Mechanical

Properties of fluid
1
Fluid:
A fluid (both liquid and gases) is a substance that can flow.
Liquid in equilibrium:

The reaction R can resolve in two components W U

R
θ T
1) Tangential component OT = R cos θ O

2) Normal component OW = R sin θ S

component OT = R cos θ = 0

As R ≠ 0 hence cos θ = 0 or θ = 900

i.e. liquid always exerts force perpendicular to the surface of the container at every point.

Measurement of pressure :

F
P =
A

0
Pascal’s Law:
A change in pressure applied to an enclosed incompressible fluid is
transmitted undiminished to every point of the fluid and the walls of the
containing vessel.

For equilibrium of fluid element we have

Fb sin θ = Fc
Fb cos θ = Fa
From geometry of figure we have
Ab sin θ = Ac
Ab cos θ = Aa
From above equations we get

Fb sin θ Fc Fb cos θ Fa
= or =
Ab sin θ Ac Ab cos θ Aa

Fa F F
= b= c
Aa Ab Ac

or Pa = P b = P c

Hence pressure exerted in all direction is same

Applications of Pascal’s Law :
1) Hydraulic lift :

Hydraulic lift is used to lift heavy objects.

Load
f
Pressure exerted on the liquid F
f
P= a
a A

Force on larger piston is C2

C1
F=PxA
f xA Liquid
F=
a
A xf
F=
a
Since A>a, therefore, F > f

Hence by making the ratio A/a large, very heavy load (like cars and trucks) can
be lifted. 0
2) Hydraulic brakes :

0
Variation of liquid pressure with depth : P1
a) Force due to liquid pressure at the top
F1 = P1A, (↓)

b) Force due to liquid pressure at the bottom

h
F2 = P2A, (↑)

c) Weight of the cylinder acting downward

W = Mass x g (↓)

W = Volume x density x g P2

W = Ahρg

As the liquid cylinder is in equilibrium

Net downward force = Net upward force

F1 + W = F 2
F2 – F 1 = W
P2A – P1A = Ahρg

P2 – P1 = hρg

0
Buoyant force :

The upward force acting on a body immersed in the fluid is called upthrust or
buoyant force and the phenomenon is called buoyancy.

Archimedes principle:
It states that when a body is partially or wholly immersed in a fluid, it
experiences an upward thrust equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by it & its
upthrust act through the centre of gravity of the displaced fluid.

Apparent weight of immersed body :

Apparent weight = Actual weight – Buoyant force

Wapp = Vσg - Vρg

Wapp = Vσg(1 – ρ/σ) σ

Wapp = W (1 – ρ/σ) ρ
Law of flotation:

It states that a body will float in a liquid if the weight of the liquid displaced by
the immersed part of the body is equal to or grater then the weight of the body.

σ
σ
σ
ρ ρ ρ

i) W > U or σ > ρ ii) W = U or σ = ρ ii) W < U or σ < ρ

body sinks body floats fully immersed body floats partly immersed

0
Viscosity :
Viscosity is the property of fluid by virtue of which an internal force of friction
comes into play when fluid is in motion and which opposes the relative motion
between its different layers.

V = maximum
F

Coefficient of viscosity: V=0 Fixed surface

According to Newton, a force of viscosity F acting tangentially between two layers

FαA

F α dv N c v + dv
dx
F
Mc v
F α A dv
dx x X + dx

F =- η A dv η is coefficient of viscosity Fixed surface

dx V=0

Hence coefficient of viscosity of a liquid may be defined as the tangential viscous

force required to maintain a unit velocity gradient between its two parallel layers each
of unit area. {contd….
Note :
1) Negative sign shows that the viscous force acts in a direction opposite to the
direction of motion of the liquid.

2) Dimensions of η [η] = [M1 L-1 T-1]

3) SI unit of η is N s /m2 or Kg /m s or decapoise or poiseuille.

