Non-Mendelian

Genetics
Lecture 5 & 6
Non-Mendelian Genetics
Non-Mendelian inheritance is any pattern of
inheritance in which traits do not segregate in
accordance with Mendel's laws.
Beyond Mendelian Genetics:
Incomplete Dominance
Mendel was lucky!
Traits he chose in the
pea plant showed up
very clearly…
One allele was dominant over another, so phenotypes
were easy to recognize.
But sometimes phenotypes are not very obvious…
Beyond Dominant and Recessive Alleles

• Exceptions to the rules

• Incomplete Dominance
• Codominance
• Multiple alleles
• Polygenic traits
 Incomplete Dominance
Where one allele is not completely dominant over
another White x Red
The Heterozygous
shows an entirely
different phenotype

Self cross of pink “brings back”

red and white flowers Produce Pink
 Incomplete dominance
When F1 generation (all pink flowers) is self
pollinated, the F2 generation is 1:2:1
red, pink, white
Incomplete Dominance

R r
R R R Rr

r Rr rr
Co-Dominance
Both traits are dominant, and show up in the
phenotype together. Co means “together”

Black bull X White Cow = Spotted Cow

(BB) (WW) (BW)
Codominance Example
• Roan cows
• White cow crossed with a red bull = a cow that is
roan, has both red and white hairs.
CoDominance Problem
What are all the possible phenotypes when two spotted cows are bred?

B W Possible
phenotypes
BB are a black
B BW cow, 2 spotted
cows, and a
WW white cow

W BW
Codominance
• Both alleles contribute to the phenotype
• In the heterozygous, both alleles are
expressed
•Example – Blood type AB
• people who have the alleles A and B
express both in their blood group.
Video: Non-Mendelian Genetics
Multiple Alleles
• Genes that have more than two alleles
• An individual won’t inherit more than 2 alleles, there
are more than 2 possible alleles that exist in a
population for that gene.

Example: The ABO blood groups in humans

Human Genetic: Traits
Human Blood Groups –
an example of multiple alleles (3 or more) that show
codominance (neither is dominant or recessive)

4 blood types: A, B, AB, O

Video: Human Blood Groups
O positive is the most common blood type. Not all ethnic groups have
the same mix of these blood types. Hispanic people, for example, have
a relatively high number of O’s, while Asian people have a relatively
high number of B’s. The mix of the different blood types in the U.S.
population is:
Caucasians American Hispanic

Asian
O+ 37% 47% 53% 39%
O- 8% 4% 4% 1%
A+ 33% 24% 29% 27%
A- 7% 2% 2% 0.5%
B+ 9% 18% 9% 25%
B- 2% 1% 1% 0.4%
AB + 3% 4% 2% 7%
AB - 1% 0.3% 0.2% 0.1%
Blood Type Problems
Blood Type Problem 2: A
woman with type B blood has
a child with type O blood.
How is this possible if her
husband has type A blood?

(I) is a symbol for

Iso-agglutination
• Example: what will be the phenotype, as to blood
groups, of offspring of the following genotypes for
blood groups :
• 
• IAiO X IBiO
• IAIB X IBiO
• IBiO X IBiO
Solution (1):

•P IAiO X IBiO
• 
• 
•
G IA iO IB iO

• 
• 
• 

Offspring IAIB IAiO IBiO iO i O

Blood groups AB A B O
Solution (2):
P IAIB X IBiO
  
 

G IA IB IB iO
 
 

 
Offspring IAIB IAiO IBIB IBiO
Blood groups AB A B B
• Solution (3)
•
• P IBiO X IBiO
• 

G IB iO IB iO

Offspring
Gentotypes: IBIB IBiO IBiO i O iO

blood groups: B B B O
 Human blood groups
Rh Factors (-) and (+)
have to have 2 negative alleles to be Rh –
--
only need one positive allele to be Rh +
+ - or + +
Rh (-) blood types can only receive Rh(-) blood.
Rh (+) can receive either

Again, Rh factors are antigens on the red blood cells. People who are Rh- do
not produce these antigens.
 THE DISCOVERY OF THE "RHESUS"
ALLELES IN MAN
Interest in this factor was stimulated by Levine's study of a
characteristic form of anemia, known as erythroblastosis fetalis, (Blue
babies) which occurs occasionally in new born in­fants.
It was found that the infants suffering from this anemia are usually
Rh-positive and so are their fathers; but their mothers are Rh-
negative. The Rh-positive fetus developing in the uterus of an Rh-
negative mother causes the forma­tion in the mother's blood stream
of anti-Rh antibodies.
These antibodies in later pregnancies gain sufficient strength in the
mother blood so that may attack the red blood cells of the fetus. This
may be enough to cause death of newborn infant, or abortion of the
fetus.
 Rhesus monkey

mothers with Rh-negative and the infant with Rh+

 RhoGAM shot
• Rh factor incompatibility can be prevented by
administration of the RhoGAM shot. During birth, bits of
the baby's blood will mix with the mother's blood.
• The RhoGAM shot should be given within 72 hours of
birth.
• This shot will stop the mother from developing antibodies.
The RhoGAM shot only provides temporary immunity so it
will be necessary to have the shot (‫ ) لقاح‬given after each
birth, miscarriage, or induced abortion.
• Example: what will be the phenotype, as to
Rhesus factor, of offspring of the following
genotypes for Rhesus factor:

