Development of Engineering Materials (after Ashby 1992)

10 000 BC 5000 BC 0 1000 1500 1800 1900 1940 1960 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020

Gold Copper
Bronze
Iron METALS
Cast Iron Glassy Metal
Al - Lithium Alloys Development Slow
Dual Phase Steels Mostly Quality
Steels
Micro Alloyed Steels Control and Processing
Wood POLYMERS,
RELATIVE IMPORTANCE

New Super Alloys

Skin ELASTOMERS Alloy Steels
Fibers
Glues
Light Alloys
COMPOSITES
Rubber Super Alloys
Straw-brick paper
High Temperature
Titanic Polymers
Stone
Bakelite Zirconium
Alloys
High Modulus
Flint Etc Polymers
Nylon ic - s
Pottery Polyesters ram site
Glass Exposies Ce mpo
PE C co
r-MM
F Kevla
Cement PMA Arcrylics R
Refractories PC PS PP C
CERAMICS P FRP
Portland Cement GFRP
Fused Tough Engineering
Cerments Pyro-
Silica ceramics (Al2O3,Si4,etc)
Ceramics

10 000 BC 5000 BC 0 1000 1500 1800 1900 1940 1960 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020
DATE (Year) 
The use of other competitive materials in replacement to metals and alloys
becomes prominent as technological development requires higher
performance of engineering materials
Materials

Ferrous metals: carbon-, alloy-, stainless-, tool-and-die steels

Non-ferrous metals: aluminum, magnesium, copper, nickel,

titanium, superalloys, refractory metals,
beryllium, zirconium, low-melting alloys,
gold, silver, platinum, …

Plastics: thermoplastics (acrylic, nylon, polyethylene, ABS,…)

thermosets (epoxies, Polymides, Phenolics, …)
elastomers (rubbers, silicones, polyurethanes, …)

Ceramics, Glasses, Graphite, Diamond, Cubic Boron Nitride

Composites: reinforced plastics, metal-, ceramic matrix composites

Nanomaterials, shape-memory alloys, superconductors, …

Types of Composites
Matrix Metal Ceramic Polymer
phase/Reinforcement
Phase

Metal Powder metallurgy Cermets (ceramic- Brake pads

parts – combining metal composite)
immiscible metals

Ceramic Cermets, TiC, TiCN SiC reinforced Fiberglass

Cemented carbides – Al2O3
used in tools Tool materials
Fiber-reinforced metals

    Kevlar fibers in an
Polymer
epoxy matrix

Fiber reinforced metals   Rubber with carbon

Elemental
Auto parts (tires)
(Carbon, Boron, Boron, Carbon
aerospace
etc.) reinforced plastics

MMC’s CMC’s PMC’s

Metal Matrix Composites Ceramic Matrix Comp’s. Polymer Matrix Comp’s
Costs of composite manufacture
• Material costs -- higher for composites
– Constituent materials (e.g., fibers and resin)
– Processing costs -- embedding fibers in matrix
• not required for metals Carbon fibers order of magnitude higher
than aluminum
• Design costs -- lower for composites
– Can reduce the number of parts in a complex assembly by
designing the material in combination with the structure
• Increased performance must justify higher material
costs
 Karakteristik Besi dan Baja
Besi adalah Ferrium plus karbon namun dengan kadar karbon lebih
dari 2 %. Jika kadar karbon kurang dari 2 % maka disebut Baja.

Sifat Besi Baja

1. Kekuatan Rapuh ( Brittle ) Ulet ( Ductile )

2. Kekerasan Cukup Keras Keras s/d lunak

3. Elongasi ( Sifat Mulur ) Rendah Tinggi

4. Mampu Cor Sangat Baik Kurang baik

5.Ketahanan Karat Sangat baik Kurang baik

6. Titik Lebur 1150 ° C 1550 ° C

7. Cara melebur Dapat dengan kokas Dapur busur Listrik -EAF

Diagram Fasa Fe - C
BESI BAJA KARBON
 POHON
POHON INDUSTRI
INDUSTRI BAJA
BAJA NASIONAL
NASIONAL

Heavy Profile, Rail

Bloom
Construc-
Iron Ore Sponge Round Seamless Pipe
Iron Ore tion
Pellet Iron Billet
Concentrate
PC-Wire, Wire Rope, Building
Wire
Hot Billet Wire Rod Electrode Wire
Bricket Oil & Gas
Iron
Rod, Bold, Nut Trans.

