1
I
'
2 I
1 V
'
2
jX
'
2
r
'
2 V
th
jX
th
r
'
2 I
th V
-
+
-
+
+
-
a
b
b
a
[Figure 6.7: Exact equivalent circuit analysis]

Determination of Equivalent Circuit Parameters

1. No Load Test or Open Circuit (OC) Test

A
V
+
-
V
1
(Rated voltage)
W
[Figure 6.8: Circuit connection]
1 c
R
1 m
jX
0 I
1 V c I
m I
-
+
[Figure 6.9 : Equivalent circuit of open circuit test]

2
1
1 c
c
V
R
P
=
1
c
c
V
I
R
=
2 2
0 m c
I I I =
1
1 m
m
V
X
I
=
From no load test, we will get

i) Core loss
ii) Shunt branch parameters
Here,
2. Short Circuit (SC) Test

A
V
+
-
W
V
sc

[Figure 6.10: Short circuit test Circuit connection]

Assumptions:

1. Neglect shunt branch, as shunt branch
current is very small.

2. Core loss is very small. Due to reduced
voltage, wattmeter reads copper loss of
both the winding.
Equivalent impedance referred to primary side
2 2
1 1 1
sc
eq eq eq
sc
V
Z R X
I
= = +
1 1 2 e 1 1 2
2 2
e 1 1 1 1
2
' , '
,
eq q
sc
q eq eq eq
sc
R r r X x x
P
R X Z R
I
( = + = +

(
= =

sc V
sc I
2
' jX
2
' r
1
jX
1
r
+
-
[Figure 6.11: Equivalent circuit of SC condition]
Where,
Voltage Regulation

The change in terminal voltage when a load current at any power factor is applied,
expressed as a fraction of the no-load terminal voltage

Mathematically





Re
nl l
nl
V V
gulation
V

=
nl
V
l
V
: No load terminal voltage

:load terminal voltage
+
-
+
-
Load
Switch
1 V
'
2 V
e 1
R
q 1 eq
jX
1 I
1 1 eq
I Z
1 1 eq
I R
1 1 eq
jI X
2
' V
1
Locus of V
O
u
2


A
B
C
u
2
-u
eq1

[Figure 7.2: Phasor diagram]

[Figure 7.1: Equivalent circuit of voltage regulation]
(7.1)
Value of is maximum when 1
V

2
-
eq1
= 0
So, condition for maximum voltage regulation

2
=
eq1
= tan
-1

1
e 1
R
eq
q
X | |
|
|
\ .

(Lagging)
From Phasor diagram
'
1 2,
1 e 1 2 1 1 2
( R cos sin )
fl
q eq
V V I I X u u ~ + +
Or,
'
1 2
1 e 1 2 1 1 2
( cos sin )
fl
q eq
V V I R I X u u = +
Regulation

1 1 2 1 1 2
2 2
cos sin
' '
eq eq
fl fl
I R I X
V V
u u
| |
|
= +
|
\ .
(7.2)
(7.3)
(7.4)
(7.5)
Condition for max value of regulation for a power factor angle,
2
(Re )
0
d gulation
du
=
1
2
e 1
tan
R
eq
q
X
u =
(Lagging)
Condition for zero voltage regulation
1
1 2 1 2
2
( sin cos ) 0
'
eq eq
fl
I
R X
V
u u + =
1
2
1
tan
eq
eq
R
X
u
| |
=
|
|
\ .
(Leading)
(7.6)
(7.7)
Efficiency of a transformer
The efficiency () of a transformer is defined as the ratio of the output power to the input
power.
Mathematically,
Output Power Output Power Iutput Power - Losses Losses
1
Input Power Output Power + Losses Iutput Power Output Power + Losses
q = = = =
2 2 2
2
2 2 2 2 e 2
cos
cos R
c q
V I
V I P I
u
q
u
=
+ +
2
2 e 2
R
q
I
Where,
2 2 2
cos V I u = power output
c
P = core loss
= Copper loss
Condition for maximum efficiency,

2
2
c 2 eq2
0
d
dI
P I R
q
=
=
Core loss = Copper loss or Fixed loss = Variable loss
(8.1)
(8.3)
(8.2)
For x, a fraction of full load
2 2, 2
2
2 2, 2 ,
cos
cos ( )
fl
fl c cu fl
xV I
x kVA pf
x kVA pf Losses xV I P x P
u
q
u

