Communicative Competence (CC)

Chapter 8
Communicative Competence (CC)
1
The term communicative competence (CC) was

coined by Dell Hymes (1967,1972),
a sociolinguist who was convinced that

Chomsky’s (1965) notion of competence
was too limited.
2
Chomsky’s rule-governed creativity that so aptly

(ably, competently) described a child’s mushrooming
grammar at the age of 3 or 4
did not, according to Hymes, account sufficiently

for the social and functional
rules of lg.
3
So Hymes referred to CC as that aspect of our

competence that enables us
- to convey and interpret messages
- and to negotiate meanings
interpersonally within specific contexts.
4
CC is relative, not absolute, and depends on the

cooperation of all the participants involved.
5
It is not so much an intrapersonal construct as we

saw in Chomsky’s early writings but rather a
dynamic, interpersonal construct
that can be examined only by means of the overt

performance of two or more individuals in the
process of communication. 6
In the 1970s, research on CC distinguished between

linguistic and communicative competence to
highlight the difference between
- knowledge about lg forms (linguistic competence)
- and knowledge that enables a person to

communicate functionally and interactively
(communicative competence).
7
Cognitive/Academic Lg Proficiency (CALP)
CALP (Cummins, 1981) is that dimension of

proficiency in which the learner manipulates or
reflects upon the surface features of language
outside of the immediate interpersonal context.
8
Cognitive/Academic Lg Proficiency (CALP)
It [CALP] is what learners often use in classroom

exercises and tests that focus on form.
9
Basic Interpersonal Communicative Skills (BICS)
BICS is the communicative capacity that all

children acquire in order to be able to function
in daily interpersonal exchanges.
10
Context-reduced (CALP) and
Context-embedded (BICS) communication
Cummins later (1981) modified his notion of

CALP and BICS in the form of
- context-reduced (CALP)
- and context-embedded (BICS)
communication.
11
Context-reduced (CALP) and
Context-embedded (BICS) communication
A good share of classroom, school-oriented

language is context reduced,
while face-to-face communication with people is

context embedded.
12
Components of Communicative Competence
1- Grammatical competence is that aspect of CC

that encompasses knowledge of
- lexical items and of rules of morphology,

- syntax,
- sentence-grammar,
- semantics,
- and phonology.
13
Grammatical competence is the competence

that we associate with mastering the linguistic
code of a lg,
i.e. the linguistic competence.
14
2- The second subcategory is discourse competence,

the complement of grammatical competence in many
ways.
It is the ability we have to connect sentences in

stretches of discourse and to form a meaningful whole
out of a series of utterances.
15
Discourse means everything from simple spoken

conversation to lengthy written texts (articles,
books, and the like).
While grammatical competence focuses on

sentence-level grammar, discourse competence
is concerned with intersentential relationships.
16
3- Sociolinguistic competence is the knowledge of

the sociocultural rules of lg and of discourse.
This type of competence requires an understanding

of the social context in which language is used:
17
the roles of the participants, the information they

share, and the function of the interaction.
Only in a full context of this kind can judgments

be made on the appropriateness of a particular
utterance.
18
4- Strategic competence is the verbal and

nonverbal communication strategies that may be
called into action
to compensate for breakdowns in communication

due to performance variables or due to
insufficient competence.
19
Strategic competence: the strategies that one uses

to compensate for imperfect knowledge of rules
‒ or limiting factors in their application such as

fatigue, distraction, and inattention.
20
Strategic competence is the competence underlying

our ability
- to make repairs,
- to cope with imperfect knowledge,
- and to sustain communication through
paraphrase, circumlocution, repetition, hesitation,

avoidance, and guessing, as well as shifts in
register and style.
21
Strategic Competence
In fact, strategic competence is the way we

manipulate lg in order to meet communicative
goals.
22
An eloquent speaker possesses and uses a

sophisticated strategic competence.
A salesperson utilizes certain strategies of

communication to make a product seem irresistible.
23
A friend persuades you to do sth extraordinary

because he/she has mustered communicative
strategies for the occasion.
24
The first two subcategories (Grammatical

competence and discourse competence) reflected
the use of the linguistic system itself;
25
the last two subcategories (Sociolinguistic

competence and Strategic competence ) defined
the functional aspects of communication.
26
Components of Lg Competence (Bachman 1990)
Lg Competence
Organizational Pragmatic
Competence Competence
Grammatical Textual Illocutionary Sociolinguistic

