Chap 7ne

Importance and Scope of Meteorology in

Agriculture
• Weather and climate is a resource and considered as
basic input or resources in agricultural planning,
every plant process related with growth
development and yield of a crop is affected by
weather.
• Similarly every farm operation such as ploughing
harrowing, land preparation, weeding, irrigation,
manuring, spraying, dusting, harvesting, threshing,
storage and transport of farm produce are affected
by weather.
 1. Characterization of agricultural climate:

• For determining crop growing season: the

following factors are significant:-
– solar radiation,
– air temperature,
– precipitation,
– wind,
– humidity are the most common climatic factors on
which the growth, development and yield of a
crop depend.
 2. Crop planning for stability in production

• To reduce risk of crop failure on climatic part,

so as to get stabilized yields even under
weather adversity, suitable crops/cropping
pattern/contingent cropping planning can be
selected by considering water requirements of
crop, effective, rainfall and available soil
moisture.
 3. Crop management:
• Management of crop involves various farm operations such as,
sowing fertilizer application, Plant protection, irrigation
scheduling, harvesting etc. can be carried out on the basis of
specially tailored weather support. For this the use of
operational forecasts, available from agro met advisories, is
made
• e.g.
• 1) Weeding, harrowing, mulching etc are undertaken during
dry spells forecasted.
• 2) Fertilizer application is advisable when rainfall is not heavy
wind speed is <30 km/hr and soil moisture is between 30 to
80%
• 3) Spraying/dusting is undertaken when there is no rainfall, soil
moisture is 90% and wind speed is <25km/hr.
• 4. Crop Monitoring:
 To check crop health and growth performance of a crop,
suitable meteorological tools such as crop growth models.
Water balance technique or remote sensing etc. Can be
used.
• 5. Crop modelling and yield–climate relationship:
 Suitable crop models, devised for the purpose can provide
information or predicate results about the growth and
yield when the current and past weather data is used.
• 6. Research in crop –climate relationship:
 Agro-meteorology can help to understand crop-climate
relationship so as to resolve complexities of plant process
in relation to its micro climate.
• 7. Climate extremities:
 Climatic extremities such a frost floods, droughts,
hail storms, high winds can be forecasted and crop
can be protected.
• 8. Climate as a tool to diagnose soil moisture stress:
 Soil moisture can be exactly determined from
climatic water balance method, Which is used to
diagnose the soil moisture stress, drought and
necessary protective measures such as irrigation,
mulching application of anti-transpirant, defoliation,
thinning etc. can be undertaken.
• 9. Livestock production:
 Livestock production is a part of agriculture. The set of
favorable and unfavorable weather conditions for growth,
development and production of livestock is studied in Agril.
Meteorology. Thus to optimize milk production and poultry
production, the climatic normal are worked out and on the
suitable breeds can be evolved or otherwise can provide the
congenial/friendly conditions for the existing breeds.
• 10. Soil formation:
 Soil formation process depend on climatic factors like
temperature, precipitation, humidity, wind etc, thus climate is
a major factor in soil formation and development.
 Agricultural weather forecast:
• Forecasting of weather elements like sunshine
hours, occurrence of dew, relative humidity,
rainfall, temperature, winds etc. Which are
important in agriculture and for farming
operations is known as agricultural forecast.
• In weather forecasting the advance information
of weather elements like distribution of rainfall,
warming, heavy rainfall, thunderstorm, hailstorm,
show or frost, sky cover, winds, humidity, dew,
drought, evaporation rate etc… is provided.
Weather forecasting on the basis of their validity
periods or time scale is classified as follows :
1. Now casting:
 Now-casting is issued for less then 12 hours. Its closely
related to local weather phenomena like thunder
storms, dust storms, cyclones, cold and heat waves.
Now-casting is also useful for outdoor function.
2. Short range forecast (SRF):
 It is based on synoptic situation prevailing at the time
of forecasting and is valid up to 3 days or 72 hrs. and
are issued twice a day.
3. Medium range forecast (MRF):
 Forecasting of meteorological elements over
different agro-climatic zones for periods ranging
from 3-10 days is known as medium range
forecast.
4. Long range forecast (LRF):
 The forecast valid for more than 10 days (i.e. a
month or a season is knows as long range
forecast.
 Importance of Weather
Forecast in agriculture
1. The forecast of the weather events helps for suitable
planning of farm.
2. It helps in to undertake or withheld the sowing operation
3. It helps in following farm operation:
– I) To irrigate the crop or not
– II) When to apply fertilizer or not.
– III) Whether to start complete harvesting or to withhold it.
4. It also helps in to take measures to fight frost.
5. It helps in transportation and storage of food grains.
6. Helps in management of cultural operations like plughing
harrowing, hoeing etc.
7. It helps in measures to protect livestock.
 Weather phenomenon and their
Representation
1. Dew:
• The deposition of water vapor in the form of tiny
droplets on the colder bodies by condensation is
known as dew. The clear sky, absence of wind.

