

Fluid Mechanics

EIT Review

School of Civil and

Monroe L. Weber-Shirk Environmental Engineering
 Shear Stress

F N
 Tangential force per unit area  m 2 
A

du
  change in velocity with respect to distance
dy
rate of shear
 Manometers for High Pressures

Find the gage pressure in the center

of the sphere. The sphere contains 1
fluid with 1 and the manometer
contains fluid with 2. 2
P1 = 0 h1
What do you know? _____ 3
1 ?
Use statics to find other pressures. h2
P1 + h12 - h21 =P3 2

For small h1 use fluid with high density. Mercury!

 Differential Manometers

p1 Water p2
h3
orifice
h1
h2

Find the drop in pressure
between point 1 and point
2.
Mercury
p1 + h1w - h2Hg - h3w = p2
p1 - p2 = (h3-h1)w + h2Hg
p1 - p2 = h2(Hg - w)
 Forces on Plane Areas: Inclined
Surfaces
Free surface O
 x
FR  hc A hc A’
xc
xR
centroid
B’ O

The origin of the y

yc axis is on the free
center of pressure yR
y surface
 Statics

 Fundamental Equations
 Sum of the forces = 0
 Sum of the moments = 0

F  pc A centroid of the area

pc is the pressure at the __________________

Ix  y2 A Ix
yp   y Line of action is below the centroid
yA yA
 Properties of Areas

b a ba 3
a A = ab yc = I xc = I xyc = 0
Ixc yc 2 12

a
yc =
ab 3 ba 3
ba 2
a I xc = I xyc = ( b - 2d )
Ixc yc A = 2 b+d 36 72
xc =
b 3
d
R p R4 I xyc = 0
Ixc A = p R 2 yc = R I xc =
yc 4
 Properties of Areas

Ixc yc p R2 4R p R4 I xyc = 0
R A= yc = I xc =
2 3p 8

b
a yc = a p ba 3 I xyc = 0
Ixc A = p ab I xc =
yc 4

yc p R2 4R p R4
R A= yc = I xc =
4 3p 16
 Inclined Surface Summary

 The horizontal center of pressure and the I xy

coincide when the surface x p  x  yA
horizontal centroid ________
has either a horizontal or vertical axis of
symmetry
 The center of pressure is always _______
below the y  I x  y
p
centroid yA
 The vertical distance between the centroid and
the center of pressure _________
decreases as the surface
is lowered deeper into the liquid
 What do you do if there isn’t a free surface?
 Example using Moments
An elliptical gate covers the end of a pipe 4 m in diameter. If the
gate is hinged at the top, what normal force F applied at the
bottom of the gate is required to open the gate when water is 8 m
deep above the top of the pipe and the pipe is open to the
atmosphere on the other side? Neglect the weight of the gate.
Solution Scheme
 Magnitude of the force hinge
applied by the water 8m water

 Location of the resultant force F 4m

 Find F using moments about hinge
 Magnitude of the Force

hinge
Fr  pc A 8m water
A  ab Fr
F 4m
h = _____
10 m Depth to the centroid
h
pc = ___
Fr  h ab
a = 2.5 m
 N
Fr   9800 10 m  π 2.5 m  2 m 
3
 m 
Fr= ________
1.54 MN
b=2m
 Location of Resultant Force

Ix hinge
yp  y 8m water
yA
Fr
yh
Slant distance F 4m
12.5 m
y  ________
to surface
ba 3 ba 3
yp  y  Ix  A  ab
4 yab 4
a = 2.5 m
a2
yp  y 
 2.5 m 
2
yp  y  cp
4y 412.5 m 

y p  y  0.125 m
_______ x p  __
x
b=2m
 Force Required to Open Gate

hinge
How do we find the 8m water
required force? Fr
Moments about the hinge F 4m
 M hinge  0 =Fltot - Frlcp
Fr lcp
F
ltot lcp=2.625 m 2.5 m
ltot
1.54 x 10 N   2.625 m 
6 cp
F
 5 m
F = ______
809 kN b=2m
 Example: Forces on Curved
Surfaces
Find the resultant force (magnitude and location)
on a 1 m wide section of the circular arc.

F V = W 1 + W2 3m W1
= (3 m)(2 m)(1 m) + p/4(2 m)2(1 m)
water 2m
= 58.9 kN + 30.8 kN
= 89.7 kN W2
2m

FH = p A x
= (4 m)(2 m)(1 m)
= 78.5 kN y
 Example: Forces on Curved
Surfaces
The vertical component line of action goes through
the centroid of the volume of water above the surface. A
Take moments about a vertical
axis through A. 3m W1
4(2 m)
xFV  (1 m) W1  W2 water 2m
3
4( 2 m ) W2
(1 m) 58.9 kN    30.8 kN  2m
x 3
 89.7 kN 
= 0.948 m (measured from A) with magnitude of 89.7 kN
 Example: Forces on Curved
Surfaces
The location of the line of action of the horizontal
component is given by A
Ix
yp  y
yA b 3m W1
bh 3 water 2m
Ix  h
12
W2
I x  (1 m)(2 m)3/12 = 0.667 m4 2m

y 4m x
0.667 m 4
yp    4 m   4.083 m
 4 m    2 m 1 m  
y
Example: Forces on Curved
Surfaces

0.948 m
78.5 kN horizontal
4.083 m
89.7 kN vertical

119.2 kN resultant
 Cylindrical Surface Force Check
0.948 m 89.7kN  All pressure forces pass
C through point C.
 The pressure force
1.083 m applies no moment about
point C.
 The resultant must pass
78.5kN through point C.

