Miller Indices

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 Miller Indices

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 Time-temperature cooling curve for Pure metals

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 Crystallization

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 Point defect

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 Line defect

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 Mechanism of Crystallization
• It is the transition from liquid to solid state & occurs
in two stages:
 Nuclei formation
 Crystal Growth
• Liquid state → atom do not have any definite
arrangement,
• When Solidified → Some atoms at an instant are in
positions exactly to the space lattice
• Kinetic energy:
 speed at which the atoms move and
 strictly a function of temperature.
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 Mechanism of Crystallization
• Higher the temperature:
 Greater the kinetic energy of the atoms and
 Shorter the life of the group
• Temperature of liquid decreased:
 the atom movement decreases,
 lengthening the life of the group and
 more groups will be present at the same time.
• Atoms in a material have → both kinetic and
potential energy.

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 Mechanism of Crystallization
• Potential energy:
 Distance between atoms
 Greater distance → greater potential energy

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 Time-temperature cooling curve for Pure metals

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Time-temperature cooling curve for Liquid antimony

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 Solidification of Pure metals
• Atoms in liquid & the solid
 Kinetic energy same
 but significant difference in potential energy
• Atoms in solid are much closer together →
Solidification → Release of energy
• Latent heat of fusion:
 Difference in potential energy between the liquid
and solid states
 Subsequent release of the heat of fusion will raise
the temperature

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 Solidification of Alloys
• Freeze over a temperature range
Copper – Nickel Alloy system

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 Solidification of Alloys

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 Constitution of Alloy
• Alloy:
 Two or more chemical elements → at least one is
a metal
 Metallic properties
• Alloy system:
 All alloys formed by several elements combined
in all possible proportions
• Binary alloy system → system made up of two
elements
• Ternary alloy system → system made up of three
elements
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 Constitution of Alloy
• Taking 45 of the most common metals:
 Combinations of two gives 990 binary systems
 Combinations of three give over 14,000 ternary
systems
• Commercial alloys contain many elements → number
of possible alloys is almost infinite

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 Alloy Structures

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 Solid Solutions
• It is a
 solution in solid state and
 consists of two kinds of atoms combined in single
space lattice
• Two parts
 a solute → minor part of solution or material
which is dissolved
 a solvent → major portion of solution

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 Solid Solutions
• 3 possible conditions for a solution:
 Unsaturated:
 Solvent dissolving less of the solute
 Saturated:
 Dissolving limiting amount of the solute
 Supersaturated:
 Dissolving more of the solute, under
equilibrium condition

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 Solid Solutions
• Solubility:
 Volume of solute that can dissolve in a solvent
 Solubility of solute
 More in liquid state than solid state
 100% Solubility → Completely soluble
• Two types:
 Substitutional Solid Solution
 Interstitial Solid Solution

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 Substitutional Solid Solutions
• Solute atom substitute Solvent atom in the lattice
structure of Solvent.

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 Substitutional Solid Solutions
• Example: Silver – Gold alloy
• Factors → control the range of solubility of alloy →
Hume-Rothery Rules
• Lattice structure of solid solution → solvent lattice
structure → with slight changes in lattice parameter.
• Solute atom larger → Compression filed
• Solute atom smaller → Tension field

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 Hume-Rothery Rules
Factor 1 – Crystal Structure Factor
• Crystal Structures of alloying elements → same
 Complete solubility
• Examples:
• Cu – Ni alloy system → Complete solubility

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 Hume-Rothery Rules
Factor 2 – Relative size factor
• Percentage of difference in atomic radii of alloying
elements
• When size difference < 15% → Size factor is
favorable
 8% < R.S < 15% – minimum
 R.S > 15% – very limited