• The object on which dew forms must be good

radiator and bad conductor are necessary
conditions for formation of dew.
 2. Frost:
• When the temperature of air falls below 0 °C
before the dew point is reached, the water vapor
is directly converted into crystals of ice, and this
is called as frost. It is frequently called as a form
of sublimation, Forts is injurious to vegetation.
 3. Fog:

• Extremely small water droplets suspending in

the atmosphere and reducing the horizontal
visibility is fog.
Classification of Fog:
A) Thick Fog : Restricts visibility up to 45 meters
B) Moderate Fog: Restricts visibility up to 450
meters
C) Thin Fog : Restricts visibility up to 900 meters.
4. Mist:
 Mist is less dense fog. The suspended water droplets restrict Visibility
between 1000 to 2000 meters. The obscurity is known as mist.
Relative humidity is at least 75% Mist disappears with rising sun.
5. Rime:
 It is formed when wet fog having super cooled droplets immediately
freeze on striking objects like telegraph post having temperature
below freezing point. White ice is formed on windward side.
6. Smog:
 The combined effect of smoke and fog droplets may reduce visibility
and this phenomenon is called smog.
7. Haze:
 Some solid particles like dust, smoke from fire and industry restrict
visibility is haze.
 Cyclone
• It is the atmospheric disturbance in which the air pressure
decreases at a particular location (Low pressure at centre)
and there is a wind movement towards centre. A system of
close isobars with the lowest pressure at the centre is called
as cyclone.
• The pressure gradient force and carioles force cause air, flow
in cycle to be spurning convergent system.
• In the northern hemisphere the direction of rotation of
cyclone is antilock wise while in the southern hemisphere it
is clockwise. Cyclones are also known as Lows or press ions.
• The velocity of wind in cyclone is more than 34 knots.
 Anticyclone
• When there is a area of high pressure at centre,
the flow of air starts from centre to outer side.
• A system of closed isobars with highest pressure at
centre is known as anticyclone.
• The air flow has spiraling divergent system so that
it moves obliquely across isobars away form centre.
• The direction of rotation of anticlones in the
northern hemisphere is clock wise while in
southern hemisphere it is antilock wise. These are
known as “Hights.”
Chapter 8
 Agrometeorological adaptative
strategies to mitigate the impacts
of climate change and variability 
Agrometeorological adaptative strategies to mitigate the
impacts of climate change and variability 

• Adaptation measures designed to anticipate the

potential effects of climate change can help to
offset many of the negative effects
• Adjustment of planting dates to minimize the
effect of temperature increase-induced spikelet
sterility can be used to reduce yield instability, by
avoiding having the flowering period to coincide
with the hottest period.
• Adaptation measures to reduce the negative
effects of increased climatic variability as
normally experienced in arid and semi-arid
tropics may include changing the cropping
calendar to take advantage of the wet period
and to avoid extreme weather events (e.g.,
frost and storms) during the growing season.
• Crop varieties that are resistant to lodging (e.g., short
rice cultivars) may withstand strong winds during the
sensitive stage of crop growth.
• A combination of farm level adaptations and economic
adjustments such as increased  investment in agriculture
infrastructure and reallocation of land and water would
be desired in the agricultural sector.
• Other adaptive options included developing cultivars
resistant to climate change; adopting new farm
techniques that will respond to the management of
crops under stressful conditions, plant pests and disease;
design and development of efficient farm implements.
 Regional Adaptative strategies 
• The key step for an agriculture adaptation strategy could be the
choice of suitable crops and cultivars.
• Shifts on sowing date of spring crops will allow more effective use of
the soil moisture content

• The dates of spring crop sowing could be moved forward in a crop

rotation calendar in Northern regions, and farmers could plant a
second crop that could even be vegetable with a short growth
period.

• Optimum use of fertilizers and ecologically clean agrotechnologies

would be beneficial for agriculture.
•  
• Conservation of water used for irrigated agriculture therefore should be
given priority attention.
• With increased evapotranspiration, any adaptation strategy in agriculture
should be oriented toward a shift from conventional crops to types of
agriculture that are not vulnerable to evapotranspiration.