Profile & Deformed Bar Otomotive

Sinter Hot Metal
Bar
Shaft Bar Ship
Pig Iron
Slab Hot Rolled Cold GI-Sheet, Galvanized- Rail Way
Coil Rolled Aluminized-Coated-Sheet
Iron Iron Sand Direct
Coil Tin plate
Sand Concentrate Reduced Agricultur
Iron e
Plate, Welded-Pipe,
Electronic
Welded-Profile
casing
Scrap
Iron/steel
Plate Plate, Heavy- Plate
Cast Defence
Welded- Pipe, Welded-
Profile
Household

Stainless Stainless Stainless

Stainless Steel Sheet Health
Steel Slab Steel HRC Steel CRC
Fe-Nickel Alloys
-Sudah ada industrinya Packaging
Fe-Chrom & Alloys Food
-Belum ada industrinya Stainless Stainless
Stainless Steel Rod, Saft
Steel Billet Steel Rod/
-Sebagian di impor Bar
Bar

MINING ORE AGLO- IRON STEELMAKING Hot Cold FINISHED PRODUCTS APLICATIONS/
DRESSING MERATION MAKING & CASTING FORMING FORMING INDUSTRIES
 Traditional Steps in Making Steel:

• Beneficiation of iron ores (removal of

impurities)
• Agglomeration of fine particles
• Reduction of iron ore to make crude iron
• Refining of crude iron to make steel
(removing impurities, adding trace
elements)
• Shaping of steel into final products
Classifications
of Steel
 Metallurgy: Material Properties of
introduction sciences metals
Physical
Extractive metallurgy
Hot and cold Thermo-
metallurgy Electro- Mass
Mining & rolling dynamics
metallurgy transfer
Enrichment (...) Reaction
kinetics Heat
Hydrometallurgy transfer
Pyrometallurgy Theory Transport
Fluid
phenomena
dynamics

Ores
Mining Hydrometallurgical e.g.
Pyrometall. Impurity Metal
Enrichment Leaching metal production zinc
pretreatment removal recovery
Crushing nickel
Screening
Mechanical
Similar
separation Electrowinning
Methods Solvents methods
(...) e.g. Roasting
Cementation

Acidic Chemical Solvent

Water Organic precipitation Ion extraction
Basic
exchange

Iron and Blast Converters

Sintering Casting
steel furnace (LD/AOD/...)
Sulphur Ladle e.g.
Coking
removal treatments iron/steel
Sulphide- copper
Flash Converters Electric Pyrometallurgical
ores (e.g. Cu)
smelting (PS) furnaces metal production

(...)
 How to choose a
process?

Energy
Transport
Markets €
Raw materials Production chain Products

Water needed Residues

Pyromet. unit operations
Hydromet. unit operations
Electro-chem. unit operations
 Pyrometallurgical
unit operations
Raw materials Production of metals Products

Raw material Metal Metal

pre- extraction refining
treatments

Thermal pre- Reduction Metal

Drying treatment and oxidizing raffination Temperature
control
Sintering
Composition
Pelletizing Roasting Reduction Matte control
Coking
Calcination of oxides production Impurity removal
 Hydrometallurgical
unit operations
By- Wastes Hydro- Pyro- Waste
products metallurgical metallurgical

Raw material Activation By-product

Impure
raw
materials Poor
raw Leaching
materials Waste
treatment
Impurity
removal
Cleaning /
regeneration Metal
Product
of the solvent recovery
Electro- Chemical
chemical
 Alternative Approaches for Reducing Iron Ore:

• Blast Furnace with coke through reaction with CO

while the ore is still solid (traditional approach)
• Direct reduction of the ore using coal or natural gas
to produce a H2-rich gas (or direct use of purchased
H2) combined with a DC current
• Smelting reduction of the ore in the liquid state,
directly using coal
 IRON ORE
LOW
HI GRADE
GRADE

COMMINUTION COMMINUTION
COMMINUTION COMMINUTION

BENEFICIATION
BENEFICIATION

CONCENTRATE FINES LUMP ORE

AGGLOMERATION
AGGLOMERATION

SINTER, PELLET

DIRECT REDUCTION DIRECT SMELTING BLAST FURNACE

DIRECT REDUCTION DIRECT SMELTING BLAST FURNACE
SPONGE HOT METAL/PIG
HOT METAL
IRON/DRI/HBI IRON
Proses Reduksi Langsung
Proses Peleburan Baja non
Konvensional - EAF
 Teknologi Besi Baja
Teknologi Converter
Pneumatic process : Bassemer Process, Thomas Process.
Oxygen Blown Process :Basic Oxygen Process (BOF), Stora –Kaldo Process, Rotor Process
Dimiliki : Thyssen Stahl, Nippon Steel Corp, NKK, Posco Korea, dll
 
Teknologi Electric Arc Furnace (EAF)
Conventional EAF
Advanced EAF ( EAF yang dikembangkan spt DanaArc)
Dimiliki : PT.Krakatau Steel, Posco Korea, Hylsa dll.
 
Teknologi Pemurnian Sekunder
1. Rinsing Stand Process
2 .Laddle Furnace
3. RH-Vacuum Degasser
4. AOD (Argon Oxygen Decarburization Process)
5.VOD (Vacuum Oxigen Decarburization )
Proses Pembuatan Baja
1. Proses Konvertor
2. Proses Bassemer – asam
3. Proses Thomas – basa
4. Proses Siemens- Martin
5. Proses Basic Oxygen Furnace
6. Proses Dapur Busur Listrik – Electric Arc Furnace
7. Proses Dapur Kopel
8. Proses Dapur Cawan
 Teknologi Besi Baja
Jenis Teknologi Bessemer Thomas Laddle BOF Rotor Kaldo EAF dan
sejenisnya