Competence Competence Competence Competence
- Vocabulary - Cohesion - Ideational - Sensitivity to dialect/variety
- Morphology - Rhetorical functions - Sensitivity to register
- Syntax organization - Manipulative - Sensitivity to naturalness
- Phonology/ functions - Cultural references and
- Graphology - Heuristic figures of speech
functions
- Imaginative
functions
27
Ideational function
a descriptive function (or ideational function, in

Halliday’s framework),
- organizing a speaker’s or writer’s experience of

the world
- and conveying information
which can be stated or denied and in some cases

tested.
28
Language Functions
Functions are essentially the purposes that we

accomplish with language, e.g.,
stating, requesting, responding, greeting, parting,

etc.
29
Language Functions
Functions cannot be accomplished, of course,

without the forms of language:
morphemes, words, grammar rules, discourse rules,

and other organizational competencies.
30
Language Functions
While forms are the outward manifestation of

language,
functions are the realization of those forms.
31
Language Functions
Functions are sometimes directly related to forms, e.g.,
How much does that cost?
is usually a form functioning as a question and
He bought a car.
functions as a statement.
32
Language Functions
But linguistic forms are not always unambiguous

in their function.
I can’t find my umbrella,
uttered in a high-pitched voice by a frustrated adult

who is late for work on a rainy day may be a
frantic (desperate) request for all in the household
to join in a search.
33
Language Functions
A child who says
I want some ice cream
is rarely stating a simple fact or observation but

requesting ice cream in the child’s own intimate
style.
34
Language Functions
Communication may be regarded as a combination of

acts, a series of elements with purpose and intent.
Communication is not merely an event, something

that happens;
35
Language Functions
Communication is functional, purposive, and

designed to bring about some effect
‒ some change, however subtle or unobservable

‒ on the environment of hearers and speakers.
36
Speech Acts
Communication is a series of communicative acts

or speech acts, to use John Austin’s (1962) term,
which are used systematically to accomplish

particular purposes.
37
Perlocutionary Force
Austin stressed the importance of consequences,

the perlocutionary force, of linguistic
communication.
Researchers have since been led to examine

communication in terms of the effect that
utterances achieve.
38
Halliday’s Seven Functions of Language
1- The instrumental function serves to manipulate
the environment, to cause certain events to happen.
This court finds you guilty,

On your mark, get set, go!
Don’t touch the stove
they are communicative acts that have a specific

perlocutionary force; they bring about a particular
condition. 39
2- The regulatory function of lg is the control of events.
While such control is sometimes difficult to distinguish

from the instrumental function,
regulatory functions of lg are not so much the

unleashing (releasing) of certain power as the
maintenance of control.
40
I pronounce you guilty and sentence you to three years in

prison
serves an instrumental function,
but the sentence
Upon good behavior, you will be eligible for parole in 10

months
serves more of a regulatory function. 41

The regulations of encounters among people

(approval, disapproval, behavior control, setting
laws and rules) are all regulatory features of lg.
42
3- The representational function is the use of lg to

make statements, convey facts and knowledge,
explain, or report ‒ that is, to represent reality as
one sees it.
The sun is hot.

The president gave a speech last night.
The world is flat.
43
4- The interactional function of lg serves to

ensure social maintenance.
44
Interactional function: Phatic communion,

Malinowski’s term referring to the
communicative contact between and among
human beings
that simply allows them to establish social contact

and to keep channels of communication open, is
part of the interactional function of lg.
45
5- The personal function allows a speaker to

express feelings, emotions, personality, gut-level
(innate) reactions.
46
Personal function: A person’s individuality is

usually characterized by his or her use of the
personal function of communication.
In the personal nature of language, cognition,

affect, and culture all interact.
47
6- The heuristic function involves lg used to acquire

knowledge, to learn about the environment.
Heuristic functions are often conveyed in the form of

questions that will lead to answers.
48
Heuristic function: Children typically make

good use of the heuristic function in their
incessant why questions about the world
around them.
49
7- The imaginative function serves to create

