Chapter 0 Preliminaries

• 0.1, 0.2 Real number and Inequalities

• 0.3 Coordinate
• 0.4 Graphs of Equations
• 0.5 Functions and Their Graphs
• 0.6 Operations on Functions
• 0.7 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
• 0.8 The Trigonometric Functions
• 0.9 The Inverse Trigonometric Functions
 Topics

 Real Numbers
 Set of Real Numbers
 Operations on Real Numbers
 Intervals
 Absolute Values (Modulus)

2
 Real Numbers
What number system have you been using most of
your life?
The real number system.

A real number is any number that has a decimal re

presentation.

3
 Set of Real Numbers
(i) Natural Numbers
Counting numbers (also called positive integers)
N = { 1, 2, 3, …… }
Whole Numbers:

(ii) Integers
Natural numbers, their negatives, and 0.
Z = {……, –2, –1, 0, 1, 2, ……}
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 Set of Real Numbers
(iii) Rational Numbers, Q
Numbers that can be represented as
where a and b are integers and
All rational number can be represented by:
(a) terminating decimal numbers
such as
(b) nonterminating repeating decimal numbers
such as

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 Set of Real Numbers
(iv) Irrational Numbers
Numbers which cannot be expressed as a ratio of
two integers. They are nonterminating & nonrepe
ating decimal numbers.
I

(v) Real Numbers, R

Rational and irrational numbers.

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Set of Real Numbers
R
Q I

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 Real Number Line

Origin

–8 –4 0 4 8

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Operations on Real Numbers
(i) Commutative Law

* Addition :

* Multiplication :

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Operations on Real Numbers
(ii) Associative Law

* Addition :

* Multiplication :

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Operations on Real Numbers
(iii) Distributive Law

11
Operations on Real Numbers
(iv) Identity Law

* Addition :
a + identity = a

* Multiplication :
a  identity = a

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Operations on Real Numbers
(v) Inverse Law

*Addition :
a + inverse = identity

*Multiplication :
a  inverse = identity
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 Real Number Intervals
For any two different real numbers, a and b,
with

The open interval is defined as the set

The closed interval is defined as the set

14
 Absolute Values
The absolute value (or modulus) of a real number, x
is denoted by .

15
Absolute Values

16
 Example 1.3
Find the values of x if

(i)

(ii)

(iii)

(iv)
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 Exponents
For n a natural number (positive integer)
and a any real number,

where n is called the exponent and

a is called the base.

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Properties of Exponents
Q R+

19
 Exponential Equation
An equation with a variable in the exponent, called a
n exponential equation.

Property :
**

**

Note : Both bases must be the same!!

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 Example 1.4
Solve (a)

(b)

(c)

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 Example 1.5
Solve the equation

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 Natural Exponential Base

** is between because e is between 2 and 3.

** All three graphs have y-intercept (0, 1).
** For , the graphs show that
** For , the graphs show that
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 Logarithms
Definition of logarithm :
For

**

**
When a=10 => common logarithm
When a=e => natural logarithm 24
Properties of Logarithms

25
Properties of Logarithms

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 Example
(a) Solve

(b) Find x in term of b, given that

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 Example
Solve the equation

Note:
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 Example
Solve the equation

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 Example
Given that

Find the values of x and y.

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 Inequalities
The relations such as x > 0, 2x – 1 < 1 and
are known as inequalities.

means “less than”

means “less than or equal to”

means “greater than”

means “greater than or equal to”

31
Basic Rules

32
 Method to Solve Inequality
An inequality may be solved according to the type of
the function given, by using :

(a) analytical or graphical method OR

(b) drawing the real number line.

+
a

Note : The coefficient of x must be positive.

33
 Example
Find the set of values of x which satisfy the
inequalities

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 Example
Find the set of values of x which satisfy the
inequalities

35
 Example
Find the set of values of x which satisfy the
inequalities

36
 Example
Find the range of values of x which satisfy the
following inequalities.
(i)

(ii)

(iii)

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 Example
Find the set of values of x such that

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 Example
Find the values of x such that

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 Fractional Function
If f (x) is a polynomial of degree m, and g(x) is a
polynomial of degree n, where m < n , then

However, if , then

40
 Partial Fractions
A partial fraction of polynomials is defined as :

where
(1) The numerator is of smaller degree than the
denominator.
(2) The denominator cannot be factorized (or
reduced) further.
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 Partial Fractions
 Denominator with linear factors :

For each linear factor (ax + b) in the

denominator of a proper fractional function,

there exists a partial fraction in the form

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 Example

Express in partial fractions.

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 Example 2.20

Express in partial fractions.

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 Example 2.21

Express in partial fractions.

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 1.5 Functions and Their Graphs
• Functions and parametric equation are the major tools for
describing the real world in mathematical terms, from
temperature variations to planetary motions, from brain waves
to business cycles, and from heartbeat patterns to population.