(78.5kN)(1.083m) - (89.7kN)(0.948m) = ___

0
 Curved Surface Trick

 Find force F required to open

the gate. A
 The pressure forces and force F
W1
pass through O. Thus the hinge 3m
force must pass through O! water 2m
O
 All the horizontal force is F W2
carried by the hinge
 Hinge carries only horizontal
W 1 + W2
forces! (F = ________) 11.23
 Dimensionless parameters
Vl
R
 Reynolds Number 
V
F
 Froude Number gl
V 2 l
W
 Weber Number 
V
 Mach Number M
c
2Drag
 2p Cd 
 Pressure Coefficient Cp 
V 2 V 2 A
 (the dependent variable that we measure experimentally)
 Model Studies and Similitude:
Scaling Requirements
 dynamic similitude
 geometric similitude
 all linear dimensions must be scaled identically
 roughness must scale
 kinematic similitude
 constant ratio of dynamic pressures at corresponding
points
 streamlines must be geometrically similar

Mach __________,
 _______, Reynolds _________,
Froude and _________
Weber
numbers must be the same
a
C p  f M, R, F,W,geometry f
 V
F
gl Froude similarity Fm  Fp

 Froude number the same in model and Vm2 Vp2


prototype gmLm gpLp
 difficult to change g
________________________ 2
Vm2 Vp

 define length ratio (usually larger than 1) Lm Lp
Vr  L r Lp
 velocity ratio Lr 
Lr Lm
 time ratio
tr   Lr
Vr
 discharge ratio
Q r  V A
r r  L r L L
r r  L5/ 2
r

3 Lr 3
 force ratio F = M a = r L = L
r r r r r 2
tr r
11.33
 Control Volume Equations

 Mass
 Linear Momentum
 Moment of Momentum
 Energy
 Conservation of Mass

 If mass in cv 2
cs v  dA   t cv d is constant 1
v1
 v
cs11
1 1  dA1  
cs22
2 v 2  dA 2  0 A1

Area vector is normal to surface and pointed out of cv

 1V1 A1   2V2 A2  0 V = spatial average of v

1V1 A1   2V2 A2  m
 [M/t]

V1 A1  V2 A2  Q If density is constant [L3/t]

 Conservation of Momentum

F  M 1  M2

M1 = - ( r 1V1 A1 ) V1 = - ( r Q ) V1

a f af
M 2   2V2 A2 V2  Q V2

 F  aQfV  aQfV
1 2

 F  QaV 2  V1 f F  W  F
p11  Fp2  Fss
 Energy Equation

p1 V12 p2 V22
 z1  1  Hp   z2   2  H t  hl
1 2g 2 2g

V 2 LV2
hl  K hf  f
2g D 2g

laminar turbulent

64
f Moody Diagram
R
 Example HGL and EGL
velocity head V2

2g
p
pressure head

energy grade line
hydraulic grade line

z elevation
pump
z=0 datum
2 2 2
pin V
in pout Vout
+ zin + a in + hP = + zout + a out + hT + hL
g 2g g 2g
 Smooth, Transition, Rough 2
LV
h  f
Turbulent Flow D 2g
f

 Hydraulically smooth 1  Re f 
 2 log



pipe law (von Karman, f  2.51 
1930)
 Rough pipe law (von 1  3.7 D 
Karman, 1930)  2 log



f   
 Transition function for
both smooth and rough  D 
1  2.51 
pipe laws (Colebrook)  2 log 
f  
 3.7 Re f 
(used to draw the Moody diagram)
 Moody Diagram
0.10
0.08
D
f   C p 
0.05
0.04
 l  0.06 0.03
0.05 0.02
friction factor

0.04
0.015
0.01

0.008

0.03
0.006
0.004
D
laminar
0.002

0.02 0.001
0.0008
0.0004
0.0002
0.0001
0.00005
0.01 smooth

1E+03 1E+04 1E+05 1E+06 1E+07 1E+08

R
 Solution Techniques
find head loss given (D, type of pipe, Q)
0.25 8 LQ 2
4Q f 
Re  L
M F
 5.74
2
IO
hf  f 2

KP
5
D g D
log
NH  0. 9
3.7 D Re
find flow rate given (head, D, L, type of pipe)
Q
F I
gh G
logG 
 .  J
178
gh J
f
Q  2.22 D 5/ 2

L
G
H
3.7 D
D J
L K
2/3 f

 find pipe size given (head, type of pipe,L, Q)

L F LQ I F
4 .75
L I O
5.2 0.04

D  0.66M  G J  Q G J P
2
1.25 9 .4

N Hgh K
M f Hgh KP Q f
 Power and Efficiencies

 Electrical power Motor losses

Pelectric  IE
bearing losses
 Shaft power
Pshaft  T
 Impeller power
pump losses
Pimpeller  T
 Fluid power
Pwater  QHp
 Manning Formula

1
V  R 2/3
h S1/2
o
n
The Manning n is a function of the boundary roughness as well
as other geometric parameters in some unknown way...
A
Rh 
P
Hydraulic radius for wide channels
A  bh
P  b  2h
bh
Rh 
b  2h
 Drag Coefficient on a Sphere

1000
Drag Coefficient

100 Stokes Law

10

0.1
0.1 1 10 102 103 104 105 106 107
24 U 2
CD = Reynolds Number Fd  Cd A
Re 2