imaginary systems or ideas.
Telling fairy tales, joking, or writing a novel are all

uses of the imaginative function.
50
Imaginative function: Poetry, tongue twisters,

puns, and other instances of the pleasurable
uses of lg also fall into the imaginative
function.
51
Imaginative function: Through the imaginative

dimensions of lg we are free to go beyond the
real world to soar to the heights of the beauty of
lg itself,
and through that lg to create impossible dreams if

we so desire.
52
Notional-functional Syllabuses
Notional-functional syllabuses attended to functions

as organizing elements of a foreign lg curriculum.
Grammar, which was the primary element in the

historically preceding structural syllabus, was
relegated (degraded) to a secondary focus.
53
Notions referred both to abstract concepts such as

existence, space, time, quantity, and quality
and to what we also call contexts or situations,

such as travel, health, education, shopping, and
free time.
54
The functional part of the notional-functional

syllabus corresponded to what have been defined as
lg functions.
Curricula were organized around such functions as

identifying, reporting, denying, declining an
invitation, asking permission, apologizing, etc.
55
Functional syllabuses remain today in modified

form.
A typical current lg textbook will list a sequence of

communicative functions that are covered:
56
Examples of Lg Functions
1- Introducing self and other people
2- Exchanging personal information
3- Asking how to spell someone’s name

4- Giving commands
5- Apologizing and thanking
6- Identifying and describing people
7- Asking for information

57
Functional Approaches to Lg Teaching
Context is the real key to giving meaning to both

form and function,
and therefore just because a function is covered

does not mean that learners have internalized it
for authentic, unrehearsed use in the real world.
58
Functional Approaches to Lg Teaching
Communication is qualitative and infinite;
a syllabus is quantitative and finite.
59
Discourse Analysis
Discourse is language beyond the sentence.
A single sentence can seldom be fully analyzed

without considering its context.
We use language in stretches of discourse.
We string many sentences together in interrelated,

cohesive units.
60
Discourse Analysis
In most oral lg, our discourse is marked by

exchanges with another person or several
persons
in which a few sentences spoken by one

participant are followed and built upon by
sentences spoken by another.
61
Discourse Analysis
Both the production and comprehension of lg are a

factor of our ability to perceive and process
stretches of discourse,
to formulate representations of meaning not just

from a single sentence but from referents in both
previous sentences and following sentences.
62
Discourse Analysis
In so many of our everyday exchanges, a single

sentence sometimes contains certain
presuppositions or entailments (implications)
that are not overtly manifested in surrounding

sentence-level surface structure, but that are
clear from the total context.
63
Discourse Analysis
Without the pragmatic contexts of discourse, our

communications would be extraordinarily
ambiguous.
64
Discourse Analysis
A stand-alone sentence such as
I didn’t like that casserole (type of food)
could, depending on context, be agreement,

disagreement, argument, complaint, apology,
insult, or simply a comment.
65
Discourse Analysis
In L2 learning the basic assumption [myth] has been

that
one first learns bow to manipulate structures, that one

gradually builds up a repertoire of structures
and then, somehow, learns how to put the structures to

use in discourse.
66
Discourse Analysis
We would like to consider the possibility that

just the reverse happens.
One learns how to do conversation, one learns

how to interact verbally, and out of this
interaction syntactic structures are developed.
67
Conversation Analysis
- What are the rules that govern our conversations?
- How do we get someone’s attention?
- How do we initiate topics?
- Terminate topics?
- Avoid topics?
- How does a person interrupt, correct, or seek

clarification?
68
Conversation Analysis: Attention Getting
Very early in life, children learn the first and

essential rule of conversation: attention getting.
69
If you wish linguistic production to be functional

and to accomplish its intended purpose,
you must of course have the attention of your

audience.
70
The attention-getting conventions within each lg

(both verbal and nonverbal) need to be
carefully assimilated (learned) by learners.
71
Conversation Analysis: Topic Nomination
Once speakers have secured (obtained) the

hearer’s attention,
their task becomes one of topic nomination

(selection).
72
Conversation Analysis: Topic Nomination
Rules for nominating (selecting) topics in

conversation, which involve both verbal and
nonverbal cues, are highly contextually
constrained.
73
Conversation Analysis: Turn-taking
Once a topic is nominated (selected), participants

