BEKG 1123 Principles of Electric and Electronics: Direct Current (DC) Circuits

BEKG 1123
PRINCIPLES OF
ELECTRIC AND
ELECTRONICS
CHAPTER 2
Direct Current (DC) Circuits
1
Learning Outcomes:
 Calculate power/energy and determine
whether energy is supplied or absorbed by
circuit elements.
 State and apply Ohm’s law.
 Recognize series and parallel circuits and
calculate the total resistance.
 Apply the suitable theorem of circuit
theory (voltage/current divider or
Kirchhoff’s Laws or Mesh/Node Analysis)
to solve electrical circuits.
2
Chapter 2: Direct Current (DC) Circuits
• In this chapter, we will cover:
– 2.1 DC Source
– 2.2 Ohm’s Law
– 2.3 Power and Energy
– 2.4 Resistor
– 2.5 Capacitor
– 2.6 Inductor
– 2.7 Nodes, Branch and Loop
– 2.8 Kirchhoff's Law
– 2.9 Series Circuits
– 2.10 Parallel Circuits
– 2.11 Series-parallel Circuits
– 2.12 Current and Voltage Divider
– 2.13 Wye-Delta Transformation
– 2.14 Node/Nodal Analysis
– 2.15 Mesh Analysis
3
2.1 DC Sources
• Direct current (DC): a constant flow of electric charge with
time
• For ideal voltage source and ideal current source, they

supply fixed voltage and fixed current respectively.
• Ideal sources do not exist. It use to simplify circuit analysis.
4
2.1 DC Sources: Voltage source
• There are two types of voltage sources – independent and dependent voltage
source.
• Independent voltage source-Is an active element that provides specific
voltage that is completely independent of other circuit elements connected
to it
• Dependent voltage source - Is an active element in which the source
quantity is controlled by another voltage or current
5
• Two types of dependent voltage source are voltage controlled voltage
source (VCVS) and current controlled voltage source (CCVS).
• The sign of voltage can be negative.
6
7
• Voltage source can be connected in series. In this connection
the voltage value is added.
• But cannot connected in parallel. Could easily cause
component failure. It results in an inconsistent equation, e.g.,
a 3V and 2V source connected in parallel, by KVL, gives the
equation: 3 = 2.
• the battery with the highest voltage will discharge into the
other one, until they end up with equal voltages. If the 2 nd
battery (the lower voltage one) is a rechargeable, then it will
be charged by the first one, again until the two have the same
voltage. In this case the end voltage will be intermediate
between the two starting voltages.
• The current flowing between the batteries during this process
will be quite high: it is equal to the different between the 2
voltages divided by the sum of the internal resistances of the
batteries:
For example:
• I=(V1−V2)/(R1+R2)
• This current may damage one or both of the batteries
8
2.1 DC Sources: Current source
• There are two types of current sources - independent and dependent
current source.
• Independent current source- Is an active element that provides specific
current that is completely independent of other circuit elements connected
to it
• Dependent current source - the current produced may depend on some
other circuit variable such as current or voltage.
9
• Two types of dependent current source are voltage controlled current
source (VCCS) and current controlled current source (CCCS).
• The sign of current can be negative.
10
• Ideal current sources cannot be connected in series.
• However it is allowed if the sources is connected in parallel.
11
2.1 Ohm’s Law
• Resistance is a characteristic of material to resists the flow of electric
charge and is represented by the symbol R.
• The resistance of any material with a uniform cross-sectional area A
depends on A and its length, l .
• In mathematical form,

R
A
*where ρ is known as the resistivity of the material in ohm-meter
12
2.2 Ohm’s Law
13
2.2 Ohm’s Law
• Ohm's Law defines the relationships between (P) power, (V) voltage, (I)
current, and (R) resistance. One Ohm (Ω) is the resistance value through
which one volt will maintain a current of one ampere.
• Ohm’s law states that the voltage across a resistor is directly proportional
to the current I flowing through the resistor.
v  iR
14
2.2 Ohm’s Law
• Good conductors, such as copper and aluminum, have low resistivity,
while insulators, such as mica and paper, have high resistivity.
• Two extreme possible values of R = 0 (zero) and R =  (infinite) are
related with two basic circuit concepts: short circuit and open circuit.
V  IR
V  I (0)  0
Short circuit
Let V=5V
• but the current is not zero; could be 5
anything. R 
•
Open circuit 0
In practice (simple circuit), a short
circuit is always a connecting wire
assumed to be a perfect conductor.
15
Unwanted s/c
• A short circuit is a circuit in which the electricity has found
an alternative path to return to the source without going
through an appropriate load
The wire will

heat instantly
and probably
melt
If the wire inside the drill comes loose and

touches the other wire, a new path exists
where the current can return to the source
without going through a load (drill)
16
Another type of short
circuit occurs when some
conductive object
accidently gets into an
overhead power line.
If the object touches
both the lines at the
same time, the
electricity has a short
circuit path available to
return to the source
before it goes to the
customer's electric
service. If the object is
connected to the ground,
the earth can act as a
short circuit path
17
2.2 Ohm’s Law
• Conductance is the ability of an element to conduct electric current; it is
the reciprocal of resistance R and is measured in mhos or siemens.
1 i
G 
R v
• The power dissipated by a resistor:
2
v
p  vi  i R  2
v G
2
18
2.2 Ohm’s Law
EXAMPLE
Calculate:
1. Current, I
2. Conductance, G
3. Power, p
19
2.2 Ohm’s Law
Solution
1.
2.
3.
20
2.2 Ohm’s Law
EXAMPLE
For the given circuit, calculate the voltage v, the conductance G and the power
p.
Answer: 20V, 100µS, 40mW
21
2.3 Power and Energy
• Power is the time rate of expanding or absorbing energy, measured in
watts (W).
• Mathematical expression:
dw dw dq
p    vi
dt dq dt
22
• If the current enters through the positive terminal of an element,
p = +vi ….absorbing power
• Passive element such as resistor, inductor and capacitor will absorb power
• If the current enters through the negative terminal of an element
p = −vi ….supplying power
• Active element such as current/voltage source will supply power
Absorbing power Supplying Power
23
EXAMPLE
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Two cases of an Two cases of

element with an absorbing an element with a supplying
power of 12 W: power of 12 W:
(a) p = 4 × 3 = 12 W, (c) p = 4 × (−3) = −12 W,
(b) p = 4 × 3 = 12 W. (d) p = 4 × (−3) = −12 W.
24
• The law of conservation of energy ; the algebraic sum of power in a circuit
at any instant of time, must be zero:
p0
* power supplied to the circuit must balance the total power absorbed
• The energy absorbed or supplied by an element from time t0 to time t is:

t t
w  t0
pdt   vidt
t0
* the capacity to do work, measured in joules (J)
25
Exercise
Compute the power for each element shown in Figure Q1. For each element,
state whether energy is being absorbed by the elements or supplied by it.
Given the magnitude of va and ia are 30V and 2A respectively.
26
Exercise
State the law of conservation of energy.
For Figure Q2, prove the law of conversation of energy using the calculation.
100Ω
5V
150Ω
Figure Q2
27
2.4 Resistor
• The resistor is far and away the simplest circuit element.
• In a resistor, the voltage v is proportional to the current i, with the constant
of proportionality R known as the resistance.
• Resistor is an element denotes its ability to resist the flow of electric
current, it is measured in ohms (Ω).
v i
 v  iR
v
or R 
i
28
2.4 Resistor: Color code and ratings
29
*Better Be Right Or Your Great Big Venture Goes Worse
30
…continued
Number Colour Petua
0 hitam Haji
1 Perang Pak
2 merah Mat
3 oren Orang
4 Kuning Kaya
5 Hijau Hendak
6 Biru Beli
7 Ungu Ubi
8 Kelabu Kayu
9 Putih Putih
± 5% Emas Enggan
±10% Perak Pulang tolerance
±20% Tak berwarna Tanpa wang
31
• The above resistance is 1,000,000 Ω or 1MΩ.

• The 10% means the actual resistance is between 900kΩ and 1.1M Ω (100k
Ω tolerance).
32
• The above resistance is 150,000 Ω or 150kΩ.

• The 5% means the actual resistance is between 142.5kΩ and 157.5kΩ.
33
• The above resistance is 3,300 Ω or 3.3kΩ.

• The 5% means the actual resistance is between 3,135Ω and 3,465Ω.
34
2.5 energy,
• Unlike resistor which dissipate Capacitor
capacitor store energy, which can
be retrieved at later time. It is a passive elements.
• Also called storage elements. The energy is stored in its electric field.
• The unit to measure the capacitance of a capacitor, C is farad (F).
Capacitor symbol Capacitor type
35
2.5 Capacitor
• Capacitor acts as a storage element:
1. There is a capacitor in parallel with the resistor and

light bulb. The way the capacitor functions is by acting
as a very low resistance load when the circuit is
initially turned on. Note: In electrical circuit, current
will always flow through a path with least resistance
2. Initially, the capacitor has a very low resistance, almost

0. Since electricity takes the path of least resistance,
almost all the electricity flows through the capacitor,
not the resistor, as the resistor has considerably higher
resistance.
36
2.5 Capacitor
3. As a capacitor charges, its resistance increases as it
gains more and more charge. As the resistance of
the capacitor climbs, electricity begins to flow not
only to the capacitor, but through the resistor as
well.
4. Once the capacitor's voltage equals that of the

battery, meaning it is fully charged, it will not allow
any current to pass through it. As a capacitor
charges its resistance increases and becomes
effectively infinite (open connection) and all the
electricity flows through the resistor.
37
6. Once2.5 Capacitor
the voltage source is disconnected, the
capacitor will act as a voltage source itself.
7. As time goes on, the capacitor's charge begins to

drop, and so does its voltage. This means less current
flowing through the resistor.
8. Once the capacitor is fully discharged, no current

will flow.
38
2.5 Capacitor: Code
39
2.6 Inductor
• It is a passive element designed to store energy in its
magnetic field.
• Inductor, L consists of a coil of conducting wire.
• Inductance is measured in henrys (H).
Inductor symbol Inductor type
40
2.6 Inductor
EXAMPLE
What you see here is a battery, a light

bulb, a coil of wire around a piece of
iron (yellow) and a switch. The coil of
wire is an inductor.
41
2.6 Inductor
 Without the inductor in this circuit, what you would have is a normal
flashlight. You close the switch and the bulb lights up.
 If there is an inductor, when the switch is closed the bulb
burns brightly and then gets dimmer. When the switch is
opened, the bulb burns very brightly and then quickly goes
out.
 The reason for this strange behavior is the inductor. When
current first starts flowing in the coil, the coil wants to build
up a magnetic field.
42
2.6 Inductor
 While the field is building, the coil inhibits the flow of current. Once the
field is built, current can flow normally through the wire (coil).
 A large amount of current will flow through this coil let only a small
amount of current flow to the light bulb. This is why the bulb gets dimmer.
 When the switch gets opened, the magnetic field around the coil keeps
current flowing in the coil until the field collapses. This current keeps the
bulb lit for a period of time even though the switch is open. In other words,
an inductor can store energy in its magnetic field, and an inductor tends to
resist any change in the amount of current flowing through it.
43
2.6 Inductor: Colour code
44
2.7 Nodes, Branches and Loops
• A branch represents a single
element such as a voltage source
or a resistor
• A node is the point of connection

between two or more branches
• A loop is any closed path in a

circuit.
45
• An independent loop is a loop that contain at least one

branch which is not part of any other independent loop.
• A network with b branches, n nodes, and l independent
loops will satisfy the fundamental theorem of network
topology:
b  l  n 1
46
EXAMPLE
Original circuit
How many branches, nodes, loops and independent loops are there?
Equivalent circuit 3 nodes, 5 branches, 3 loops
47
Rule
I2
s I1 a
I1 = I2
Two or more elements are in series and carry the same current if they exclusively
share a single node
v1 v2 v3
v1 = v2 = v3
Two or more elements are in parallel and have the same voltage if they connected to
the same two nodes
48
2.8 Kirchhoff's Law
• The foundation of circuit analysis is:
– The defining equations for circuit elements (e.g. ohm’s law)
• Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL)
• Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL)
• The defining equations tell how the voltage and current within a circuit
element are related.
• Kirchhoff’s laws tell us how the voltages and currents in different branches
are related.
49
2.8 Kirchhoff's Law: KCL
 Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) states that the algebraic sum of currents
entering a node (or a closed boundary) is zero.
N
i
n 1
n 0 N = number of branches connected to a node.
𝑖 1+𝑖 3 +𝑖 4 − 𝑖2 −𝑖 5 =0
𝑖 1+𝑖 3 +𝑖 4 =𝑖 2 +𝑖 5
As a rule of thumb for calculation : current
entering a node is regarded as positive (+ve),
current leaving a node is regarded as negative
(-ve).
50
EXAMPLE 1
Applying KCL:
4 + i = 5 + 11
thus, i = 12A
51
Original circuit Equivalent circuit
• When current sources are connected in parallel, KCL can be applied to

obtain the total current.
• The combined current is the algebraic sum of the current supplied by the
individual sources.
• A circuit cannot contain two different currents, I1 and I2, in series,
unless I1 = I2; otherwise KCL will be violated.
52
PRACTISE PROBLEM 2.7 (Pg42)-Sadiku
Find vo and io in the circuit of the following figure:
a
Solution:
Apply KCL at node a  +6 – io - (io/4) - ix=0
But we know : io = vo/2, ix = vo/8
Substituting 6 = (vo/2) + (vo/8) + (vo/8)
We get vo = 8V and io = 4A
53 53
2.8 Kirchhoff's Law: KVL
• Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) states that the algebraic sum
of all voltages around a closed path (or loop) is zero.
“Sum of voltage drops = Sum of voltage supplied”
M
Mathematically,  vm  0
m 1
Thus, the KVL equation :
-v1 + v2 +v3 –v4 +v5 = 0
54
The KVL equation :
or
Equivalent circuit
Original circuit
• When voltage sources are connected in series, KVL can be applied

to obtain the total voltage
• The combined voltage is the algebraic sum of the voltages of the
individual sources
55
EXAMPLE
• Applying the KVL equation for the circuit of the
figure below to find the current, I.
-va+v1+vb+v2+v3 = 0
V1 = IR1 v2 = IR2 v3 = IR3
Þ va-vb = I(R1 + R2 + R3)
va  vb
I
R1  R2  R3
56
PRACTISE PROBLEM 2.5 (Pg41) KVL
Find v1 and v2 in the circuit of the following figure:
Solution:
Apply KVL  -10+v1- 8 -v2 =0 and v1=4i, v2=-2i
Substituting => -10 + 4i – 8 - (-2i) = 0
We get => 18 = 6i, hence i=3A
Thus V1=12V, V2=-6V
57
PRACTISE PROBLEM 2.6 (Pg41) KVL
Find vx and vo in the circuit of the following figure:
Solution:
Apply KVL  -35 +vx + 2vx - vo=0 and vx=10i, vo=-5i
Substituting => -35 + 10i + 2(10i) - (-5i) = 0
We get => 35 = 35i, hence i=1A
Hence vx=10V, vo=-5V
58
2.8 Kirchhoff's Law:
PRACTISE PROBLEM 2.8 (Pg43)-Sadiku
Find the currents and voltages in the circuit shown in the following figure
59
KCL at the top node;
i1  i2  i3 a
V1 V2 V3
  .........(1)
2 8 4
KVL at loop 1;
 5 V 1V2  0
V1  5  V2 ........( 2)
The steps will be easier /
KVL at loop 2;
shorter when NODAL
 V2  V3  3  0 ANALYSIS is applied –
will be learned in the
V 3 3  V 2........(3) subsequent subtopic
Substituting (2) and (3) into (1) yields
V2 = 2V hence V1 = 3V, V3 = 5V
i1=1.5 A, i2=0.25A, i3=1.25A
60
2.9 Series Circuits
• Series: Two or more elements are in series if they are

cascaded or connected sequentially and consequently carry
the same current.
• The equivalent resistance of any number of resistors
connected in a series is the sum of the individual resistances.
N
Req  R1  R2      R N   Rn 𝑖 1=𝑖 2=𝑖

n 1
61
2.10 Parallel Circuits
• Parallel: Two or more elements are in parallel if they are connected to the
same two nodes and consequently have the same voltage across them.
• The equivalent resistance of a circuit with N resistors in parallel is:
1 1 1 1
     𝑣 1 =𝑣 2=𝑣

Req R1 R2 RN
62
2.10 Series-Parallel Circuits
EXAMPLE 2.9 (Pg.47)-Sadiku
Find Req for the circuit shown in the following figure
Answer:
14.4 ohm
63
PRACTISE PROBLEM 2.9 (Pg.48)-Sadiku
By combining the resistors in the following fig, find Req.
Answer:
6 ohm
64
Calculate the equivalent resistance Rab in the following circuit:
Answer:
11.2 ohm
65
PRACTICE PROBLEM 2.10 (Pg.49)-Sadiku
Calculate the equivalent resistance Rab in the following circuit:
Answer:
11 ohm
66
2.12 Current and Voltage Divider
• Recall: The current that pass through the series elements has the same
value.
Thus,
i1 = i 2 = i 3
67
• Consider the following figure:
where Req = R1 + R2
68
• Applying Ohm’s law to each of the resistors,

v1 = iR1 , v2 = iR2 (1)
69
• KVL (clockwise):
v 1 + v2 – v = 0 (2)
• Combining both the above equation,
v = v1+ v2 = i(R1 + R2)
or (3) v
i
R1  R2
70
• For 2 resistors R1 and R2 with supply voltage Vs;
R1
vR1  VS
R1  R2
R2
vR2  VS
R1  R2
• The above equation is called the principle of voltage division.
• The source voltage v is divided among the resistors in direct proportion to

their resistances; the larger the resistance, the larger the voltage drop.
71
Voltage Divider
• Find v1 and v2 in the circuit of the
following figure by using voltage
divider:
V1=12V, V2=-6V
72
Voltage Divider
Calculate Vo in the circuit of the following figure:
(6.4V)
73
Voltage Divider
• Find voltage across 6Ω
V= 4.5V
74
• Find voltage across 5Ω
V=20V
75
Note that elements in parallel have the same voltage drops

across them.
76
1 1 1
where
 
Req R1 R2
R1R2
 Req 
R1  R2
77
• Applying Ohm’s law to each of the resistors,

v = i1R1 , v = i2R2
78 78
or v v
i1  i2 
R1 R2
(4)
• Applying KCL at node a gives the total current i

as
i = i 1 + i2 (5)
• Substituting eq 4 into 5, yields
v v  1 1   R1  R2 
i   v (6)  v 
R1 R2  R1 R2   R1R2 
79 79
 R1R2 
• From eq 6 v i 
 R1  R2 
(7)
• Substituting eq 7 into 4 gives,
iR2 (8) i  iR1

i1  2
R1  R2 R1  R2
• Equation 8 is known as the principle of current

division.
80 80
EXERCISE
Find io and vo in the circuit below. Calculate the power dissipated in the 3Ω
resistor.
Answer:
vo =4 V, io =4/3 A, 5.333 W
81 81
EXERCISE

For the circuit shown below, determine:
(a) the voltage vo,
(b) the power supplied by the current source,
(c) the power absorbed by each resistor.
Answer: (a) vo = 180 V, (b) 5.4 W, P12kΩ=1.2W, P9kΩ=3.6W, P6kΩ=0.6W,
82 82
83
EXERCISE
PRACTISE PROBLEM 2.13 (Pg.52)-Sadiku
For the circuit shown below, find:
(a) v1 and v2,
(b) the power dissipated in the 3-kΩ and 20-kΩ resistors, and
(c) the power supplied by the current source.
Answer: (a) 15 V, 20 V, (b) 75 mW, 20 mW, (c) 200 mW.
84 84
85
EXERCISE
PRACTISE PROBLME 2.12 (Pg.51)-Sadiku

Find v1 and v2 in the circuit shown below. Also calculate i1 and i2 and the
power dissipated in the 12Ω and 40Ω resistors.
Answer: v1 = 5 V, i1 = 416.7 mA, p1 = 2.083 W, v2 = 10 V,

i2 = 250 mA, p2 = 2.5 W.
86 86
2.13 Wye-Delta Transformation
• Some resistors are combined neither in series nor parallel. For

example,
87 87
• These type of connection can be simplified by using three-

terminal equivalent network.
88 88
• The wye (Y) / tee (T) network and the delta (Δ) / pi (π).
• The wye network can be converted into the delta network and vice versa.
• This conversion will simplify the circuit analysis.
• Note: This conversion did not take anything out of the circuit or put in
anything new.
89 89
• Delta-Wye conversion:
RbRc
R1 
Ra  Rb  Rc
Ra Rc
R2 
Ra  Rb  Rc
Ra Rb
R3 
Ra  Rb  Rc
90 90
• Wye-Delta conversion:
R1R2  R2R3  R3R1
Ra 
R1
R1R2  R2R3  R3R1

Rb 
R2
R1R2  R2R3  R3R1

Rc 
R3
91 91
cont’d..
useful when the resistors are
neither in parallel nor in series
Delta -> Star Star -> Delta
R1 R2  R2 R3  R3 R1
Rb Rc Ra 
R1  R1
( Ra  Rb  Rc )
Rc R a R1R2  R2 R3  R3 R1
Rb 
R2  R2
( Ra  Rb  Rc )
Ra Rb R1R2  R2 R3  R3 R1
R3  Rc 
( Ra  Rb  Rc ) R3
92
92
EXAMPLE
1)Convert the delta network to wye network
93 93
Rb Rc 10(25) 250
R1     5
Ra  Rb  Rc 15  10  25 50
Ra Rc 25(15) 375
R2     7.5
Ra  Rb  Rc 15  10  25 50
Ra Rb 15(10) 150
R3     3
Ra  Rb  Rc 15  10  25 50
94 94
Converted delta to wye network:
95 95
2) Convert the wye network to delta network

R1R2  R2 R3  R3 R1
Ra 
R1
10(20)  20(40)  40(10) 1400
   140
10 10
R1R2  R2 R3  R3 R1
Rb 
R2
1400
  70
20
R1R2  R2 R3  R3 R1
Rc 
R3
Answer: 1400
  35
Ra = 140Ω; Rb = 70Ω ; Rc = 35Ω 40
redraw delta network with R values!

96
3) Obtain the equivalent resistance Rab for the circuit below.
97 97
Answer: Rab = 9.632Ω & i = 12.458A
98 98
325
Ra   65
5
325
Rb   21.667
15
325
Rc   26
12.5
Rb // 10  6.842
Rc // 20  11 .304
Rab   (6.842  11 .304) // Ra  // 30  9.632
99
Practice Problem 2.15 (Pg 58)
For the bridge network below, find Rab and i.
500  1000  200 1700

Ra    34
50 50
1700
Rb   85
20
1700
Rc   170
10
Ra // 24  14.069
Rc // 30  25.5
Rab   (14.069  25.5) // Rb   13  40
Answer: 40Ω , 2.5 A.
100
101
2.14 Node/Nodal Analysis
• Nodal voltage or Branch voltage analysis provides a general procedure for
analyzing circuits using node voltages as the circuit variables.
• EXAMPLE 1
Practice Problem 3.1 (pg85) – circuit with independent current source
102 10
2
• Steps:
1. Select a node as the reference node.

2. Assign voltages v1,v2,…,vn-1 to the remaining n-1
nodes. The voltages are referenced with respect
to the reference node.
3. Label the current direction in each branch & sign
(+/-)
4. Apply KCL to each of the n-1 non-reference
nodes. Use Ohm’s law to express the branch
currents in terms of node voltages.
5. Solve the resulting simultaneous equations to
obtain the unknown node voltages and currents
103 10
3
EXAMPLE 1
Apply KCL at
node 1 and 2
v1 v2
104 10
4
i2
i1 i3
*Answer v1 = -2V, v2 = -14V 105

Solving 2 equations using calculator
4V1  V2  6
7V1  13V2  168
106
Example 3.2 (pg86) – current with dependant current
source
107
V4  V2 
0.75V1  0.5V2  0.25V3  3
 0.5V1  0.875V2  0.125V3  0
Rearranging the terms,

 0.75V1  1.125V2  0.375V3  0
108
*Answer v1= 4.8V, v2 = 2.4V, v3 = -2.4V
2.15 Mesh Analysis
• Mesh (Loop) analysis provides another general

procedure for analyzing circuits using mesh currents
as the circuit variables.
• Nodal analysis applies KCL to find unknown voltages
in a given circuit, while mesh analysis applies KVL
to find unknown currents.
• A mesh is a loop which does not contain any other
loops within it.
109 10
9
2.15 Mesh Analysis
Steps to determine the mesh currents:

1. Identify mesh (loops)
2. Assign mesh currents i1, i2, …, in to the n meshes.
3. Apply KVL to each of the n meshes. Use Ohm’s

law to express the voltages in terms of the mesh
currents.
4. Solve the resulting n simultaneous equations to get
the mesh currents.
110 11
0
2.15 Mesh Analysis

1. Identify meshes (loops)
111 11
1
2.15 Mesh Analysis

2. Assign mesh currents i1, i2, …, in to the n meshes.
112 11
2
2.15 Mesh Analysis

3. Apply KVL to each of the n meshes. Use Ohm’s law to express the
voltages in terms of the mesh currents.
Remember …..
VR = I1 R VR = (I1 – I2 ) R
Loop 1 –V1 + 1000I1 + 1000(I1 – I2) = 0
2000I1 – 1000I2 = V1 ……………….….(1)
Loop 2 1000(I2 – I1)+ 1000I2 + V2 = 0

-1000I1 + 2000I2 = –V2………….….(2)
113 11
3
2.15 Mesh Analysis

4. Solve the resulting n simultaneous equations to get the mesh currents.
1kW 1kW
+ 1kW +
V1 I1 I2 V2
– –
Let: V1 = 7V and V2 = 4V
Results:
I1 = 3.33 mA
I2 = –0.33 mA
Finally
Vout = (I1 – I2) 1kΩ = 3.66V
114 11
4
Example 1 – circuit with dependent voltage source
Find I1 , I2 , I3
115
Example 2 – circuit with dependent voltage source
Calculate the mesh currents i1 and i2 in the circuit below :
116
Example 3 - circuit with dependent voltage source
Find I0
I1 = 2.25A, I2= 0.75A, I3 = 1.5A
Io = I1-I2 =1.5A 117

Example 4 – circuit with dependent & Independent voltage sources
Using mesh analysis, find io in the circuit below:
I1 = -3.214A, I2 = -9.643A, I3 = -5A,