4) CGS unit of η is dyne s /cm2 or g /cm s or poise

Effect of temperature on viscosity :

1) When liquid is heated, the kinetic energy of its molecules increases and the
intermolecular attractions become weaker. Hence the viscosity of a liquid
decreases with the increase in its temperature.

2) Viscosity of gases is due to the diffusion of molecules form one moving layers
to another. But the rate of diffusion of gas is directly proportional to the square
root of the absolute temperature, so viscosity of gas increases with
temperature.
Poiseuille’s formula :
The volume of a liquid flowing out per second through a horizontal capillary tube
of length ℓ and radius r, under a pressure difference p applied across its end is
given by V πpr
4
Q=
t = 8ηℓ 0
Stokes’ Law :
The retarding (backward) viscous force acting on a small spherical ball of
radius r moving with uniform velocity v through fluid of viscosity η is given by.
F = 6πηrv
The viscous force F acting on a sphere moving through fluid may depends on
1) coefficient of viscosity η of the fluid
2) radius r of the spherical body
3) velocity v of the body
i.e. F = k ηa rb vc

[M1 L1 T-2 ] = [M1 L-1 T-1 ]a [L1 ]b [L1 T-1 ]c

[M1 L1 T-2 ] = [M1 L-1 T-1 ]a [L1 ]b [L1 T-1 ]c

[M1 L1 T-2 ] = [ M a L- a + b + c T- a-c ]

On solving
a = 1, b = 1, c = 1

F = kηrv

F = 6πηrv
0
Terminal velocity :
The maximum constant velocity acquired by a body while falling through a
viscous medium is called its terminal velocity.
As body falls various forces acting on body are
i) Weight of the body acting vertically downwards
W = mg = 4/3 π r3 ρ.g
ii) Upward thrust equal to the weight of the liquid displaced
U = 4/3 π r3 σ.g
iii) Viscous force acting upward
F = 6π η r v σ F
When the body attend terminal velocity U
U+F=W ρ
i.e. When the body attend terminal velocity vt
4/3 π r3 σ.g + 6π η r vt = 4/3 π r3 ρ.g W

6π η r vt = 4/3 π r3 (ρ – σ).g

r2 (ρ - σ) g
vt = 2
9 η

Note: if ρ < σ , the terminal velocity is -ve ex air bubble rises through fluid 0
Streamline flow :
When a liquid flows in such a way that each particle of the liquid passing a
given point moves along the same path and has the same velocity as its
predecessor, the flow is called streamline flow or steady flow.

Streamline :

A streamline may be defined as the path, the tangent to which at any point
gives the direction of the flow of liquid at that point.
Properties of streamline flow:
1) No two streamline can cross each other
2) The tangent at any point on the streamline gives the direction of velocity of
fluid particle at that point.
3) Grater the number of streamlines passing normally through a section of the
fluid, larger is the fluid velocity at that point.
4) Fluid velocity remains constant at any point of the streamline, but it may be
different at different points of the same streamline.
Tube of flow :

Tube of flow is a bundle of streamlines having the same velocity of fluid element
over any cross-section perpendicular to the direction of flow.

Turbulent flow :

When the liquid velocity exceeds a certain limiting value, called critical velocity,
the liquid flow becomes zig-zag. The path and velocity of liquid changes continuously,
haphazardly. This flow is called turbulent flow. It is accompanied by random irregular,
local circular currents called vertices.

Laminar flow :
In a steady flow, liquid flows in the form of layer sliding past one another
without getting mixed, called laminar flow. 0
Critical velocity :
The critical velocity of a liquid is that limiting value of its velocity of flow up to
which the flow is streamlined and above which the flow becomes turbulent.
velocity is
a) Directly proportional to the coefficient of viscosity of liquid (η)
b) Inversely proportional to the density of liquid (ρ)
c) Inversely proportional to the diameter of the tube (D)
η
vc α
ρ.D