in a conversation then embark on topic
development,
using conventions of turn-taking to accomplish

various functions of lg.
74
Allwright (1980) showed how students of English

as a second lg failed to use appropriate turn-
taking signals in their interactions with each other
and with the teacher.
75
Turn-taking is another culturally oriented sets of

rules that require finely timed perceptions in
order to communicate effectively.
76
Conversation Analysis: Topic clarification
Aside from turn-taking itself, topic development

or maintenance of a conversation involves
- clarification,
- shifting,
- avoidance,
- and interruption.
77
Conversation Analysis: Topic clarification
Topic clarification manifests itself in various forms

of heuristic functions.
In the case of conversations between L2 learners

and native speakers, topic clarification often
involves seeking or giving repair of linguistic
forms that contain errors.
78
Conversation Analysis: Repair
Repair involves a continuum of possibilities

ranging from indirect signals to outright
correction.
79
Conversation Analysis:
Topic Shifting and Avoidance
Topic shifting (changing) and avoidance may be

effected through both verbal and nonverbal
signals.
80
Conversation Analysis: Interruptions
Interruptions, a form of attention getting, are a

typical feature of all conversations.
Rules governing appropriate, acceptable interruption

vary widely across cultures and languages.
81
Conversation Analysis: Topic termination
Topic termination is an art that even native speakers

of a lg have difficulty in mastering at times.
We commonly experience situations in which a

conversation has ensued for some time and neither
participant seems to know how to terminate it.
82
Usually conversations are terminated by various
interactional functions ‒
- a glance at a watch,
- a polite smile,
- or a Well, I have to be going now.
83
Each lg has verbal and nonverbal signals for

termination.
84
Conversational Maxims
H. P. Grice (1907) once noted that certain

conversational maxims enable the speaker to
nominate (select) and maintain a topic of
conversation:
85
Conversational Maxims
1- Quantity: Say only as much as is necessary

for understanding the communication.
2- Quality: Say only what is true.
3- Relevance: Say only what is relevant.
4- Manner: Be clear.
86
Corpus Linguistics
A branch of discourse analysis that has

experienced phenomenal (extraordinary, outstanding)
growth and interest over the last decade or so is
corpus linguistics,
an approach to linguistic research that relies on

computer analyses of language.
87
Corpus Linguistics
The corpus is a collection of texts ‒ written,

transcribed speech, or both ‒
that is stored in electronic form and analyzed with

the help of computer software programs.
88
Corpus Linguistics
The emphasis in corpus linguistics is on naturally

occurring lg, that is,
texts created by users of the lg for a communicative

purpose.
89
Corpus Linguistics
The advent of computer science presents almost

endless possibilities for analysis.
We are now able to identify
- word frequencies
- and co-occurrences.
90
Corpus Linguistics
With some data banks boasting hundreds of

millions of words our capacity to analyze lg as it
is actually used,
and not as it may occur in lg textbooks that are

sometimes guilty of manufacturing linguistic
examples to illustrate a form, is greatly enhanced.
91
Corpus Linguistics
For example, according to the Longman Dictionary

of Contemporary English,
the word idea co-occurs with the word good (as in

good idea), four times more often than with any
other word, such as great idea, or right idea.
92
Corpus Linguistics
For teaching foreign lgs, the benefits of corpus

linguistics have been and will continue to be
explored:
93
Corpus Linguistics
access by textbook writers and curriculum

developers to naturally occurring lg sub-
categorized into very specific varieties, styles,
registers, and genres:
integration of grammar and vocabulary

teaching; studies of learner language.
94
Concordance or Concordancing
a list of all the words which are used
- in a particular text
- or in the works of a particular author,
together with a list of the contexts in which each

word occurs
(usually not including highly frequent grammatical

words such as articles and prepositions). 95
Concordances have been used in the study of

- word frequencies,
- grammar,
- discourse
- and stylistics.
96
In recent years the preparation of concordances by

computers has been used to analyze
- individual texts,
- large samples of writing by a particular author,
- or different genres and registers.
A collection of texts for such purposes is called a

corpus.
97
Computer concordances are now often used in

the preparation of dictionaries,
since they enable lexicographers to study how

words are used in a wide range of contexts.
98
Genre
Genres are types of language use within specified contexts.
99
Genre
It is a type of discourse
- that occurs in a particular setting,