• 1- ♀Rh- Rh- X ♂ Rh+ Rh+

• 2- ♂Rh+ Rh- X ♀Rh+ Rh-
• 3- ♀Rh- Rh- X ♂ Rh+ Rh-
• Solution (1)
• P ♀Rh- Rh- X ♂ Rh + Rh+
• 
• 
• 
•
G Rh- Rh- Rh + Rh+
  •
  •
  •
  •
  •
• Offspring Rh+ Rh- Rh+ Rh- Rh+ Rh- Rh+ Rh-
• Rhesus factor + + + +
Solution (2)
P ♀ Rh+ Rh- X ♂ Rh+ Rh-

G Rh+ Rh- Rh+ Rh-

 
 
Offspring Rh+ Rh+ Rh+ Rh- Rh+ Rh- Rh- Rh-
Rhesus factor + + + -
Solution (3)
P ♀ Rh- Rh- X ♂ Rh+ Rh-
 

G Rh- Rh- Rh+ Rh-

Offspring Rh+ Rh- Rh- Rh- Rh+ Rh- Rh- Rh-

Rhesus factor + ̶ + ̶
Lethal Alleles: Lethal genes are usually a result of mutations
in genes that are essential to the growth or development.
Lethal genes can cause death of an organism prenatally or
anytime after birth prior to maturity.

Example, 1: The amount of chlorophyll in snapdragon plants

(Antirrhinum) is controlled by a pair of co­dominant alleles, one of
which exhibits a lethal effect when homozygous (without
chlorophyll), band a distinctive color phenotype when
heterozygous.  
Zea mays seedlings
without chlorophyll
For crosses between heterozygous individuals with a
recessive lethal allele that causes death before birth when
homozygous, only wild-type homozygotes and
heterozygotes would be observed. The genotypic ratio
would therefore be 2:1.

Some alleles associated with human genetic disorders are

recessive lethal.
 Pedigrees and Mendelian Analysis
Mendelian Analysis
Mendel followed single genes through multiple
generations
– Law of Segregation
– Law of Independent Assortment
Observed ratios of:
3:1 and 1:2:1 in monohybrid crosses and
9:3:3:1 in dihybrid crosses
These ratios explain some inheritance patterns
Pedigree Analysis
A pedigree is a systematic listing (either as words
or as symbols) of the ancestors of a given
individual, or it may be the "family tree" for a large
number of individuals.
different symbols used in the pedigree analysis

Propositus= ‫ ا))لجد ا))العلى‬consanguineous marriage=‫زوا)ج ا))القارب‬

In many references the symbol is used for female and for males
Example: Given below is a pedigree for
inheritance of an odd hair pattern in humans:
(a) How many children has J?
(b) Who is the eldest of B's children?
(c) Name the individuals showing the trait. (d) How many daughters
has F?
(e) What is the relationship of H to N?
Answer:
(a)2;
(b) C;
(c) B, E, G, H;
(d) 1;
(e) H is N's uncle.
Example, 2: A woman, A, with normal hips ‫ مفصل ا))لورك‬marries a
man, B, with a deformed hip. The first two children are both sons (C
and D) and have normal hips. The daughter (E) has a deformed hip.
The first-born son, C, marries a woman, F, with normal hips. They
have three sons: the first-born (G) and the third son (I) are normal;
the second son (H) has a deformed hip. Man, D, marries woman, J,
but they have no children. Woman, E, marries a normal man (K).
They have three daughters (L, M and N). Only the first-born (L) has a
deformed hip; the second-born (M) and the youngest (N) are normal.
1-Represent this hypothetical example using the symbols
developed in this Unit
2-Is the trait (deformed hip) dominant or recessive?
 Answer: We have labeled the individuals in
the Figure to enable you to check your answer.

Learn to solve Rr rr
the rest of the
pedigree using
RR , Rr or rr
Man H shows the trait, yet both his parents (F and C) are
normal. Thus, F and C must be heterozygous for the
trait which is recessive. If we represent normal hips as
due to allele R and abnormal as caused by r, then F and
C are both Rr and H is rr. Likewise, L, E and B are rr.
Therefore, K must be Rr as L is the daughter of E and K
and is rr. Likewise; A must be Rr, as E is rr. F must also
be Rr.
hairy pinna male