• Many functions have particular importance because of the

behavior they describe.
Trigonometric functions describe cyclic, repetitive activity;
exponential, logarithmic and logistic function describe growth

and decay; and polynomial functions can approximate these

and most other functions.
Definition of Functions :

(1) x is called the independent variable and

y the dependent variable, and .
(2) We say “y is a function of x” and symbolically: y=f (x).

Function Notation
• A single letter like f (or g or F ) is used to name a
function. Then f (x) , read “ f of x ” or “ f at x ”,
denotes the value that f assigns to x.
Example 1
For , find and simplify
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Solution
(a)
(b)

(c)
(d)
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 Domain and Range
• The set D is called the domain of the function and
symbolically D(f ), which is the set of all the independent
variable x.
• The set of all the dependent variable y=f (x) is called the
range of the function and symbolically R(f ).

• To specify a function completely, we must state, in addition

to the rule of correspondence, the domain of the function
• When no domain is specified for a function, we assume that
it is the largest set of real numbers for which the rule for the
function makes sense. This is called the natural domain.
 Dependent Rule of Independent
variable correspondence variable

The rule of correspondence, together with the domain,

determines the range.

Example:
Example 2
Find the natural domain for
(a) (b)
(c)

Solution
(a) The natural domain is . This may read
“the set of ’s such that is not equal to 3 .”

(b) We must choose such that . Thus,

t must satisfy . The natural domain is therefore
, which we can write using interval
notation
as . 51
(c)

Now we must exclude and from the natural domai

n. The natural domain is therefore .

52
Even Functions and Odd Functions: Symmetry of graph
Suppose that the domain of a function is symmetric with
respect to the origin (i.e. whenever ).
If for all , then the graph is symmetric with
respect to the axis. Such a function is called an even function.
If for all , then the graph is symmetric with
respect to the origin. We call such a function an odd function.

The graph of an even function The graph of an odd function

is symmetric about the y-axes. is symmetric about the origin.
y y

O x
O x x
 Recognizing Even and Odd functions:

Solution:

So that this function is an odd function.

 1.6 Operations on Functions
Sums, Differences, Products, Quotients, and Powers
For tow functions and , is the intersection of th
ese tow domains of functions and , define

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Example 1 Let and ,
with respective natural domains and
Find formulas for , , , and ,
and give their natural domains.
Solution

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Composition of Functions

Examples:
The domain of the composition of functions is equal to the
set of those values x that satisfy the following properties:

So we must be careful in describing the domain of a

composite function.

Examples:
Example 3 Write the function as
a composite function .
Solution The most obvious way to decompose is to
write
, where and

We thus view as the fifth power of a

function of .

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Complex Example: Decomposition the following
function as the composition of some simple functions.
Inverse Functions
Example 6:
Monotonic Functions

Existence of Inverse Function (Theorem A, P40)

If f is monotonic function on its domain, then f has an
inverse.
The Graph of Inverse

The graphs of and are symmetric about

the line .
Problem: Could you give some e
xamples of inverse functions?
1.7 Exponential and Logarithmic
Functions
Logarithmic function
base changing formula for lograithms
1.8 The Trigonometric Functions
function domain period Monotonic Odd/even
inteval
odd
even
odd

正割 余割
1.9 The Inverse Trigonometric Functions
To obtain inverses for sine, it is necessary to restrict its
domains to
1. Inverse for sine:

(1) Domain:
(2) Range:
(3) Odd/even: Odd ， 2

1.5

0.5

-1
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3

-0.5 1
(4) Monotonicity : -1

Increasing. -1.5

-2
To obtain inverses for cosine, it is necessary to restrict its
domains to
2. Inverse for cosine:

(1) Domain:
(2) Range: 5

4.5
y = arccos x, x∈[-1, 1]
4

y∈[0, π]
(3) Odd/even: Neither 3.5

2.5

1.5

0.5

π
(4) Monotonicity :-4 -3 -2 -1

-1 -0.5 1
1 2 3 4

Decreasing.
-1

y =cos x, x∈[0, π]
y∈[-1, 1]
 Example 1
Calculate

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Solution

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
To obtain inverses for tangent, it is necessary to restrict
its domains to
3. Inverses for tangent

(1) Domain: R

(2) Range:
(3) Odd/even: Odd 3

2.5

1.5

(4) Monotonicity : 1

0.5

Increasing. -4 -3 -2 -1

-0.5
1 2 3 4

-1

-1.5

-2

-2.5

-3
Exercises ：
To sum up, we have the following:
Notation

function domain range Odd/even

odd

neither

odd
 Theorem A

(1)

(2)

(3)
Partial catalog of functions to be used in Calculus

Constant function: , where k is a constant(real number)

Identity function: ,

Polynomial function:
( In particular, linear function:
quadratic function: )

Rational function:

Algebraic function, such as

Non-algebraic functions are called transcendental functions, including
trigonometric, inverse trigonometric, exponential, logarithmic functions.
 Three special functions:
1. Absolute value function:

2. Signal function:

3. Greatest integer function:

3. 练习： 特殊值的反正弦函数值
3. 练习反余弦函数值
3. 练习反正切函数值