- that has distinctive and recognizable patterns
- and norms of organization and structure,
- and that has particular and distinctive

communicative functions.
100
Genre
For example: business reports, news broadcasts,

speeches, letters, advertisements, etc.
In constructing texts, the writer must employ

certain features conventionally associated with
texts from the genre in which he or she is writing.
101
Genre
In reading a text the reader similarly anticipates

certain features of the text based on genre
expectations.
102
Contrastive Rhetoric
Contrastive rhetoric starts from the assumption

that lg occurs not in isolated syntactic structures
but rather in naturally occurring discourses,
whether spoken or written,
although admittedly contrastive rhetoric has

focused almost exclusively on written varieties.
103
Launching a now decades-long investigation of
writing conventions across different lgs and
cultures,
Robert Kaplan’s (1966) seminal article on the topic

prodded others to scrutinize cross-cultural aspects
of writing,
and in particular the difficulties learners may

experience in acquiring conventions of writing in
an L2. 104
the writing conventions of a language may in

some ways define a culture.
105
Pragmatics
Pragmatic constraints on language comprehension

and production may be loosely thought of as the
effect of context on strings of linguistic events.
106
Socio-pragmatics and Pragma-linguistics
SLA becomes an exceedingly difficult task when

socio-pragmatic (the interface between pragmatics
and social organization)
and pragma-linguistic (the intersection of pragmatics

and linguistic forms) features are brought to bear.
107
Researchers have all demonstrated the difficulty

of such conventions because of subtle cross-
cultural contrasts.
108
Variations in politeness and formality are

particularly touchy (tricky, risky):
109
• American: What an unusual necklace. It’s

beautiful!
• Samoan: Please take it.
• American teacher: Would you like to read?

• Russian student: No, I would not.
110
In both cases the nonnative English speakers

misunderstood the illocutionary force (intended
meaning) of the utterance within the contexts.
111
Grammatical knowledge are fundamental to

learning the pragma-linguistic features of a lg.
112
But grammar is almost simple when compared

to the complexity of catching on to ( understanding)
a seemingly never-ending list of pragmatic
constraints.
113
Pragmatic conventions from a learner’s L1 can

transfer both positively and negatively.
114
Address forms (how to address another person in

conversation), e.g., can prove to be problematic
for English speakers learning a lg like German,
and other lgs that distinguish between formal and

informal forms of you (German: Sie and du).
115
Apologizing, complimenting, thanking, face-

saving conventions, and conversational
cooperation strategies often prove to be
difficult for L2 learners to acquire.
116
Pragmatics
Pragmatics includes such contextual skills as

- using address forms (sir, Dr.),
- polite requests,
- persuading,
- and disagreeing.
117
Language and Gender
One of the major pragmatic factors affecting the

acquisition of communicative competence (CC)
in virtually every lg, and one that has received

considerable attention recently,
is the effect of one’s sex on both production and

reception of lg. 118
Language and Gender
Differences between the way males and females

speak have been noted for some time now.
119
Language and Gender
In English, another twist (development, emphasis) on
the lg and gender issue has been directed
toward sexist lg:
- lg that either calls unnecessary attention to gender
- or is demeaning (humiliating) to one gender.
120
Language and Gender
Writers are cautioned to refrain from using what

we used to call the generic he and instead to
- pluralize
- or to use he or she.
121
Language and Gender
What used to be stewardesses, chairmen, and

policemen are now more commonly called
flight attendants, chairs, and police officers.
122
Language and Gender
Fortunately, the research of linguists has called

the attention of the public to such sexism,
and we are seeing signs of the decline of this sort

of language.
123
Language and Gender
Current constructivist positions generally prefer to

view gender as one of many factors that enter
into communication:
the speaker, the setting, the cultural context, and

the interactions of ethnicity, class, gender,
power, sexual orientation, and a wide array of
other social phenomena.
124
Style
Styles are not social or regional dialects, but

sets of conventions for selecting words, phrases,
discourse, and nonverbal lg in specified contexts.
Styles vary considerably within a single lg user’s