1.Bentuk Dapur Converter Converter Converter Converter EAF

tegak Tegak Tegak miring/rebah

2. Jenis Proses Asam Basa Basa Basa basa

dan Refraktories

3.Jenis Oksidator Udara Udara Oksigen Oksigen Oksigen

4. Bahan Baku Cair Cair Cair Cair Padat

Utama

5. Energi Autogeneous Autogeneous Autogeneous Autogeneous Listrik

6. Defosforisasi dan Tidak bisa Bisa Bisa Bisa Relatif Bisa

Desulfurisasi
 Production of Iron and Steel
Raw Materials
• Three basic materials used in iron & steel making:
1. Iron ore
2. Limestone
3. Coke
• Principal iron ores:
– Taconite: black rock
– Hematite: iron oxide mineral
– Limonite: iron oxide containing water
• Limestone (calcium carbonate) is used to remove
impurities from the molten iron by chemically reacting
with impurities to form a slag
 Raw Materials for Production

• Iron Ore

• Limestone ----------

• Coke
 Iron Ore

• Abundant, makes up 5% of earth’s crust

• Is not found in ‘free state’, must be found in rocks and
oxides, hence Iron ore.
• After mining, the ore is crushed and the iron is
separated, then made into pellets, balls or briquettes
using binders, such as water.
• The pellets are typically 65% iron, and about 1” in
diameter.
Mineralogical texture of Limonite ore

Goethite Pore Hematite

<Limonite(Pisolite) ore>
 Coke – (…The black, legal kind)

• Coke is formed by heating coal to 2100*F (1150 C), then cooling it in quenching towers.

You need more than Iron? Why coke is used…

1. Generates high heat, needed in order for chemical reactions in
ironmaking to take place.
2. Produces CO (carbon monoxide) which reduces
iron-oxide to Iron.
 Lastly, Limestone

• Limestone (calcium carbonate) is used to remove impurities.

– When the metal is melted, limestone combines with

impurities and floats to the top of the metal,
forming slag. The slag can then be removed,
purifying the iron.
 Production of Iron and Steel
Raw Materials
• After it is mined, the ore is:
1. crushed into fine particles
2. Impurities are removed
3. The ore is formed into pellets
• Coke is obtained from special grades of bituminous coal,
which are heated in vertical ovens @ 1150 ⁰C and then
cooled with water in quenching towers.
• Functions of coke:
1. Generate high level of heat required for the chemical
reaction
2. Produce CO, which is used to reduce iron oxide to iron
 Reduction of iron ore

• Commonly done in a blast furnace

• C from coke (which is like charcoal, and made from
coal by driving off volatile materials) is used as a
reducing agent
• Theoretical minimum energy requirement is 6.8 GJ/t
• Practical lower limit is 10 GJ/t, best blast furnaces use
about 12 GJ/y, world average is about 14.4 GJ/t
• Coke provides some of the heat energy required (as
well as serving as a reducing agent), with the balance
supplied by coal
 Production of Iron and Steel
Iron Making

• The three raw materials are carried to the top of the blast
furnace and dumped into it.
• The charge mixture is melted in a reaction at °1650 C with
air pre-heated to about 1100 °C and blasted into the
furnace through nozzles.
• The molten metal accumulates at the bottom of the
furnace while the impurities float to the top of the metal as
slag
• Molten metal is drawn off into ladle cars (pig iron).
• Pig iron composition: 4% C, 1.5% Si, 1%Mn, 0.04% S,
0.4% P
 Proses Pembuatan Baja
Baja diproduksi didalam dapur pengolahan baja dari besi spons, besi kasar baik berupa padatan maupun
cair, besi bekas ( Skrap ) dan beberapa paduan logam.
Beberapa Proses Pembuatan baja antara lain :

1.Proses Konvertor : terdiri dari satu tabung yang berbentuk bulat lonjong dengan menghadap
kesamping.
Sistem kerja : Tabung dipanaskan dengan kokas sampai ± 1500 0C,kemudian dimiringkan
untuk memasukkan bahan baku baja. (± 1/8 dari volume konvertor),setelah itu
kembali ditegakkan.Udara dengan tekanan 1,5 – 2 atm dihembuskan dari
kompresor.
Setelah 20-25 menit konvertor dijungkirkan untuk mengeluarkan hasilnya.

2.proses Bessemer (asam) : Lapisan bagian dalam terbuat dari batu tahan api yang mengandung
kwarsa asam atau Oksida asam (SiO2).
Bahan yang diolah besi kasar kelabu cair, CaO tidak ditambahkan sebab dapat
bereaksi dengan SiO2, menjadi terak .
Reaksi : SiO2 + CaO---- CaSiO3
 Proses Pembuatan Baja
3.Proses Thomas (basa) : Lapisan dinding bagian dalam terbuat dari batu tahan api biasa atau dolomit
[ kalsium karbonat dan magnesium (CaCO3 + MgCO3)].
Besi yang diolah adalah besi kasar putih yang mengandung P antara 1,7 – 2 %,
Mn 1 – 2 % dan Si 0,6-0,8 %. Setelah unsur Mn dan Si terbakar, P membentuk
oksida phospor (P2O5), untuk mengeluarkan besi cair ditambahkan kapur bakar
(CaO ) agar diperoleh Terak cair Ca 3 ( PO4) 2.
Reaksi pembentukan terak : 3 CaO + P2O5 ----- Ca3(PO4)2 (terak cair)