Reη
vc =
ρ.D
where, Reynolds number.
ρvD
Re =
η
Note :
1) If Re < 1000 the flow is laminar
2) If Re > 2000 the flow is turbulent
3) If 1000 < Re < 2000 the flow is unstable
Equation of continuity : a1v1 = a2v2
0
Bernoulli’s Principle:
It states that sum of pressure energy, kinetic energy and potential energy per
unit volume of an incompressible, non-viscous fluid in a streamlined, irrotational
flow remains constant along a streamline.
m = volume x density
m = area of cross-section x length x density B
m = a1 v1 ∆t ρ = a2 v2 ∆t ρ A
a1 v1 = a2 v2 …… (*) a2
a1
change in K.E. of fluid
= K.E. at B – K.E. at A = ½ m (v22 - v12) = ½ a1 v1 ∆t ρ (v22 - v12)
change in P.E. of fluid
= P.E. at B – P.E. at A = mg (h2- h1) = a1 v1 ∆t ρ g (h2- h1)
Net work done (F.S) on the fluid = work done on fluid at A – Work done on fluid at B
= P1 a1 x v1 ∆t – P2 a2 x v2 ∆t
= a1 v1 ∆t (P1– P2 )
According to law of conservation of energy
Net work done on fluid = Change in KE – change in PE

a1 v1∆t (P1–P2 )=½ a1v1∆t ρ(v22 - v12) - a1v1∆t ρ g(h2-h1)

Dividing both side by a1 v1 ∆t, we get
(P1–P2 ) = ½ ρ(v22 - v12) - ρ g (h2-h1)
P1 + ½ ρv12 + ρ g h1 = P2 + ½ ρv22 + ρ g h2
P + ½ ρv2 + ρ g h = constant 0
Speed of efflux (outflow): Torricelli’s Law

A1v1 = A2v2
v2 = A2/A1 .v1

Pa + ½ ρ v12 + ρgy1 = P + ρ g y2

½ ρ v12 = ρg( y2 – y1 ) + (P - Pa )

½ ρ v12 = ρgh+ (P - Pa )

√
2gh + 2(P-Pa)
v1 =
ρ
Note :
1) If P >> Pa, the term 2gh may be ignored

√
2(P-Pa)
v1 =
ρ
2) If tank is open to atmosphere is P = Pa, v1 = √2gh

This is speed of freely falling body known as Torricelli’s law

0
Applications of Bernoulli’s Principle :
1) Venturimeter :
it is a device used to measure the rate of flow of a liquid through a pipe.
It consists of a horizontal tube having wider opening of cross-section a 1 and a
narrower neck of cross-section a2. These two regions of the horizontal tube are
connected to a manometer, connecting a liquid of density ρ’.
Let the liquid velocities be v1 and v2 at the wider and narrower end then
according to principle of continuity.
A1v1 = A2v2
or A1 v ……. (1)
= 2
A2 v1
If P1 and P2 be the pressure at wider and narrower portion,
ρ is density of fluid, then according to Bernoulli’s equation
P1 + ½ ρv12 = P2 + ½ ρv22
or P1 – P2 = ½ ρ( v22 - v12 )
A12 – A22
P1 – P2 = ½ ρ v12
v22
(v –1 )
h ρ’ g = ½ ρ v 1
2
( A22 )
2
1

√
A12 2h ρ’ g A2 2
P1 – P2 = ½ ρ v12
(A 2
2
–1 ) { eqn (1) v1 =
ρ
x
A12 – A22
A12 – A22 Volume of liquid flowing out per second
P1 – P2 = ½ ρ v1 2
( A2 2 )
If h is the height difference in arms of manometer
P1 – P2 = h ρ’ g
Q =A1v1 = A1A2
√ 2h ρ’ g
ρ (A12 – A22) 0
2) Automizer P2
Balloon
P1

Container
3) Aerofoil :
Aerofoil is the name given to solid object shaped to provide an upward vertical
force as it moves horizontally through the air

The difference in pressure provides an upward lift called dynamic lift.

0
4) Magnus effect :