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 Hume-Rothery Rules
Factor 2 – Relative size factor
Alloy Crystal structure Relative Solubility
system factor size
factor
Silver & Both FCC 20% Partly soluble
Lead (Lead in solid Silver - 1.5%)
(Silver in solid Lead – 0.1%)
Antimony Rhombohedral 7% Completely soluble
& Bismuth (100%)
Antimony Sb-Rhombohedral, 2% Partly soluble
& Al - FCC (2%)
Aluminium

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 Hume-Rothery Rules
Factor 3 – Chemical Affinity Factor
• Greater the chemical Affinity
 More restricted is their solid solubility
 Greater is the Tendency towards compound
formation.
• The farther apart the elements are in the periodical
table
 Greater their Chemical Affinity

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 Hume-Rothery Rules
Factor 4 – Relative Valence Factor
• metal of lower valence → dissolve more → metal of
higher valence (vice versa)
• Example: Al-Ni Alloy system
 Both FCC
 R.S – 14%
 Ni is lower in valence than Al
 Ni dissolves 5 % Al
 Al dissolves only 0.04 % Ni

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 Interstitial Solid Solutions
• Interstitial Solid Solutions → atoms of small atomic
radii
• atoms of small atomic radii → fit into the spaces or
interstice of the lattice structure of solvent
• Since the spaces of the lattice structures are restricted
in size.
• Atoms with atomic radii less than 1 angstrom →
interstitial solid solutions

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 Interstitial Solid Solutions
• Atoms with atomic radii less than 1 angstrom are:
 Hydrogen – 0.46
 Boron – 0.97
 Carbon – 0.77
 Nitrogen – 0.71
 Oxygen – 0.60

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 Interstitial Solid Solutions

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 Interstitial Solid Solutions
• amount of interstitial atom is smaller
 Interstitial solid solution
• amount of interstitial atom is greater
 Interstitial compound
• Small amount of solute & Difference in atomic radii
greater
 Interstitial solid solution

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 Interstitial Solid Solutions
• Interstitial compound
 Shows narrow range of composition
 Expressed by a chemical formula
 Lattice structure shows an expansion

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 Interstitial Solid Solutions
• Solute have greater mobility
• More solute atoms may be dissolved until saturation
is reached
• amount is increased → restrict mobility → interstitial
compound → fixed composition
• May have limited solubility
• C in Fe – Example

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 Solid Solutions

• Distortion in lattice structure

• Will interfere with the movement of dislocations on
the slip planes
• Increases the strength
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Basic for solid solution strengthening 34
 Compounds
• Exhibits a definite melting point with narrow limits
of temperature
• Therefore cooling curve is similar to that of pure
metal.
• Intermediate phases are the phases
 Whose chemical compositions are intermediate
between the two pure metals
 Crystal structure is different from those of pure
metals

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 Compounds
• 3 Types
 Intermetallic compounds / valency compounds
 Interstitial compounds
 Electron compounds

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 Intermetallic compounds / valency compounds
• Formed between chemically dissimilar metals
• Combined by following the rules of chemical valence
• They have strong bonding (ionic or covalent)
• Example: CaSe, Mg2Pb, Mg2Sn and Cu2Se
• Properties : nonmetallic
 Poor ductility
 Poor electrical conductivity
 May have a complex crystal structure

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 Interstitial compounds
• Formed between transition metals
• Transition metals such as Scandium, Titanium,
Tantalum, Tungsten, Iron → With →
• Hydrogen, Oxygen, Carbon, Boron and nitrogen
• Metallic
• Narrow range of composition, high melting points
and are extremely hard
• Examples: TiC, TaC, Fe4N, Fe3C, W2C, CrN and
TiH
• Useful in hardening of Steel and in cemented carbide
tools.
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 Electron Compounds
• In alloys of Cu, gold, silver, iron and nickel → With
→
• Cd, Mg, Tin, and Al
• Definite electron ratio and similar lattice structure.
• Electron compounds
• Properties resembles the properties of solid solution
 Wide range of composition, high ductility, and
low hardness.

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 Electron Compounds

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