4.Proses Siemens Martin : Proses ini menggunakan sistem regenerator (± 3000 ⁰ C.) yang berfungsi
untuk memanaskan gas dan udara atau menambah temperatur dapur.
Sebagai landasan dapur agar menghemat pemakaian tempat dapat digunakan
material baik dari besi kelabu maupun besi putih.
Untuk Besi kelabu dinding dalamnya dilapisi dengan batu silika (SiO2),
sedang besi putih dilapisi dengan batu dolomit (40 % MgCO3 + 60 % CaCO3)
 Proses Pembuatan Baja
5. Proses Basic Oxygen Furnace : Logam cair dari dapur peleburan ,dimasukkan ke ruang baker (dimiringkan
lalu ditegakkan) . Oksigen (± 1000) ditiupkan lewat Oxygen Lance ke
ruang
bakar dengan kecepatan tinggi. (Volume 55 m3 (utk kandungan 99,5 %O2)
tiap satu ton bahan ) dengan tekanan 1400 kN/m2. ditambahkan kapur
bakar bubuk (CaO) untuk menurunkan kadar P dan S.

Keuntungan dari BOF : -BOF menggunakan O2 murni tanpa Nitrogen

-Proses hanya lebih-kurang 50 menit.Tidak perlu tuyer di bagian bawah
-Phosphor dan Sulfur dapat terusir dulu daripada karbon
-Biaya operasi murah

6. Proses Dapur Busur Listrik - Electric Arc Furnace : Menggunakan proses peleburan temperatur tinggi
dengan menggunakan busur cahaya electrode dan induksi listrik.

Keuntungan EAF : -Mudah mencapai temperatur tinggi dalam waktu singkat

-Temperatur dapat diatur
-Efisiensi termis dapur tinggi
-Cairan besi terlindungi dari kotoran dan pengaruh lingkungan sehingga
kualitasnya baik
-Kerugian akibat penguapan sangat kecil
 Proses Pembuatan Baja
7.Proses Dapur Kopel : Proses ini untuk mengolah besi kasar kelabu dan besi bekas menjadi baja atau besi
tuang. Proses pemanasan pendahuluan dilakukan agar bebas dari uap cair.
Bahan bakar(arang kayu dan kokas) dinyalakan selama ± 15 jam. kokas dan udara
dihembuskan dengan kecepatan rendah hingga kokas mencapai 700 – 800 mm
dari dasar tungku. besi kasar dan baja bekas dimasukkan kira-kira 10 – 15 %
per ton/jam, setelah 15 menit baja cair dikeluarkan dari lubang pengeluaran.

8. Proses Dapur Cawan : Proses kerja dapur cawan dimulai dengan memasukkan baja bekas dan besi
kasar dalam cawan,kemudian dapur ditutup rapat.Setelah itu dimasukkan gas-gas
panas untuk memanaskan sekeliling cawan dan muatan dalam cawan akan
mencair.
Baja cair tersebut siap dituang untuk dijadikan baja-baja istimewa dengan
menambahkan unsur-unsur paduan yang diperlukan.
 Refining of crude iron

• 3 options are: Open-hearth furnace, Basic Oxygen

Furnace (BOF), Electric air furnace (EAF)
• BOF requires pure oxygen (separated from air)
• EAF is used for scrap metal and in the new direct-
reduction process
• Energy by EAFs per tonne of steel fell in half
between 1960-1900
 Production of Iron and Steel
Steel Making – Basic Oxygen Furnace
 Production of Iron and Steel
Steel Making – Electric Furnaces
• Refining of pig iron

Electric Furnaces
 Removal of impurities
(from iron/steel)
• Carbon removal (hot metal  crude steel)
– To achieve wanted properties
– Decarburization in BOF-converters
• Removal of other oxidising impurities/elements (Si, Mn, P)
• Oxygen blowing  Oxide formation  Slag/Gases
• Temperature is increased
– Scrap melting
– Vacuum treatment
• Burning of carbon is more efficient in lowered pressure
• Partial pressure of CO can also be lowered using inert gases
 Removal of impurities
(from iron/steel)
• Deoksidation / Oxygen removal
– Solubility of oxygen in steel melt is appr. 0,2 % (T > 1500
C)
– Solubility decreases when temperature is decreased
• Causes CO formation, oxidation of alloying elements,
etc.
– Alloying, diffusion or vacuum deoxidation
• Gas removal
– Solubilities of gases decrease when T is decreased (cf. O)
– Gas removal is based on decreasing the partial pressure of
the concerned element in the gas phase (vacuum, inert gas)
• Sulphur removal
– Formation of CaS  Into the slag
MAIN REASON FOR
STEELMAKING

Removing of
carbon

Steel – less than 2% C

Special steels 99.9%

Fe liquid steel process
 LIQUID
Fe – C STEEL
OXYGEN PROCESS – DURRER 1950
ARTIN - 1863
H - SIEMENS-M
OPEN HEART -BESSEMER 18
56
CONVERTER 0
1638oC G - CO
RT 1
78

