MA2 Applied Linguistics 2014

Quantitative methods

Mohamed Jabeur
 Lecture One
2

Sampling
 Outline
3

Introduction
1. Statistical population
2. Target population
3. Sample frame
4. Sampling bias
5. Sub-samples
6. Major types of sampling
6.1 Probabilitiy (random) sampling
6.1.1. Random sampling
6.1.2. Stratified sampling
6.1.3. Cluster sampling
6.2 Non-probabiltiy (non-random) sampling
6.2.1. Quota sampling
6.2.2. Snowball sampling
6.2.3. Convenience sampling
6.2.4. Purposive sampling
Conclusion
 Introduction
4

Crucial phase in research design

Representativeness
Generalisations
Diverse sampling types & techniques
 1. Statistical population
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 ‘... as set of all the values which

might ever be included in a
particular study’ (the sampling
universe).
 2. Target population
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 ‘...the set to which

generalisation is intended
from a study based on a
sample.’
 (Woods, Fletcher and Hughes: 57)
 3. Sample frame
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Electoral registers
Telephone directories
Classroom lists
....
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 4. Sampling bias
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 Exclusion of
ethnic minority groups,
immigrants...
 Solutions:

 - Ethnic name analysis (based on

population surveys).
 - Community lists of minority groups:

Italian speakers in London and Coventry.

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5. Sub-samples
 New York City (1966): 340 informants but
only 88 are finally interviewed due to death,
illness, refusal to cooperate...

 Detroit (Shuy, Wolfram and Riley, 1968): 702

interviews but only 36 were found acceptable.
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 6. Major types of sampling
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Probability sampling
(Random)

Non-probability sampling
(Non-random)
 6.1 Probabiltiy (random) sampling
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Simple random sampling

Stratified random sampling

Cluster random sampling

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 6.1.1. Random sampling
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 A group of subjects (a sample) selected

for study from a larger group (a
population).
 Each member of the population has an

equal chance of being included in the

sample.
 Using a regular interval in the selection

process.
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 Sampling problems
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 - Replacement.

 - Exclusion of non-native speakers in spite of

their role in linguistic change (Horvath, 1985).
 6.1.2. Stratified sampling
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 Stratified sampling is a probability sampling

technique.
 The researcher divides the entire population into
different subgroups or strata, then randomly selects
the final subjects proportionally from the
different strata.
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 Conditions for stratified sampling
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
Strata must be non-
 

overlapping
 use simple probability

sampling within the

different strata
 Most common strata
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 Age

Gender
Socioeconomic status
Religion
Nationality
Educational attainment
 Two types of stratified sampling
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 Proprtionate stratified sampling

Disproprtionate stratified sampling

 Stratum A B C
Populatio
100 200 300
n Size
Sampling
½ ½ ½
Fraction
Final
Sample 50 100 150
Size
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 6.1.3. Cluster sampling
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 - Dividethe total population

into groups (or clusters)
- Select a random sample
of the groups.
- Collect info. from a simple random
sample of the elements within each
selected group.
 Conditions for cluster sampling
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 - Groups approximately the same size

- Combining clusters to achieve same size

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 6.2. Non-probability sampling
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Quota sampling
Snowball sampling
Convenience sampling
Purposive sampling
 6.2.1. Quota sampling
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Representative individuals or items
chosen out of a specific subgroup.

A sample of 150 women, or 100

individuals between the ages of 30-
40.
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 Advantages of quota sampling
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- Useful when you are unable to obtain a

probability sampling.
- Non-probability based equivalent of
the stratified random sample.
Much quicker and easier to carry out.

- Inexpensive.

- Avoids over/under representation.

- Compare strata easily.
 Disadvantages of quota sampling
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Lack of representativeness &

generalisation.

 Strict non-overlapping categories.

 6.2.2. Snowball (Chain referral) sampling

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 Snowball (Chain referral) sampling

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- A non-probability sampling technique

to identify potential subjects in studies
where subjects are hard to find.
- Subjects to nominate another person
with the same trait as your next
subject.
 Types of snowball sampling

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 Linear Snowball Sampling

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Exponential Non-Discriminative Snowball

Sampling
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Exponential Discriminative Snowball

Sampling
 Advantages of snowball sampling
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 Reach populations that are difficult to

sample.

Cheap, simple & cost-efficient.

- Little planning.
 Disadvantages of snowball sampling
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- Little control over the sampling method.

- Sample representativeness not guaranteed.

- Sampling bias / subjectivity.

 6.2.3 Convenience (Accidental) sampling

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A non-probability sampling technique to

select subjects:

- Convenient accessibility

- Proximity to the researcher. 

Haphazard or Accidental sampling.

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 Advantages of convenience sampling
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- Fast & easy.

 Ideal for quick studies.

 Often used in preliminary surveys.

- Cheap.
 Disadvantages of convenience sampling
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- Little control over the sampling method.

- Sample representativeness not guaranteed.

- Sampling bias / subjectivity.

 6.2.4. Purposive sampling
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- Judgmental, selective or subjective sampling.
Judgement of the researcher or experts.

Focus on particular characteristics of a

population 
Small samples.

Used in qualitative or mixed methods research

designs
 Types of purposive sampling
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Maximum variation sampling

(Heterogeneous sampling: Normal to extreme units)
Homogeneous sampling
(Sample sharing the same characteristics or traits)
Typical case sampling
(Normal, typical cases)
Extreme (or deviant) case sampling
(Special or unusual cases with notable outcomes, failures or successes)
Critical case sampling
(Exploratory qualitative research – Logical generalisations)
Total population sampling
(Entire population in small samples)
Expert sampling
 Advantages of purposive sampling
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 Used in qualitative research

designs
- Relative generalisations
- Different types of PS in multiple
research phases
 Disadvantages of purposive sampling
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 Prone to researcher bias.

 Risk of ill-conceived, poorly

considered judgements.

 Difficult to defend
representativeness
 Conclusion
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6. Major types of sampling

6.1 Probabilitiy (random) sampling
6.1.1. Random sampling
6.1.2. Stratified sampling
6.1.3. Cluster sampling
6.2 Non-probabiltiy (non-random) sampling
6.2.1. Quota sampling
6.2.2. Snowball sampling
6.2.3. Convenience sampling
6.2.4. Purposive sampling
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