The self-discrepancy theory

E. Tory Higgins developed by E. Tory Higgins in 1987

states that people compare
themselves to internalized standards
called "self-guides". Self-discrepancy
is the gap between two of these self-
representations. The theory provides
a platform for understanding how
different types of discrepancies
between representations of the self
are related to different kinds of
emotional vulnerabilities.
• He found that when the actual self and ideal self don’t match—in other
words, when we don’t live up to our own ideals or we fail to achieve our
dreams—we will experience “dejection-related emotions” such as
disappointment, shame, embarrassment, and possibly even depression
(Higgins, 1987).
• On the other hand, sometimes our actual self doesn’t match our ought self.
When this happens, we’ll feel that we haven’t lived up to our own and
others’ expectations—and that kind of failure produces “agitation-related
emotions” such as guilt, fear, self-contempt, and anxiety.
SELF-ENHANCEMENT
 Self-improvement refers to the motive to become a better individual in
reality; self-enhancement instead refers to the motive to create the
perception that one is a competent and capable individual, regardless
of reality.

 Self-assessment refers to the motive to obtain an accurate view of the

self, whether that view be positive or negative; people engage in self-
enhancement when they shade their treatment of the evidence toward
creating positive perceptions of self.

 Self-verification refers to activity people engage in to confirm

previously held notions about themselves, whether those perceptions
be desirable or undesirable; people engaging in self-enhancement only
want to confirm the desirable and deny the undesirable in themselves.
Self-verification theory proposes that people
want others to see them as they see
themselves. For example, those who see
themselves as relatively dominant want
others to see them as dominant, and those
who see themselves as relatively submissive
want others to recognize them as submissive.
The theory was developed by William B.
Swann Jr. (1983).
Self-affirmation theory is a psychological theory that
focuses on how individuals adapt to information or
experiences that are threatening to their self-
concept. Claude Steele originally popularized self-
affirmation theory in the late 1980sand it remains a
well-studied theory in social psychological research.

Self-affirmation theory contends that if individuals

reflect on values that are personally relevant to
them, they are less likely to experience distress and
react defensively when confronted with information
that contradicts or threatens their sense of self.
1. Intimidation – occurs when individuals project
their power or ability to punish to be viewed as
dangerous and powerful
2. Supplication – occurs when individuals
present their weaknesses or deficiencies to receive
compassion and assistance from others
3. Ingratiation – occurs when individuals use
favors or flattery to obtain an attribution of
likeability from observers
4. Exemplification – occurs when individuals go
above and beyond what is necessary or expected
to be perceived as committed or hardworking
5. Modesty – underrepresenting one’s positive
traits, contributions or accomplishments
6. Self – Promotion – occurs when an individual
calls attention to his-her achievements to be
perceived as capable by observers
7. Apologies – used to confess responsibility for
harm done to others or negative events or to
express guilt or remorse
8. Justifications – used to provide reasons for
negative behaviors while accepting some
responsibility
9. Disclaimers – used to explain problems
before they occur
10. Self-handicapping – occurs when individuals
produce obstacles to success with the purpose of
preventing observers from making dispositional
inferences about one’s failures
11. Entitlement – occurs when individuals take
credit for positive achievements
12. Sandbagging – occurs when individuals
make false claims of inability or engage in fake
demonstrations to create low expectations on
their performance
13. Enhancement – occurs when individuals
persuade others that the outcomes of their
behaviors are better than they might have
originally believed
14. Blasting – occurs when individuals
associate themselves with another person or
group who is seen positively by others or
individuals assert the worth of a group to which
they are positively linked
13. Enhancement – occurs when individuals
persuade others that the outcomes of their
behaviors are better than they might have
originally believed
14. Blasting – occurs when individuals
associate themselves with another person or
group who is seen positively by others or
individuals assert the worth of a group to which
they are positively linked
Self-monitoring is a concept introduced during the
1970s by Mark Snyder, that shows how much people
monitor their self-presentations, expressive behavior,
and nonverbal affective displays.

Human beings generally differ in substantial ways in

their abilities and desires to engage in expressive
controls (see dramaturgy).

It is defined as a personality trait that refers to an

ability to regulate behavior to accommodate social
situations.