DLI N
PUD
Temperatur

Lowest melting point 1153oC

e oC

STEEL CAST IRON

Fe Fe3
Weight Percent
Carbon C
 PUDDLING - Henry Cort 1780
• The Crucible Steel Furnace
• Melted high carbon iron (pig iron)
+ air + flue gas
• Reaction:

Fe-C(ℓ) + O2 (g) → Fe(s) + Fe-C(ℓ) + CO(g)

or:
[Fe-C] + {O2 } → <Fe> + [Fe-C] + {CO }

• Mechanical separation of solid steel

lumps from the „puddle“
CONVERTER – Sir Henry Bessemer 1856

• The Converter
• Melted high carbon iron (pig iron)
+ bottom injected air
• Fast reaction:
[Fe-C] + {O2 } → [Fe] + {CO }
Minor reaction
[Fe] + {O2 } → (FeO)
• Liquid steel product
• SiO2 lining (acidic)
 Sir Henry Bessemer 1813 - 1898

http://www.history.rochester.edu/ehp-book/shb/illus.htm
 EFFECT OF THE LINING - 1875
Sidney Gilchrist Thomas and Percy Gilchrist
Dephosphorization in the converter
MgO, CaO lining (basic)
The lining enters following reactions:
[Fe-P] + {O2 } + <CaO> → [Fe] + (Ca3(PO4)2)
metal melt gas solid non-metal metal melt non-metal melt (slag)

slag => fertilizer „Thomas powder“

Other reactions:
[Fe-S] + {O2 } + <CaO> → [Fe] + (CaS)
[Fe-Si] + {O2 } + <CaO> →[Fe] + (CaSiO3)
OPEN HEARTH FURNACE - 1863
Sir Charles William Siemens
Émile et Pierre Martin

• Melted iron (pig iron + scrap)

+ hot air
+ flue gas
+ magnesite lining
+ CaO powder

Slower process than this in the converters

However higher quality of the product
CONVERTER 1936
CONVERTER 1936
 1950

• Iron- and steelworking -

fully matured industry,
using proven processes
• Limited demand for a
scientific approach to the
technology
Revolution in steelworking
since 1960

• Basic oxygen process

• Continuous casting
• Environmental issues
Revolution in
steelworking
CONTINUOUS
CASTING
Revolution in steelworking
OXYGEN PROCESS

FURNACES
E
G
N XY
IC ARC
ELECTR
O

OPE
N
HEA
RTH
 Oxygen in steelmaking
• Prof. Robert Durrer (pilot-plant experiments
Gerlafingen, Switzerland 1948)
• The first industrial oxygen converter (VOEST
Linz-Donawitz 1952)
Advantage of pure Oxygen Absence of inert nitrogen:

• Faster reaction than with air

• More efficient employment of heat
• Higher temperature
• Suppressed formation of nitrides
BOS - Basic Oxygen Steelmaking
BOP - Basic Oxygen Process
BOF - Basic Oxygen Furnace
[Fe-C] + {O2 } → [Fe] + {CO }
[Fe-P-S-Si] + {O2 } + <CaO> → [Fe] + (P,S,Si in slag)
 Source of iron for steelworking

• Liquid pig iron from blast furnace (higher 30-40%

content of C, Si, P, S,…)
• Steel scrap (variable composition - 60-70%
also Cu, Zn, Pb, Cd,…)
• Iron from direct reduction process (bloom, < 10%
sponge, briquettes – quite pure Fe)
 Scrap
Liquid BOS
Steel batch 200 000 kg
steel O2 : 500 normal m3/min
20 min
Superficial velocity 1.5 m/s
250 vvm

Ladle Oxygen
Gas power input 60 kW/m3 (or 8 W/kg)
Mixing time 10-100 s

Lance Whole cycle 50 min

Oxygen tuyere

Steel Slag
http://www.bhpsteel.com.au/bhp/steel/steelenv/steelpath/steelbos.cfm
 OXYGEN
INTRODUCTION
• Tuyere above the liquid bath (L-D)
• Tuyere under the liquid level (Quiet)
• Bottom blown ladles (converters)
• Introduction of CaO powder in the
oxygen stream
• Water cooled lance
• Hydrocarbon gas cooled lance
 Production of Oxygen cryogenic process and liquid air
distillation
Largest facilities in steelworks

• consumption 50-60 normal m3 per ton of steel

• delivery rates 500-800 normal m3/min
• pressure of 1.5 MPa
• 99.5% O2; the major impurity is Argon
• byproducts: Argon and Nitrogen
• energy consumption 0.45 kWh per normal m3
 OTHER AIMS OF STEELMAKING

• Removing of P, S, Si
• Removing of metals Zn, Cu, Pb, Cd, Al, …
• Removing of diluted gases N, CO, H, O
• Removing of solid non-metal particles
• Addition of alloying metals (e.g. Ni, Cr, Co,
Mo, Mn, Si, V, …)
 REFRACTORY LINING
• Up to 1 m thickness
• Errosion, abrasion, thermal cycling
• Losses 0.5-1 mm per run
• Laser controlled thickness
• Slower wall dissolution when CaO
added
• Life more than 1000 runs (classical converters 100 runs)
• Regeneration of walls by slag spray ; (up
to 10 000 runs)
 LIQUID IRON FOR STEELMAKING

