Chapter 2

Stiffness Matrices
Basic Concept
Basic Concept
Basic Concept
Basic Concept
Basic Concept
Basic Concept
Basic Concept
General Principles
 3 general principles
 Principle of Uniqueness
 Principle of Superposition
 Saint-Venant’s Principle
General Principles
 Principle of Uniqueness
 If the rigid body motion of the structure is suppressed,
then the solution to the general problem is unique, that
is all stresses, strains and displacements can be
found without ambiguity.
General Principles
 Principle of Superposition
If :-
σ1 , ε1 and u1 are solution for body force q1 and
σ2 , ε2 and u2 are solution for body force q2;

by the principle of superposition,

σ = σ1 + σ2 , ε = ε1 + ε2 , u = u1 + u2

offer a solution for the situation with body force q = q1 + q2

General Principles
 Principle of Superposition
 This is a statement of the principle of superposition, which
is extremely useful in the development of solution of linear
elasticity and it is noted that this principle in only true for
linear elastic problems
General Principles
 Saint-Venant’s Principle
 If a system of forces acting on a small portion of the surface of an
elastic body is replaced by another statically equivalent system o
f forces acting on the same portion of surface, this redistribution
of loading produce substantial changes in the stresses only in th
e immediate neighborhood of the loading.
 The statically equivalent systems means that the two distribution
s of forces have the same resultant force and moment
General Principles
 Saint-Venant’s Principle
 2.1.1 Terminology
Main purpose: construct a system of linear
(stiffness) equations relating (or nodal)
displacements to joint forces
2-D truss:
Nodal displacements:
D = {d1, d2, · · · , d8}
Each di = a degree of freedom (DOF),
(displacement in x or y in this case)

Nodal forces:
F = {f1, f2, · · · , f8}
Want:

F = KD
K = stiffness matrix of structure
 Equilibrium equations

 Compatibility equations

 Stress-strain (or constitutive)

relations
2.1.2 Spring Analogy
F

k 
Fig. 2.2 A Spring in its Deformed and Original Shapes

Hooke’s Law : F = k  (1)

where
F = axial force; k = spring constant; = elongation of spring
As an isolated element in a connected system of springs: Element
defined between 2 joints:
(nodes) 1 and 2:
 subjected to forces f1 and f2,
 exhibits respective displacements d1 and d2.
 + signs if in positive x-direction.
2.1.2 Spring Analogy
Positive displacement d1 at left hand node only, node 2 fixed

Forces required at joints 1 and 2:

f1 = kd1
Equilibrium:
f2 = –kd1

1 2 1 2

k k
d1 d2
f 1 = kd1 f 2 = kd2

Fig. 2.3 A Spring Element with 2 nodes

Displace only node 2 by d2:

Nodal forces:
f1 = –kd2
f2 = kd2
Both d1 and d2 simultaneously:

Superposition:
f1 = kd1 – kd2
f2 = –kd1 + kd2
2.1.2 Spring Analogy
In matrix notation,

 f1   k  k   d1 
 f    k k  d 2  (2)
 2 
F = KD

K = [kij]: stiffness matrix of spring element, where

k11 = k, k12 = k21 = –k and k22 = k

Diagonal terms of stiffness matrix: always positive.

Matrix itself singular. element unconstrained

Rigid body deformation mode

Any of two joints fixed: k positive definite.

2.2 Basic Equations for a Truss/Bar

Fig. 2.4 A Typical Member of a Roof Truss

consider typical member: length L, subjected to force P at two ends, in equilibrium.
P (3)
A = cross sectional area.  
A
Load P: stretch by L.

In terms of displacements u(x) at j and i:

L = uj – ui
 L/L,
Hooke’s Law:
 = E (4)
E = Young’s modulus
AE AE
P (u j  ui )  L
L L (5)
Truss element behaves exactly like a spring: axial force proportional to elongation,
(AE/L) ~ k.
2.3 Element Stiffness Matrix of a
Truss/Bar Member
Force-displacement relationship of a single element

Local system

global system (x, y).

Fig. 2.5 DOF’s of a Truss Member in Local and Global Coordinates

2

2.3.1 Element Stiffness Matrix in

Local Coordinates
Local coordinate system
Member defined by two end joints 1 and 2
Length L, cross sectional area A, elastic modulus E.

Referring to local coordinates:

Displacements: d = u , v , u , v  = d , d
1 1 2 2 1 2 , d 3, d 4 
Forces: 
f  p ,p ,p ,p =
x1 y1 x2 y2
 f 1 , f 2, f 3, f 4 
Formulation: simple: nodal forces and nodal displacements in x direction only;

directions 2 and 4 need not be considered. y

d2 d4
d1 d3
x
1 2

Fig. 2.6 DOF’s of a Truss Member in Local Coordinates

End displacements at joint 1 and at joint 2, both in positive direction.

 2.3.1 Element Stiffness Matrix in
Local Coordinates
Spring analogy
and by Eq.(2) with k replaced by EA/L, i.e.
 f1   1  1  d 1  (6)
   AE / L  1 1   
 f 3   d 3 
or
 f 1   k11 k12   d 1 
   
 f 3  k 21 k 22  d 3 

physical meaning of stiffness coefficients.

set d1 = 1 and d 3 = 0,

f1 = k11 = AE/L, f1 = k21 = –AE/L

k11 = force required in (local) direction 1 due to unit displacement imposed in direction 1
and zero displacement in direction 3,
k21 = force in direction 3 due to same imposed displacement.
 2.3.1 Element Stiffness Matrix in
Local Coordinates

Generalize: physical meaning of a stiffness coefficient is:

kij = force required in i-th direction due to unit displacement

imposed in j-th direction, when all or degrees of freedom are held fixed with zero displacement.