• Developing alternatives such as aquaculture that will partly replace

agriculture. Expansion of commercial crops also could help reduce
dependence on food productivity.
• Protection of soils from degradation should be given serious consideration.
• Trying out salt water resistant varieties of crops in the areas where
drainage is poor; diversifying agriculture and food habits of the people
primarily limited to some specific cereals, improving to management of
irrigation systems; implementing crop livestock integration; changing crop
varieties in cropping patterns to suit changing climatic conditions;
implementating agroforestry systems etc. are the other adaptive options
to be considered.
• An adaptive response in the agricultural sector should be
an effort to breed heat resistant crop varieties by utilizing
genetic resources that may be better adapted to warmer
and drier conditions.
• Improvements in farming systems, fertilizer management,
and soil conservation from major adaptation strategies.
• Crop architecture and physiology may be genetically
altered to adapt to warmer environmental conditions.
• The genetic resources of seeds maintained  in germplasm
bank may be screened to find sources of resistance to
changing diseases and insects, as well as tolerances to
heat and water stress and better compatibility with new
agriculture technologies.
• Cropping systems may have to change to include growing suitable
cultivars (to counteract compression of crop development), increasing
crop intensities (i.e., the number of successive crops produced per
unit area per year), or planting different types of crops.
• Farmers will have to adapt to changing hydrological regimes by
changing crops.
• Development of new varieties with higher yield potential and stability
is complementary to bridging the yield gap.
• Improvements in runoff management and irrigation technology (e.g.,
river runoff control by reservoirs, water transfers, and land
conservation practices) will be crucial.
• Increasing efforts should be directed toward rainwater harvesting and
other water conserving practices to slow the decline in water levels in
aquifers. Recycling of wastewater should be encouraged in drought
prone countries in tropical Africa.
•  
 Soil carbon sequestration and mitigating
climate change 
• With increased focus on climate change and the development of the
Kyoto Protocol and other international treaties which may emerge, soil
conservation through carbon (C) sequestration  reduces the net
CO2 emission by systematically removing CO2from the atmosphere,
thereby mitigating climate change. This adds an important new
dimension to the issues of soil conservation, namely, the economic
benefits gained from creating and trading C credits on the
international C market.

• This is a classic ‘win-win’ situation, being a cost-effective and natural

process of mitigating climate change with no adverse ecological
impacts compared to oceanic and geological sequestration strategies. 
• Bio-sequestration of C, both by soil and biota, is a truly
win-win situation.  While improving
agronomic/biomass productivity, these options also
improve water quality and mitigate climate change by
decreasing the rate of enrichment of atmospheric CO2. 
• Realization of this vast potential, which is in interest of
Ethiopia, requires  adoption of recommended
management practices including the use of mulch
farming and conservation tillage, integrated nutrient
management and manuring, agroforestry systems,
restoration of eroded lands, and conversion of
agriculturally marginal lands into restorative land uses.
 Soil Carbon sequestration in Ethiopia

• Soil degradation exacerbates depletion of SOC

because of reduction in biomass production
and low amounts of residues returned to the
soil. 
• The low level of SOC concentration in soils of
Ethiopia can be enhanced by
–   Restoration of degraded soils,
–    Conversion of agriculturally marginal soils to
pastures or forest lands,  
 Text book and web resources

• - www. agriinfo.in
• - ecourses.iasri.res.in
• - Principles of Agronomy by T. Yellamanda
• Reddy and G.H. Sankara Reddy
• - Agrometeorology by SR Reddy and DS Reddy
Principle of Agronomy and
Agricultural Meteorology
 Organic Agriculture & Organic farming
• Organic agriculture is
“Ecological production management system that promotes
and enhance bio-diversity, biological cycles, and soil
biological activity approaches based on minimal use of off-
farm inputs ecological harmony”
• Organic farming is
• “A production system, which avoids or largely excludes
the use of inorganic fertilizers, pesticides, growth
regulators and livestock feed additives.” (Lampkin, 1990).
 Why it is necessary ?
• With the development of high yielding varieties
coupled with improved specified inputs such as
fertilizers, pesticides, irrigation, etc., lead to
environmental problem’s
• The soils become sick mainly due to the exploitation
through :
– Use of selected and highly pure fertilizers.
– Use of irrigation without proper drainage.
– Employing poor quality waters and
– Dumping of industrial toxic effluents in to natural water
courses.
Adverse effects synthetic fertilize/pesticides

• Ground water contamination

• Residual effects in grains
• Accumulation into body tissue
• Causes cancer in human being
• Rise in concentration of nitrate in drinking which
causes blue baby
• Syndrome and stomach cancer in human being
beings Rise in concentration of heavy elements
into soil, water and food
 Synonyms of organic farming
• Eco-farming
• Biological farming
• Bio-dynamic farming
• Macrobiotic agriculture
ECO-FARMING
• Farming in relation to ecosystem.
• It aims at the maintenance of soil chemically,
• biologically and physically the way nature would do it
• left alone.
Feed the soil, not the plant is the watchword and slogan of
ecological farming.