= =
+ + +
For maximum efficiency for a power factor at the constant value of voltage V
2

and load current I
2
:
2
0
d
d
q
u
=
(8.4)
(8.5)
From (8.1) and (8.5)
u
2
= 0
or pf = cosu
2
= 1
(8.6)
Unity load power factor.
q
92
94
96
98
x
pf =1.0
pf =0.8
pf =0.6
1.0 0.8 0.4
[Figure 8.1 : Variation of efficiency with load and power]
Usually the efficiency for a power transformer is
between 0.9 to 0.99. The higher the rating of a
transformer, the greater is its efficiency.
Another Condition for maximum efficiency in a transformer :
All day(Energy) Efficiency)
average power output
=
average power output + average power loss
e
q
or
energy output over 24 hours energy output over 24 hrs
=
energy input over 24 hours energy output over 24 hrs+energy losses in 24 hrs
e
q =
(9.1)
(9.2)
Autotransformer
A special type of transformer,
have no electrical isolation between the primary and secondary windings.
A single continuous winding is wound on a laminated iron core, where part of
the winding is used as the primary, whilst the other part is used as the
secondary.
V
1
+V
2

a
c
b
I
2

I
1

N
1

N
2

+
-
V
2

I
2
-I
1

+
-
Since the flux linkage is same
2 1 1 2
2 2
1 '

V V N N
a a
V N
+ +
= = + =
' a is the turns ratio of autotransformer
[Figure 10.1: Autotransformer]
In case of an ideal autotransformer (i.e., for no mmf drop)
Ampere Turn (mmf) of winding ab = Ampere turn of winding bc
F
ab
= F
bc

N
1
I
1
= N
2
(I
2
I
1
)

1 2 1 2 2
( ) N N I N I + =
1 2
2 1 2
1

'
I N
I N N a
= =
+
Thus,
So,
Pros of an autotransformer:

Lower leakage reactance
Lower exciting current
Increased kVA rating
Variable voltage with sliding contact.
Cons of an autotransformer:

Direct connection between
primary and secondary windings.
(10.1)
Autotransformer connections
V
1
new

I
2

I
1

N
1

N
2

+
-
V
2

I
2
-I
1

V
1
new

I
2
I
1

N
1
N
2

+
-
V
2

b
a
c
I
2

N
2

N
1

+
-
V
2
,
new

V
1

I
1

d
a
b
c
d
[Figure 10.2 (a) Two winding transformer] [Figure 10.2(b) Set-up autotransformer]
[Figure 10.3(c) Step-down autotransformer]

Volt-ampere rating of Step-up autotransformer (Figure10.3 (b))
1 2
and
ab dc
S S
I I
V V
= =
Let be the Volt ampere of two winding transformer S
1 2
1 2 2
and
S S S
I I
V V V
= + =
Autotransformer output voltage V
2,new
will be additive of V
1
and V
2
, and the current
will be
Thus, the volt ampere will be
1
1 1 1
1 2 2
( ) 1
auto
V S S
VA V I V S
V V V
| | | |
= = + = +
| |
\ . \ .
Using the secondary side quantities,
( ) ( ) ( )
1
1 2 2 1 2
auto
2
VA 1+
V
V V I V V S
V
| |
= + = + =
|
\ .
(10.2)
(10.3)
(10.4)
(10.5)
From (10.4) and (10.5) Primary side (VA)
auto
= secondary side (VA)
auto

Again (VA)
auto
> (VA)
tw

Volt-ampere rating of step-down autotransformer (Figure10.3 (c))
Using Primary side quantities
( ) ( )
2
1 2
auto
1
V
VA V V S 1+
V
| |
= + =
|
\ .
(10.6)
For this connection,
2 1
2
S
I I
V
= = rating of secondary winding current
Therefore,
2
2 1
S S
I
V V
= +
(10.7)
Using equation (10.6) and (10.7)
( )
2
2 2 2
auto
2 1 1
VA 1
V S S
V I V S
V V V
| | | |
= = + = +
| |
\ . \ .
(10.8)
For this case also, (VA)
auto
> (VA)
tw

Three-phase Transformers
The transformers may be inherently 3-phase, having three primary windings and three
secondary windings mounted on a 3-legged core.

The same result can be achieved by using three single-phase transformers connected
together to form a 3-phase transformer bank.

[Figure11.1: Three-phase transformer using single phase transformers (Y- connection)]
Identical polarity winding are connected together to form the neutral point.
Turns ratio of three-phase transformers given by:
1
2
3 Primary line to line voltage
' = 3
Secondary line to line voltage
V
a a
V
= =
(a) Y - Y
(b) - Y
(c) -
Different three-phase transformers using three single-phase transformers
Y- -Y
Phase-shift -30 deg 30 deg
Application Step down the voltage
(where neutral of star point
is grounded for protection
and other purposes)
Step up the voltage
(If any side of transformer is
having delta winding, the
triple harmonic current
circulates in the winding and
does not flow into the line.)
- connection has an advantage to operate at 58% loading of original bank in the
event of one transformer is under repair or outage.
V
2

V
1

[Figure 11.2: Delta-star transformation]
Single-phase equivalent

If supply and load is balanced and three transformers are identical, a single-phase
equivalent can be obtained.