• BLAST FURNACE
• TORPEDO LADLE
• ELECTRIC ARC
• GAS - OXYGEN COMBUSTION
• HEAT OF OXIDATION C, Si, … (Fe)
BLAST FURNACE
 Operasi BF
PERSIAPAN OPERASI DRYING
DRYING
FILLING
FILLING
LIGHTING
LIGHTING

PROBLEM-PROBLEM OPERASI :
PROBLEM-PROBLEM
SLIP / BRIDGINGSOPERASI :
OPERASI ( 5 – 6 th ) SLIP / BRIDGINGS
SCAFFOLDING
SCAFFOLDING
CHANNELING
CHANNELING
BREAKOUT
BREAKOUT

FANNING
PENGHENTIAN BACK FANNING
DRAFTING
BACK DRAFTING
BANKING
OPERASI BANKING
BLOWING OUT
BLOWING
BLOWDOWN OUT
BLOWDOWN
Reaksi Kimia dalam Blast Furnace
 Blast Furnace Reactions
Carbon oxidised by hot air:

Carbon(s) + oxygen(g)  carbon dioxide(g)

C(s) + O2(g)  CO2(g)

Carbon oxidised by carbon dioxide:

Carbon(s) + carbon dioxide(g)  carbon monoxide(g)

C(s) + CO2(g)  2CO(g)

Carbon monoxide reduces iron (III) oxide:

Carbon monoxide(g) + iron (III) oxide(s)  iron(l) +

carbon dioxide(g)
3CO(g) + Fe2O3(s)  2Fe(l) + 3CO2(g)
 Neraca Bahan

1,7 TON BIJIH BESI

350 1,7 TON
– 550 KGBIJIH
KOKASBESI
+
350 –BT.BARA
550 KG KOKAS + 2 – 3 TON BF GAS
2 – 325TON
– 50BF
KGGAS
ABU
250 KG BT.BARA
BT.KAPUR + 25 – 50 KG ABU
250DOLOMIT
KG BT.KAPUR +
DOLOMIT

1,6 TON UDARA

1,6PANAS
TON UDARA
PANAS

1 TON BESI CAIR

1 TON( BESI CAIR)
PIG IRON
( PIG IRON )
200 – 400 KG
200 –( 400
TERAK SLAGKG
)
TERAK ( SLAG )
 Reduction equilibrium diagram in Fe-O-C

1.0
CO2 + C = 2CO
FexO=Fe
0.8

0.6
CO 2 /( CO  CO 2 ) Fe3O4= Fe FexO
0.4

Fe3O4 = FexO
0.2 Fe3O4
Fe2O3 = Fe3O4
0.0
300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200

Temp o C
Boudouard Reaction
        C + CO2 = 2CO
                        39,810-40.87T
- Endothermic ( or vice versa)
- Carbon solution loss
- Carbon gasification
- Carbon deposition
  *deposition carbon : FexO (x=2~3)
   or free carbon
Dependent of Pressure   :
       ∵     0 (gas : 1mole →2mole)

Pressure↑→deposition↑(Le Chatellier's Law)

- Kinetics
- Catalyzers(heterogeneous Rx.) ⇒Fe, Ni, Co
- Stable at >1000℃ (CO rich)
- Steep at 600~800℃
Boudouard reaction with successive reduction in BF

100%CO
d b
f
Fe

e c

FeO
Fe3O4

100%CO2 a
o
570 1000 1450 2000 T C
Successive CO gas generation in BF

① Tuyeres (CO,) CO2 generation

② CO generation by C + CO2 Rx.
③ 2Fe2O3 + CO = 2FeO + CO2
    FeO + CO = Fe + CO2
a→b line : Fe2O3→FeO→Fe   ↓
b→c line : because of CO2 generation ↓
c→d line : Boudouard Reaction 'cycling' in the right region of
  dominant Region. :  CO regeneration ↓  Boudouard Curve   <1000℃
   ; coke degradation
    -CO2 + C ← 2CO
    -indirection reaction by CO
Major Reactions within BF
Indirect Reduction -----
FeO + CO = Fe + CO2   , exothermic, 
                           at < 1000℃ in BF

Boudouard reaction 
                  C + CO2 = 2CO
Direct Reduction -----
Water-gas reaction
FeO + C = Fe + CO , endothermic,
                  C + H2O = CO + H2
                          at  >1000℃ in BF
Water-gas shift reaction
                  CO + H2O = CO2 + H2

  Solution loss  -----

C + CO2  = 2CO , endothermic
                        at 600 - 1000℃
Phase equilibrium between iron oxides

3Fe2O3 + CO = 2Fe3O4 + CO2

                      -5408.4-14.73 T

Fe3O4 + CO = 3FeO + CO2

                       334.37-6.02 T

FeO + CO = Fe + CO2
                      -3496.5+7.07 T

Fe2O3 + 3CO = 2Fe + 3CO2  ,   < 0

              independent of Pressure

Softening, Melting & Reduction in BF

① ② ③ ④ ①

FexO-..
Bed Height

Partly reduced
CaO-SiO2 - Al2O3-MgO-

Slag melts(low melting

Reduction Rate Pressure Drop

② compound)
CaO-SiO2 - Al2O3-MgO- FexO-..
③
CaO-SiO2 - Al2O3-MgO-FexO-..

④ Fe & slag melts

CaO-SiO2 - Al2O3-MgO-Fe O-..
x

Temperature
(SiO2) +CO(g) = SiO(g) + CO2(g)
or
Vertical height of (SiO2) +C(s) = SiO(g) +CO(g)
BF
(SiO2) +C(s) =Si +CO2 (g)
Formation of Slag in BF
Temp.
CaO/SiO2 Alumina
( C)
Gangue in
Auxiliary Flux
Ferrous Burdens   150

30%
Primary slag (?)   1150
Partial release
of
Coke ash
Bosh slag
  1350 ~
1500
Release of
Coke ash
Tuyere slag   >1550
Generation
of
Coal ash

  >1500
Final(Tapping) Slag
Major Changes in BF operation

Ore coke layer Ore

Coke Coke

§ Higher PC injection
(All Coke ~ 180kg/t-pig)

§ Low slag volume

(320 ~ 250kg/t-pig)
coke coke

§ Cheaper iron ore bed bed

(limonite, Goethite) slag slag

pig iron pig iron
(~ 45%)

§ Lower fuel ratio lower PCR higher PCR

& &
( ~ 480kg/t-pig)
Higher S.V. Lower S.V.
TORPEDO LADLE
(up to 100 km from the blast furnace)
ELECTRIC ARC FURNACE

ALSO WITH OXYGEN

GAS COMBUSTION WITH OXYGEN

• less expensive (40%) than the electric arc

• lower temperature than with the electric arc
- limited heavy metal emissions
• can be combined with the electric heating
 SECONDARY METALLURGY
ARGON – VACUUM LADLE
• Desorption of diluted gases N, CO, H, O
• Sedimentation - floating of slag particles
• Addition of alloying metals
• De-oxidation
• Homogenization

TUNDISH
• Removing of solid non-metal particles
• Homogenization of temperature and
composition
 ARGON –VACUUM TREATMENT
• Argon gas-lift for agitation
(10-300 W/m3)
Superficial gas
• Vacuum for desorption
velocity:
1420 mmof
Atmospheric pressure:
Fe
0.001 m/s … bottom
soluble gases
> 1 m/s … level
RH
Ruhrstaal - Heraeus
(CO, O2, H2, N2)

DH
Dortmund-Hoerde
 ENVIRONMENTAL:

• Gas emissions (CO)

• Airborn particles (Fe,Zn,Pb,Cd,Cu, …)
• Slag
 TUNDISH

• Batch input  continuous

output
• Turbulence suppression
tu n d is h
• Argon agitation
• Argon inert atmosphere
• Last slag separation  m o ld c o o lin g
s o lid ific a tio n
particles < 50μm
• Tundish refractories  steel
quality
 HYDRODYNAMICS

MULTIPHASE FLOW

HEAT TRANSFER

CFD
BUBBLE BEHAVIOR IN LIQUID STEEL
• From the viewpoint of two-phase
hydrodynamics (density, viscosity and surface tension),
water and liquid steel are quite similar !

density dynamic kinematic surface Laplace

Laplace
viscosity viscosity tension length velocity
Liquid ρ μ ν σ (σ/(ρg)) 1/2
(σg/ρ) 1/4