Eq.(6) + only axially loads (i.e. f2 = f4 = 0):

Stiffness equation in full 44 form,

 f1  1 0  1 0  d 1 
    
 f 2   AE  0 0 0 0 d 2 
 f3  L  1 0 1 0  d 3  (7)
    
 f 4  0 0 0 0 d 4 
or
(8)
f  kd
2.3.2 Element Stiffness Matrix in
Global Coordinates
Coordinate transformation to find element stiffness in global coordinate system

Truss member shown in global coordinates: inclined angle with respect to x-axis,

d4

d3
2
y

d2


Fig. 2.7 DOF’s of an Inclined
Member Referring to Global Coordinates
x
1 d1

element quantities:
Displacements: d = {u1, v1, u2, v2} = {d1, d2, d3, d4}
Forces: f = {px1, py1, px2, py2} = {f1, f2, f3, f4}
Want:
f = kd
k = 44 element stiffness matrix of member.
2.3.2 Element Stiffness Matrix in
Global Coordinates
Linear algebra: to transform vectors local into global coordinate system:
cos   sin  
multiply (local) vector by : R
 sin  cos  
columns = unit vectors in old frame re-expressed in terms of components in new frame.
relationship for d-d, and f-f:
R 0  (8)
d   d
0 R
d = Rt (9)
and
R 0 (10)
f  f
0 R 
f = Rt (11)
where
R 0
Rt  
R 
(12)
0
2.3.2 Element Stiffness Matrix in
Global Coordinates
Inverse transformation
d = RtT d (13)

f = RtT f (14)
Rt-1 = RtT for an orthogonal transformation.

Sub. (13) & (14) into (7):

RtT f  k RtT d
f   Rt k RtT  d
Pre-multiplying by Rt:

Thus required element stiffness matrix is

k  Rt k RtT (15)

can easily evaluate element stiffness matrix k in global coordinates if stiffness matrix in local
system ( k ) and orientation of bar are both known.

Result: cos 2  cos  sin   cos 2   cos  sin  

 
AE  sin 2   cos  sin   sin 2   (16)
k
L  cos 2  cos  sin  
 
 Symm sin 2  
2.3.2 Element Stiffness Matrix in
Global Coordinates
2.3.2 Element Stiffness Matrix in
Global Coordinates
= 0 for a horizontal member
(17)

 1 0 1 0
 0 0 0
AE 
k
L  1 0
 
 Symm 0

reduces to what we saw in Eq.(7): local & global systems coincide

= 90 for a vertical member:
 0 0 0 0 (18)
 1 0  1
AE 
k
L  0 0
 
 Symm 1 
2.3.2 Element Stiffness Matrix in
Global Coordinates
Example 2.1
Determine the element stiffness matrices for members 1 and 2
Assume AE = constant. 6

1
5
y

12m
2
4

1 3
2 1
3 x
9m

Fig. 2.8 Global DOF’s of a Truss

Solution:

Member 1: f = 0, L = 9m,
Member 2: f = Tan-1(12m/9m) = 53.1301, L = (9m + 12m)1/2

Eq.(16)

element stiffness matrices k1 and k2 (in multiples of EA):

2.3.2 Element Stiffness Matrix in
Global Coordinates

Overall k for structure:

k1: stiffness matrix for DOF’s 1,2,3,4 only
k2 : DOF’s 1,2,5,6 only

overall stiffness matrix k for entire structure (6 DOF)

k1 and k2 “expanded” to 66 first by inserting “missing” column/rows with 0’s,

added for k:
2.3.2 Element Stiffness Matrix in
Global Coordinates
2.4 Structural Stiffness Matrix:
Assemblage Algorithm
Previously: 2-bar truss: method easy to visualize
calculation procedures difficult to program

need a systematic assemblage procedure

readily programmed for intensive calculations

consider truss in Fig. 2.9

10 members (or elements)

connected at 7 joints (I to VII)

downward vertical forces of 1 unit each at joints I and V. VIVIIEA = 1
VI
EA = 1

VII

Fig. 2.9 A Truss with 10 Elements

 2.4 Structural Stiffness Matrix:
Assemblage Algorithm
To assist computer programming of structural stiffness matrix (K) formation
Define three arrays.
(1)Array ID: listing of joint number and associated global DOF numbers:
Joint # 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

x-DOF 1 3 5 7 9 11 13

y-DOF 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

Start numbering from free nodes, and assign largest numbers to fixed nodes (6 and 7)
 fixed nodes do not really constitute DOF’s and will be dropped from subsequent displacement calculations.
(1)Array IEN: element-joint connectivity: listing of element number and associated “from” and “to” node numbers:

Element #, e 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

“From” node 1 1 2 2 3 3 5 4 4 5

“To” node 2 3 3 4 4 5 4 6 7 7
 2.4 Structural Stiffness Matrix:
Assemblage Algorithm

(1)Array LM: listing of each element’s detailed “from” and “to” global DOF numbers, using ID and IEN.

Element #, e 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

“from” node x-DOF 1 1 3 3 5 5 9 7 7 9

y-DOF 2 2 4 4 6 6 10 8 8 10
“to” node x-DOF 3 5 5 7 7 9 7 11 13 13
y-DOF 4 6 6 8 8 10 8 12 14 14

Algorithm: