Industrial Electronics – EEE355

VI semester
EEE Department

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Displacement and Position Sensors
• Applications
• Linear and rotary type potentiometers
• Linear Variable Differential Transformer
• Linear and Rotary Encoders

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 Displacement and Position
Sensors
• Displacement sensors are concerned with the
measurement of amount by which some object
has moved.
• Position sensors are concerned with the
determination of the position of some object with
reference to some reference point
• Position sensors measure either absolute or
incremental displacement.
• When the sensor’s power fails, some retain the
measured position data, and other types lose the
information.
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 Displacement and Position Sensors-Applications

• Motion control systems typically require a sensor in

a feedback loop to ensure that the moving member
or component reaches its commanded position.
• Position sensors are typically used on machine-tool
controls, elevators, liquid-level assemblies, forklift
trucks, automobile throttle controls, and numerous
other applications.
• Measurements of size, shape, and position utilize
displacement sensors
Example:- diameter of part under stress

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 Potentiometer Transducers
• Single-turn or a multi-turn rotary sensor with an
element made of carbon or any one of a number
of more durable, high-temperature conductive-
plastic film materials.
• Some types of potentiometers connect to the
moving member through a rigid or flexible
coupling while others are actuated with a string
wrapped around its output shaft.

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 Resistive position sensor
/Potentiometer.

It consist of a constant resistance

per unit length with sliding contact
which can be moved over the
length of the element. It can be
used for linear or rotary
displacements.
Ni-Cr, Ni-Copper, Silver-palladium
are resistive elements.
With a constant source voltage VS,
the output voltage V0 is a
fractional of the input voltage

V0/Vs=R23/R13
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String-Potentiometer Transducers

• String-type potentiometers are basically rotational

devices that typically measure linear motion as shown.
• A cable connects between the moving member and the potentiometer.
• The cable must be preloaded with a spring, which has a low coefficient
of expansion.
• Its accuracy is somewhat less than that of a more rigid, shaft-coupled
sensor

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 Potentiometers
• Most modern potentiometers are extremely linear and are
made with special alloys or precious metal wipers and
conductive plastic resistive elements to withstand as many
as 100 million revolutions.
• They are usually part of a voltage divider and provide an
output voltage proportional to displacement, but they may
also drive analog-to-digital converters to feed
microprocessor-based instruments directly. However, when
digital outputs are needed, a more common practice uses
digital encoders that inherently provide higher accuracy.

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 Potentiometers
Advantage
• Inexpensive and simple to
set up
• Large Displacement
• Sufficient output to drive
control circuits
• Frequency response and
resolution limited for wire
wound but unlimited for
others.
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Disadvantage
• Mechanical loading owing
to viper friction.
• Electrical noise from sliding
contact.
• Wear and misalignment.
• Generates heat.
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 Linear Voltage Differential Transformer
“LVDT”
• Linear Differential Transformer “LVDT” : it consist of three
coils symmetrically spaced along an insulated tube. The
two identical secondary coils are connected in series in
such a way that their outputs oppose each other. A
magnetic core is moved through the central tube in
response to a displacement
• If ac voltage is applied to the primary winding, equal and
opposite voltages will be generated in the secondary
winding and the net output voltage is zero
• When the core is displaced from the center there is
resultant output voltage
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 LVDT

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 Advantages and Disadvantages of LVDT

Advantage Disadvantage
• Linearity is good • Wear and tear
• Output voltage is step less and resolution
is good(~1µm) • Affected by stray EMF.
• Output is high. Intermediate amplification Proper shielding is
is not necessary.
• Sensitivity is high(~0.02 to 0.2V/mm per necessary
volt of excitation) • AC input generates noises.
• Low power(<1W), Low hysteresis
• Does not load the measurand • Sensitivity is lower at high
mechanically. temp.
• Low response time(inertia of iron)
• Solid and robust
• Low cost due to its popularity
• Contactless, life is more.

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 Rollers spacing

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 Rollers spacing

• In the rolling of steel, aluminum or paper, must

measure rollers spacing to control the material
thickness. LVDT body is usually installed on the fixed
roller, magnet core on the moving roller. With the
rollers spacing change, LVDT output analog voltage
or current signal, as the position feedback signal.
LVDT is a rugged industrial sensor that can withstand
dusty environments of high temperature and
vibration.
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 Valve positioning

• LVDT can not only withstand the gas turbines,

steam turbines, high temperature, but also small
size, can be installed inside the actuator, it is
particularly suitable for controlling the valve
position. LVDT body in installed on main valve,
magnet core on the opening and closing part. Then,
LVDT feedback control system the analog signal, the
signal and the valve opening is proportional. LVDT
measuring range from ± 0.005 to ± 10 inches, can
be used within the control loop
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 Valve positioning

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 Injection Molding Machine
• Injection molding machine use pressure sensors and LVDT
sensors to control and measure the opening and closing of
the mold and control the work of feeding and other
hydraulic and pneumatic actuators.
• Target LVDT sensor particularly suitable for precision,
repeatable overload protection, zero and span error of
demanding applications. These sensors do not need to be
adjusted during production, is also easy to install and
maintain, so it reduces installation costs, and has a good
performance. In addition, because of its small size and
stainless steel casing, it is easy to clean. 

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 Injection Molding Machine

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 GSA 750
• The GSA 750 series of short range spring loaded
position sensors were developed for cost sensitive
applications requiring LVDT reliability and
performance.
• Available in ranges of ±0.10 inches to ±0.30 inches,
these sensors offer the excellent measurement
capabilities of an LVDT at very economical prices.
• This makes GSA 750 series LVDTs especially attractive
for student projects, fabrication shops, and R & D
laboratories on a limited budget
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 Rotary/Linear Encoders
• A rotary or linear encoder concerts rotary or
linear motion to an electronic signal

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 Types of EncodersLinear
Rotary

●
Convert Linear distance
●
Convert Angular Position into
movement to Analog or Digital
Analog or Digital Signal
Signal
●
Encoders for rotary motion and ●
Encoders for measuring distance
measuring angle, speed or
travelled, positioning, location
velocity
information.

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Incremental Encoders

Magneti(Magneto
-resistive,Hall
Effect)
Contact
Optical
 Incremental Encoders
Incremental

 Produces electrical pulses or increments

with linear or rotary motion

 Signals can be square or sinusoidal waves

 Signals start over at power up, or after a

power failure. In other words, an incremental
encoder does not retain position after a
power cycle

 Incremental encoders are typically used for

speed or applications that do not require
absolute position

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Rotary Absolute Encoders
Rotary Absolute Encoders
 How Rotary encoder works

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Rotary Absolute Encoders
Rotary Absolute Encoders
Linear Encoders
Linear Encoders
Linear Encoders
Linear Encoders
Linear Encoders
Linear Encoders
Fields of applications
Packaging Print & Paper Wood industry

Machine Tooling Automotive Ports & Cranes Handling

… And many more

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 Application Examples
OVERHEAD CRANE– AFM60 EtherNet/IP used to track position of crane

CONVEYORS – DKV60 used to track speed of conveyor

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 Application Examples
WIND TURBINE – Absolute encoder AFM60 for gandala and blade angle tracking

BOTTLING – Absolute encoder AFS60 to track position of fillers

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 Application Examples
STADIUM ROOF – Position with KH53 Linear Encoder

LIFT APPLICATIONS – Height and Width positioning using BGC Wiredraw Encoders

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 Accelerometer
• A wide variety of motion sensors are available
to measure acceleration, velocity and speed
• The instruments used to measure these values
typically do so with indirect methods (eg.
Piezoelectric elements – to measure stress
and calculate the amount of motion that
results)

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 Contd…
• Accelerometers are sensors that convert the motion that
represents the aspect of acceleration into an electrical
signal.
• These devices are typically used to measure vibration on
machines. The acceleration detectors and motion
detectors are also used in mines, highways and bridges
that are located in areas subject to earthquakes.
• The most recent application for accelerometers is to
measure vibration on large machines with pumps or
motors with bearings that tend to wear out (un-expected
wear out leads to downtime that is very expensive).

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 Contd…
• Acceleration is commonly measure in dv/dt (delta velocity over delta time) or by
Newton’s Law of Motion that states F = ma.
• Possible to determine Acceleration by measuring the force and dividing it by mass.
• Accelerometers use QUARTZ crystals to generate a Piezo-electric effect that is
converted to electrical signal.
• How accelerometer works?
• When force is exerted on a crystal, it is stressed and through the effect, the crystal
generates an electrostatic charge output which is expressed in terms of pico-
coloumbs.
• A signal conditioner, either internal or external, converts the high impedance
charge signal from crystal to high-voltage, low-impedance output that is
compatible with the meter, data collectors and readout instruments.

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 Classification
• Several Piezo-accelerometer design configurations
include
Shear (most accurate), upright compression,
inverted compression, and flexural.
• Classified by the way they condition the signal,
In Circuit Piezoelectric (ICP) – If the sensor contains
internal signal conditioning (voltage mode)
Charge Mode Sensor – Signal is conditioned
externally by a charge amplifier.
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 A cut-away diagram of Basic Accelerometer

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 Temperature sensors
• When you are working with systems where the temperature must
be measured, then several options are available based on the
parametric changes (proportional to change in temperature)
For example,
• Temperature sensor that produces a voltage (measure between,
750 to 6000) – Thermocouple
• Sensor signal produces change of resistance – Resistance
Temperature Detector (RTD) or Thermistor)
• Sensor signal needed to produce a proportional current – Solid
state temperature sensor
• Sensor signal that varies in accordance to the Infrared energy
emitted – Optical Pyrometers

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 Types of Temperature Sensors
 Thermocouples
 Resistance Temperature
Detectors (RTDs)
 Thermistors
 Infrared Thermometry
(infrared thermocouples)
 Optical Pyrometer
(Thermal photography)
 C = (5/9) (F-32)
 F = (9/5) C + 32
 Thermistors
• Resistance Temperature Relationships
• Composition of thermistor, manufacturing
process.
• Thermistor in Wheatston’s Bridge
• Linearity of operation(Potentiometer)
 Thermistors
• A semiconductor used as a temperature sensor.
• Mixture of metal oxides (Oxides of Ni, Cobalt, Manganese,
Sulphides of Iron, Al,Cu) pressed into a bead, wafer or other shape.
• Beads can be very small, less than 1 mm in some cases.
• The resistance decreases as temperature increases, negative
temperature coefficient (NTC) thermistor.
 Thermistors
• Most are seen in medical
equipment markets.
• Thermistors are also
used are for engine
coolant, oil, and air
temperature
measurement in the
transportation industry.
 Thermistors

Thermistors are made of semiconductor materials (metallic

compounds including oxides such as manganese, copper, cobalt,
and nickel, as well as single-crystal semiconductors silicon and
germanium).

Leads, coated Glass encased Surface mount

 Thermistor

Where the temperatures are in

kelvin and R0 is the resistance at
temperature T0.
Β is a material constant(3000 to
5000K)
 Thermistor
• Sensitivity

S=(ΔR/R)/ΔT=-β/T2

If β=4000K and T=298 K then S=-0.045/K

(higher than the sensitivity of RTD)
 Thermistor Manufacturing
• Two or semiconductor powder and binder are
heated to form a slurry.
• Small slurry drops over lead wires,dried and
put in a sintering furnace.
• Metallic oxides shrunk into the slurry to form
leads.
• Beads are sealed by coating with glass to
improve stability.(size 0.125mm-1.5mm)
 Applications of Thermistors

1. Temperature measurement.(Resistance to temp few Ωs to kΩs.)

2. Time delay (self heating from large current ‘opens’ the thermistor
so it can be used as a slow switch). Heating = i2 R where R is the
resistance and i is the current.
3. Surge suppression when a circuit is first energized. Current needs
to flow through the thermistor for awhile to heat it so that it
‘opens’, and acts again as a switch.
4. Germanium doped with Arsenic and Gallium is used for cryogenic
instrumentation
5. Silicon with boron shows positive temperature coiefficient.
Thermistor in a Wheatston’s bridge
 Thermistor in a Wheatston's bridge
RT R4
• Eo= (  ) Ex
RT  R 2 R 3  R 4

RT  RT R4
Eo = (  ) Ex
RT  RT  R 2 R 3  R 4
with change in temperature.
If RT=R2=R3=R4

(1  2 Eo / Ex)
RT '  RT
(1  2 Eo / Ex)
Thermistor in a Potentiometer Circuit
Thermistors

Thermistor-choice is based on the nominal

resistance you want at the operating
temperature range, on the size, and on
the time constant.
 Thermistors
Advantages Disadvantages
• Limited
High sensitivity
temperature
to small
range
temperature changes
• Temperature measurements become more
Fragile
• stable with use
Some initial accuracy “drift”
••Copper or nickel
Decalibration extension
if used beyondwires can be used
the sensor’s
temperature ratings
• Lack of standards for replacement
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