o
C kg/m3 Pas m2/s N/m m m/s
molten steel 1500 7200 5*10-3 0.7*10-6 1.4 4.5*10-3 0.21
water 25 1000 1.0*10-3 1.0*10-6 0.073 2.7*10-3 0.16
mercury 25 13500 1.5*10-3 1.1*10-6 0.46 1.8*10-3 0.14
Wood metal 80 10600 3*10-3 0.3*10-6 0.4 1.9*10-3 0.14
hexane 25 650 0.35*10-3 0.5*10-6 0.018 1.6*10-3 0.13
 Reaksi dalam pembuatan baja
– Reaksi Oksidasi
• Contoh reaksi Oksidasi :
– [Si] + O₂ → (SiO₂)
– 4[P] + O₂ → 2(P₂O₅)
– 2[Fe] + O₂ → 2(FeO)
• NOTASI
• KETERANGAN
• [ … ] = larut dalam Baja Cair
• ( … ) = larut dalam Cairan Terak
• Tanpa tanda kurung = dalam atmosfer Dapur
•  
• Reaksi terjadi pada antar-muka fasa Baja Cair, Cairan terak ( slag ) dan
Atmosfer dapur.
• Unsur Residu ( residual elements ) terlarut dalam Baja Cair Oksida-
oksida hasil reaksi terlarut dalam cairan terak yang mengambang diatas
baja cair
 Purifikasi Baja
– Reaksi Pemurnian
• Decarburisasi (FeO ) + [C] → CO + [Fe]
• Desilikonisasi 2(FeO) + [Si] → (SiO₂) + 2[Fe]
• Dephosporisasi 5(FeO) + 2[P] → (P₂O₅) + 5[Fe]
• Desulfurisasi (CaO) + [FeS] → (FeO) + (CaS)
•  
• 1.3. Reaksi Deoksidasi
– Untuk merecovery Fe dari (FeO ) dalam Slag
– Mencegah decarburisasi dan terbentuknya gas CO
• Contoh reaksi deoksidasi :
– 3(FeO) + 2[Al] → (Al₂O₃) + 3[Fe]
– (FeO) + [C] → [Fe] + CO
– Deoksidan ( deoxidizer ) : Al, Si, C, Mn atau
• Ferroalloy : FeMn, FeSi, SiMn
• 1.4. Reaksi Reoksidasi
– Oksidasi terhadap kelebihan unsur deoksidan
• Reaksi Oksidasi dan pemurnian terjadi pada tahap Melting dan Refining sedang
reaksi Deoksidasi dan Reoksidasi terjadi pada tahap Finishing.
•  
 Refining
• REFINING
• Oksidasi [Si], [P], [C], [Mn] oleh (FeO)
• Reaksi [C] + (FeO) → [Fe] + CO, mengakibatkan terjadinya
“Carbon boil”
• Aksi “Carbon boil” membantu :
– Uniformity komposisi kimia dan temperatur
– Pengeluaran gas H₂, N₂ dari baja cair
• Reaksi Oksidasi tersebut menghasilkan Black Oxydizing Slag yang
bersifat mengoksidasi → dibuang ( deslagging ) untuk mengeliminasi
P hasil reaksi dephosporisasi
• Kemudian membentuk White reducing slag, dengan menambahkan
CaO, CaF₂,Anthracite ( C ), untuk reaksi Desulfurisasi :
• [FeS] + (CaO ) → (FeO) + (CaS)
• Kandungan atau tambahan [C] dan (FeO ) yang besar menghasilkan
terak busa ( foamy slag ). Tebal terak busa > 300 mm dapat melindungi
dinding dari radiasi panas busur listrik yang tinggi disamping
menghemat energi
• Reaksi Deoksidasi dengan penambahan FeSi, FeMn atau Al
• PROSES SEKUNDER
• Proses-proses sekunder :
• Mengendalikan komposisi kimia baja cair
• Mengendalikan temperatur baja cair
• Degassing ( O₂, H₂, N₂ )
• Decarburisasi ( → C < 0,03 % )
• Desulfurisasi ( → S < 0,002 % )
• Mengendalikan kebersihan baja ( inklusi Oksida, Sulfida )
• Mempercepat Refining / produktifitas
• Prinsip dasar :
• Penurunan tekanan ( vakumisasi )
• Pengadukan
• Deoksidasi dan penambahan unsur paduan
• Teknik :
• Vacuum stream degassing
• Recirculation degassing
• Vacuum Ladle degassing
• Non vacuum Ladle degassing
• Vacuum degassing and heating
•  
Teknik pengadukan ( stirring ) :
1.Induction 2.Bubling (lancing, pors plug,bottom tuyeres ) 3.Carbon
boil
 Casting of Ingots
• Depending on the amount of gas evolved
during solidification, three types of steel
ingots can be produced:
1. Killed steel
2. Semi-Killed steel
3. Rimmed steel
 Casting of Ingots
Killed Steel
• Fully deoxidized steel, oxygen is removed
and porosity is eliminated. The dissolved
oxygen reacts with Al, Mn, and Vn.
• The chemical and mechanical properties are
uniform
• Because of shrinkage during solidification,
a pipe (funnel-like) is developed at the top
of the ingot
 Casting of Ingots
Semi-Killed Steel
• Partially deoxidized steel with some
porosity in the upper central section of the
ingot
• Little or no pipe
• Economical to produce
 Casting of Ingots
Rimmed Steel
• Low carbon content (<0.15%)
• Evolved gases are killed partially using Al.
• Little or no piping
• Ductile skin with good surface finish
• Impurities and inclusions tend to segregate
toward the center of the ingot
Continuous Casting
 Shaping of Steel, Traditional Method

Produce steel in cubical blocks, small bars, or

slabs using a continuous caster, then convert
into final products using various hot mills
(heating and cooling occurs between steps, with
an energy loss each time)
Shaping of Steel, Alternative approaches:
Cast the molten steel closer to the desired final shape,
using thin-slab casting, thin-strip casting, or powder
metallurgy

• Thin-strip casting has the potential to reduce energy use

for shaping by 90-95%

• In thin-strip casting, the length of the production line

has been reduced from 500-800 m to 60 m – about a
factor of ten reduction!
 Transformation of
Metallurgy:
• Material engineering – merging with
polymer science, ceramics,
electronics materials …
• Process engineering – adoption of
chemical engineering method
(chemical reactors gas-liquid-solid, non-isothermal processes,
mechanical separation, transport phenomena, scale-up
methods, modelling, simulation, CFD, …)
 Our contribution

Department of Chemistry
Faculty of Metallurgy and Material
Engineering
Technical University of Ostrava