I0 = I3 118
Example 5 – circuit with current source
Using mesh analysis, find current through 6Ω resistor in the circuit below:
i3
In loop 1;
In loop 2;
Let i6   i3
i1  i2  i3
 i3  2  (5)  3A 119
Nodal versus Mesh Analysis
To select the method that results in the smaller number of
equations;
1. Choose nodal analysis for circuit with fewer nodes than

meshes.
*Choose mesh analysis for circuit with fewer meshes than
nodes.
*Networks that contain many series connected elements,
voltage sources, or supermeshes are more suitable for
mesh analysis.
*Networks with parallel-connected elements, current
sources, or supernodes are more suitable for nodal
analysis.
2. If node voltages are required, it may be expedient to apply

nodal analysis. If branch or mesh currents are required, it
may be better to use mesh analysis.
120
END Of Lecture
121 12
1

BEKG 1123 Principles of Electric and Electronics: Direct Current (DC) Circuits

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BEKG 1123

• For ideal voltage source and ideal current source, they

• This current may damage one or both of the batteries

• However it is allowed if the sources is connected in parallel.

*where ρ is known as the resistivity of the material in ohm-meter

The wire will

If the wire inside the drill comes loose and

Answer: 20V, 100µS, 40mW

Absorbing power Supplying Power

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Two cases of an Two cases of

• The energy absorbed or supplied by an element from time t0 to time t is:

* the capacity to do work, measured in joules (J)

• The above resistance is 1,000,000 Ω or 1MΩ.

• The above resistance is 150,000 Ω or 150kΩ.

• The above resistance is 3,300 Ω or 3.3kΩ.

Capacitor symbol Capacitor type

1. There is a capacitor in parallel with the resistor and

2. Initially, the capacitor has a very low resistance, almost

4. Once the capacitor's voltage equals that of the

7. As time goes on, the capacitor's charge begins to

8. Once the capacitor is fully discharged, no current

Inductor symbol Inductor type

What you see here is a battery, a light

• A node is the point of connection

• A loop is any closed path in a

• An independent loop is a loop that contain at least one

Equivalent circuit 3 nodes, 5 branches, 3 loops

Original circuit Equivalent circuit

• When current sources are connected in parallel, KCL can be applied to

“Sum of voltage drops = Sum of voltage supplied”

The KVL equation :

• When voltage sources are connected in series, KVL can be applied

V1 = IR1 v2 = IR2 v3 = IR3

Þ va-vb = I(R1 + R2 + R3)

Find v1 and v2 in the circuit of the following figure:

Find vx and vo in the circuit of the following figure:

Substituting (2) and (3) into (1) yields

• Series: Two or more elements are in series if they are

EXAMPLE 2.9 (Pg.47)-Sadiku

Find Req for the circuit shown in the following figure

By combining the resistors in the following fig, find Req.

EXAMPLE 2.10 (Pg.48)-Sadiku

Calculate the equivalent resistance Rab in the following circuit:

PRACTICE PROBLEM 2.10 (Pg.49)-Sadiku

Calculate the equivalent resistance Rab in the following circuit:

• Consider the following figure:

• Consider the following figure:

• Applying Ohm’s law to each of the resistors,

• For 2 resistors R1 and R2 with supply voltage Vs;

• The source voltage v is divided among the resistors in direct proportion to

Note that elements in parallel have the same voltage drops

• Consider the following figure:

• Consider the following figure:

• Applying Ohm’s law to each of the resistors,

• Applying KCL at node a gives the total current i

• Substituting eq 4 into 5, yields

• Substituting eq 7 into 4 gives,

iR2 (8) i  iR1

• Equation 8 is known as the principle of current

EXAMPLE 2.12 (Pg.50)-Sadiku

EXAMPLE 2.13 (Pg.51)-Sadiku

Answer: (a) vo = 180 V, (b) 5.4 W, P12kΩ=1.2W, P9kΩ=3.6W, P6kΩ=0.6W,