idiolect.
125
Style
When you converse informally with a friend,

you use a style that is different from what you
use in an interview for a job with a prospective
employer.
126
Style
Adult second language learners must acquire

stylistic adaptability
in order to be able to encode and decode the

discourse around them correctly.
127
Style
Styles are manifested by both verbal and

nonverbal features.
Differences in style can be conveyed in body

language, gestures, eye contact, and the like.
128
Register
Registers are commonly identified by certain
phonological variants, vocabulary, idioms, and

other expressions that are associated with
different occupational or socioeconomic groups.
129
Register
Registers sometimes enable people to identify

with a particular group and to maintain
solidarity.
130
Register
Colleagues in the same occupation or profession

will use certain jargon to communicate with each
other, to the exclusion of eavesdroppers.
Truckers, airline pilots, salespersons, and farmers,

e.g., use words and phrases unique to their own
group.
131
Register
Register is also sometimes associated with social

class distinctions,
but here the line between register and dialect is

difficult to define.
132
Nonverbal Communication
We communicate so much information

nonverbally in conversations that often the
verbal aspect of the conversation is
negligible.
133
Nonverbal Communication
This is particularly true for interactive lg functions

in which social contact is of key importance
and in which it is not what you say that counts but

how you say it ‒
what you convey with body lg, gestures, eye

contact, physical distance, and other nonverbal
messages.
134
Kinesics
Every culture and language uses body language,

or kinesics, in unique but clearly interpretable
ways.
All cultures throughout the history of humankind

have relied on kinesics for conveying important
messages.
135
Kinesics
Today virtually every book on communication

explains how you communicate ‒ and
miscommunicate ‒
when you fold your arms, cross your legs, stand,

walk, move your eyes and mouth, and so on.
136
Eye Contact
Is eye contact appropriate between two participants
in a conversation?
When is it permissible not to maintain eye contact?
What does eye contact or the absence thereof signal?
Cultures differ widely in this particular visual

modality of nonverbal communication.
137
Eye Contact
Intercultural interference in this nonverbal

category can lead to misunderstanding.
138
Proxemics
Physical proximity, or proxemics, is also a

significant communicative category.
Cultures vary widely in acceptable distances for

conversation.
139
Artifacts/Artefacts
The nonverbal messages of artifacts (objects

produced/shaped by human craft )
such as clothing and ornamentation are also

important aspects of communication.
140
Artifacts/Artefacts
Clothes often signal a person’s sense of

- self-esteem,
- socioeconomic class,
- and general character.
Jewelry also conveys certain messages.

141
Kinesthetics
Touching, sometimes referred to as kinesthetics, is

another culturally loaded aspect of nonverbal
communication.
How we touch others is sometimes the most

misunderstood aspect of nonverbal communication.
142
Kinesthetics
Touching in some cultures signals a very personal

or intimate style, while in other cultures extensive
touching is commonplace.
Knowing the limits and conventions is important

for clear and unambiguous communication.
143
Olfactory (sense of smell) Dimensions
Our noses also receive sensory nonverbal messages.
The olfactory modality is of course an important one for

the animal kingdom,
but for the human race, too, different cultures
have established different dimensions of olfactory

communication. 144
Olfactory (sense of smell) Dimensions
The twentieth century has created in most

technological societies a penchant for perfumes,
lotions, creams, and powders as acceptable and
even necessary;
natural human odors, especially perspiration, are

thought to be undesirable.
145
Nonverbal competence
CC includes nonverbal competence ‒ knowledge

of all the varying nonverbal semantics of the
second culture,
and an ability both to send and receive nonverbal

signals unambiguously.
146
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)
CLT is best understood as an approach, rather than

a method.
It is therefore a unified but broadly based

theoretical position about the nature of language
and of language learning and teaching.
147
1- Classroom goals are focused on all of the

components of CC and not restricted to
grammatical or linguistic competence.
148
2- Language techniques are designed to engage

learners in the
- pragmatic,
- authentic,
- functional
use of language for meaningful purposes.
149
3- Fluency and accuracy are seen as complementary

principles underlying communicative techniques.
At times fluency may have to take on more

importance than accuracy in order to keep
learners meaningfully engaged in language use.
150
4- In the communicative classroom, students