• BIOLOGICAL FARMING
• Farming in relation to biological diversity

BIODYNAMIC FARMING
• Farming which is biologically organic and ecologically sound and sustainable
farming.
 Characteristics of organic farming
• Maximal but sustainable use of local resources
• Minimal use of purchased inputs, only as complementary to
local resources
• Maintaining a diversity of plant and animal species
• Ensuring the basic biological functions of soil waternutrients-
humus continuum
• Creating an attractive overall landscape, which gives
satisfaction of the local people
• Increasing crop and animal diversity in the from of
polycultures, agro forestry systems, integrated crop/livestock
systems, etc.
 Need and scope of organic
farming
• Increase in awareness and health consciousness
• Global consumers are increasingly looking for organic
food, which is considered safe, and hazard free.
• The global prices of organic food are more profitable

• The potential of organic farming is signified by the fact

that the farm sector has abundant organic nutrient
resources like livestock, water, crop residue, aquatic
weeds, forest litter, urban, rural solid wastes and agro
industries, bio-products.
OBJECTIVE OF ORGANIC FARMING
• High nutritional quality
• Work with natural system rather than seeking
to dominate them
• Encourage and enhance the biological cycles
with framing system
• Maintain and increase the long term fertility of
soils
• Closed system with regard to organic matter
and nutrient elements
• To give all livestock, conditions of life allows them to
perform all aspects of their innate behavior
• Avoid all forms of pollution
• To maintain the genetic diversity of the agricultural
system
• Allow agricultural producers an adequate return and
satisfaction from their work including a safe working
environment
• To consider the wider social and ecological impact of the
farming system.
 Advantages of Organic farming
1. Organic manures produce optimal condition
in the soil for high yields and good quality
crops.
2. They supply the entire nutrient required by
the plant (NPK, secondary and micronutrients).
3. They improve plant growth and physiological
activities of plants.
4. They improve the soil physical properties such as
granulation and good tilt, giving good aeration
easy root penetration and improved water
holding capacity.
5. They improve the soil chemical properties such
as supply and retention of soil nutrient and
promote favorable chemical reaction.
6. They reduce the need for purchased inputs.
7. Most of the organic manures are wastes of
byproduct which accumulated load to pollution.
8. Organic fertilizer are considered as complete plant food.
9. Organically grown crop are believed to provide more
healthy and nationally superior food for man and animals
that those grown with commercial fertilizers.
10. Organically grown plants are more resistant to disease
and insect and hence only a few chemical sprays or
other protective treatment are required.
11. There is an increasing consumer are willing to pay more
for organic foods.
12. Organic farming helps to avoid chain reaction in
the environment for chemical spray and dusts.
13. Organic farming helps to prevent environment
degradation and can be used to regenerate
degraded areas.
14. Since the basic aim is diversification of crops,
much more secure income can be obtained that
when they reply on only one crop or enterprise.
 DISADVANTAGES OF ORGANIC FARMING

1. Productivity- Low productivity is often reported as the

quantum nutrient used comparatively lower
2. Labour intensive - Cultivation requires more labour
especially for weed control
3. Skill- requires considerable skill to farm organically
- Choice of alternatives for control of pests
4. Lack of convenience in management compared to
easier management like fertilizer application in
conventional methods
 COMPONENTS OF ORGANIC FARMING
(1) Organic manures
• (a) Bulky organic manures
• (b) Concentrated organic manures
- Oil Cakes
• Edible oil-cakes
• Non-edible oil-cakes
• (c) Green manures
• (i) Green manuring in situ
– Sunnhemp - 2.30 N +0.50 P2O5 +1.80 K2O
– Dhaincha - 3.50 N + 0.60 P2O5 + 1.20 K2O
– Sesbania - 2.7 N + 0.53 P2O5 + 2.21 K2O
• (ii) Green leaf manuring
– Forest tree leaf - 1.20 N + 0.60 P2O5 + 0.40 K2O
– Green weeds - 0.80 N + 0.30 P2O5 + 0.20 K2O
– Pongamia leaf - 3.31 N + 0.44 P2O5 + 2.39 K2O
 (2) Recycling of organic waste
• (a) FYM
- Pit method (Below ground level)
- Heap method (Above the ground level)
• (b) Compost
– (i) Vermicompost
– (ii) Rural compost
– (iii) Urban compost
– (iv) Bio compost
(c) Crop residue management
(3) Bio fertilizers
(4) Integrated nutrient management
(5) Non-chemical weed control measures

(6) Biological pest management