2
V
1
3
V

[Figure 11.3: Single-phase equivalent of Y-]
Three-phase transformer on a single magnetic core
[Figure 11.4: Three-phase transformer magnetic core and flux distribution]
[Figure 11.5: Three-phase transformer magnetic core without common leg]
Per Unit representation
Advantages of per unit system
For simplification in calculations.

More meaningful than its absolute value.

Chances of making mistakes in phase and line voltages, single or three-phase quantities are
minimized.

Simplification in calculation. (As the per unit values for impedance, voltage and current
referred to primary side or secondary side will be same.)

Power and voltage equations are simplified as factors of 3 and 3 are eliminated in the per
unit system.

( )
unit same the in quantity of value reference or base
unit any in quantity actual
pu unit per in Quantity =
a) Single-phase system
For a single-phase system with base volt-amperes (VA
b
) and base voltage (V
b
), the base current and
base impedance will be calculated as,
A current Base
b
b
b
V
VA
I =
ohms impedance Base
2
b
b
b
b
b
VA
V
I
V
Z = =
The per unit impedance, then, can be given by
2
.
) ( impedance base
) ( impedance actual
b
b
b
pu
V
VA Z
Z
Z
Z = =
Base power is taken in kVA
b
or MVA
b
, base voltage is selected in kV
b
.
A
1000
current Base
b
b
b
b
b
kV
MVA
kV
kVA
I

= =
ohms
1000 1000
impedance Base
2 2
b
b
b
b
b
b
b
kVA
kV
MVA
kV
I
kV
Z

= =

=
Similarly, per unit impedance:
1000
2 2

=
b
b
b
b
pu
kV
kVA Z
kV
MVA Z
Z
So,
b) Three-phase system
Base values in 3-phase kVA
b
or MVA
b
and line to-line voltage (kV
b
).
A
3
1000
3
current Base
b
b
b
b
b
kV
MVA
kV
kVA
I

= =
ohms
1000
3
1000
impedance Base
2 2
b
b
b
b
b
b
b
kVA
kV
MVA
kV
I
kV
Z

= =

=
So,
1000
impedance unit Per
2 2

=
b
b
b
b
pu
kV
kVA Z
kV
MVA Z
Z
To change pu impedance from one base to another base
2
.
,
.
,
, ,
base old to
referred impedance unit Per
base new to
referred impedance unit Per
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
new b
old b
old b
new b
old pu new pu
kV
kV
MVA
MVA
Z Z
Per unit representation of transformers
N:1
Z
P
Z
S

V
1

V
2

Figure 11.6: Single phase transformer representation
V
1,pu

I
pu

+ +
-
-
Figure 11.7: Per unit representation
For primary winding voltage base voltage V
1B
and the secondary side base voltage V
2B
:


B
B
B
B
I
I
N
V
V
1
2
2
1
= =
where I
1B
and I
2B
are the current bases of primary and secondary sides, respectively.
Base impedance:
B
B
B
B
B
B
I
V
Z
I
V
Z
2
2
2
1
1
1
= =
and their ratio can be defined as
2
1
2
2
1
2
2
1
1
2
1
N N N
I
I
V
V
V
I
I
V
Z
Z
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
= = = =
per unit impedance on primary side (Z
'
P,pu
) will be
pu S pu P
B
B
pu S pu P
B
S
B
P
B
S P
pu P
Z Z
Z
Z
Z N Z
Z
Z
N
Z
Z
Z
Z N Z
Z
, ,
1
2
,
2
,
1
2
1 1
2
'
,
+ = + = + =
+
=
On secondary side,
pu S pu P
B
B
pu P pu S
B
P
B
S
B
P S
pu S
Z Z
Z
Z
Z
N
Z
Z
Z
N Z
Z
Z
N Z Z
Z
, ,
2
1
,
2
,
2
2
2 2
2
'
,
1 1 /
+ = + = + =
+
=
Hence,
' '
S P
Z Z =
Per unit impedance referred to the primary side = Per unit impedance referred to the
secondary side.
Impedance referred to primary side (Z
'
P
) and secondary side (Z
'
S
) will be
2
' 2 '
N
Z
Z Z Z N Z Z
P
S S S P P
+ = + =
Thus,

Per unit impedance diagram:
G
T
1

T
2

M
L
1

Figure 11.8: One-line diagram
X
T1
X
L
X
T2

X
M

X
g

E
g

Figure 11.9: Per-unit impedance diagram