ultimately have to use the language,
productively and receptively, in unrehearsed
contexts.
151
CLT suggests that grammatical structure might

better be subsumed under various functional
categories.
152
CLT pays considerably less attention to the overt

presentation and discussion of grammatical rules
than traditionally practiced.
A great deal of use of authentic language is implied

in CLT as teachers attempt to build fluency.
153
Much more spontaneity is present in

communicative classrooms:
students are encouraged to deal with unrehearsed

situations under the guidance, but not control, of
the teacher.
154
Task
an activity which requires learners to use language,

with emphasis on meaning, to attain an objective.
155
Task-based Instruction
Among recent manifestations of CLT, task-based

instruction has emerged as a major focal point
of lg teaching practice worldwide.
156
As the profession has continued to emphasize
classroom interaction,
learner-centered teaching, authenticity, and

viewing the learner’s own experiences as
important contributors to learning,
task-based instruction draws the attention of

teachers and learners to tasks in the classroom.
157
Task
a task is an activity in which meaning is primary,

- there is a problem to solve
- and relationship to real-world activities,
- with an objective that can be assessed in terms of
an outcome.
158
Target tasks vs. Pedagogical tasks
target tasks: uses of language in the world beyond

the classroom,
pedagogical tasks: those that occur in the

classroom.
159
Tasks
Tasks are a subset of all the techniques and

activities that one might design for the
classroom,
and themselves might involve several

techniques.
160
In order to accomplish a task, a learner needs to
have sufficient
organizational competence (grammatical and

textual competence),
illocutionary competence (ideational, manipulative, heuristic,

and imaginative functions)
to convey intended meaning,

161
strategic competence to compensate for unforeseen

difficulties,
and then all the tools of discourse, pragmatics, and

even nonverbal communicative ability.
162

Communicative Competence (CC)

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Communicative Competence (CC)

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Chapter 8

Communicative Competence (CC)

The term communicative competence (CC) was

a sociolinguist who was convinced that

Chomsky’s rule-governed creativity that so aptly

did not, according to Hymes, account sufficiently

So Hymes referred to CC as that aspect of our

CC is relative, not absolute, and depends on the

It is not so much an intrapersonal construct as we

that can be examined only by means of the overt

In the 1970s, research on CC distinguished between

- knowledge about lg forms (linguistic competence)

- and knowledge that enables a person to

CALP (Cummins, 1981) is that dimension of

It [CALP] is what learners often use in classroom

BICS is the communicative capacity that all

Cummins later (1981) modified his notion of

- and context-embedded (BICS)

A good share of classroom, school-oriented

while face-to-face communication with people is

1- Grammatical competence is that aspect of CC

- lexical items and of rules of morphology,

Grammatical competence is the competence

i.e. the linguistic competence.

2- The second subcategory is discourse competence,

It is the ability we have to connect sentences in

Discourse means everything from simple spoken

While grammatical competence focuses on

3- Sociolinguistic competence is the knowledge of

This type of competence requires an understanding

the roles of the participants, the information they

Only in a full context of this kind can judgments

4- Strategic competence is the verbal and

to compensate for breakdowns in communication

Strategic competence: the strategies that one uses

‒ or limiting factors in their application such as

Strategic competence is the competence underlying

paraphrase, circumlocution, repetition, hesitation,

In fact, strategic competence is the way we

An eloquent speaker possesses and uses a

A salesperson utilizes certain strategies of

A friend persuades you to do sth extraordinary

The first two subcategories (Grammatical

the last two subcategories (Sociolinguistic

Grammatical Textual Illocutionary Sociolinguistic

a descriptive function (or ideational function, in

- organizing a speaker’s or writer’s experience of

which can be stated or denied and in some cases

Functions are essentially the purposes that we

stating, requesting, responding, greeting, parting,

Functions cannot be accomplished, of course,

morphemes, words, grammar rules, discourse rules,

While forms are the outward manifestation of

functions are the realization of those forms.

How much does that cost?

is usually a form functioning as a question and

But linguistic forms are not always unambiguous

I can’t find my umbrella,

uttered in a high-pitched voice by a frustrated adult

A child who says

I want some ice cream

is rarely stating a simple fact or observation but