Cell Biology

WHAT TO LEARN
• Discovery of cells
• Cell Theory
• Cell Structure and Functions
• Prokaryotic VS Eukaryotic Cell
• Plant VS Animal Cell
 The Discovery of Cells
• Around 1600, the first microscopes were built
• Galileo observed insects with a microscope he
made
• Jans and Zacharias Janssen, Dutch spectacle
makers developed the early compound
microscope
Robert Hooke ( 1665)
• Used light
microscope to look
at thin slices of
plant tissues -- cork
• It looked empty, like
monk’s chamber
• He called tiny
chambers “cells”
• In 1665, Hooke published the book Micrographia
(first book to illustrate insects, plants etc, as
seen through microscopes). He used the word
cells to describe the “boxes” he had observed in
the cork (cork cells are dead plant cells).
• In 1833, Scotish botanist Robert Brown
discovered nucleus in the cells of orchids
• A few years later the term protoplasm was used
to refer to the living material within the cells.
• Anton Van
Leeuwenhoek
• first to view pond
water organisms
• First to see living
microscopic
organisms which he
called animalcules
(little animals)
 Matthias Schleiden 1838

• German Botanist
(plants)
• All plants he looked
at were made of
cells, so concluded:
“All plants are made of
cells.”
 Theodore Schwann -- 1839
• German scientist
who studied animals
-- zoologist
• Saw that all animals
he studied were
cellular so
concluded:
“All animals are made of
cells.”
 Rudolf Virchow -- 1855
• German physician
who studied cell
reproduction
• “Where a cell exists,
there must have been a
preexisting cell…..”
 Theory of Spontaneous Generation
or Abiogenesis
• “Living things can originate from non-living
matter”
• Believers of the theory
• 1. Aristotle – Greek Philosopher.
• Pond during long drought. No fish were present.
When drought is over, Aristotle observed the
presence of fish. He concluded that fish had
been produced from the non-living mud on the
pond’s bottom
• He also believed that flies were produced by the
rotting flesh of dead animals
• 2. John Needham - English scientist

• He boiled the broth of meat and

vegetables. He left the broths stand in
loosely corked flasks. After few days,
microorganisms developed. He concluded
that microorganisms must have developed
from the broth. He didn’t realize that
microorganisms were able to enter
because he had not sealed the flasks
completely.
 BIOGENESIS
• “Living things come only from other living
things“

• Proponents:
• 1. Francesco Redi – He placed pieces of meat
into 8 separate jars. He left 4 of the jars opened
and sealed the other 4 jars. After a short period
of time, the meat in the 4 open jars contained
maggots. No maggots in the 4 sealed jars. He
concluded that the maggots appeared on the
rotting meat only if flies laid their eggs on the
meat.
• 2. Lazzaro Spallanzani – Italian scientist

• He repeated Needham’s experiment but he

sealed all the flasks. No microorganisms grew in
the sealed flasks. Spallanzani then broke the
seals on some of the flasks. Microorganisms
began to grow on these flasks
• 3. Louis Pasteur - He had shown that
microorganisms were present on the dust
particles in the air. Microorganisms grew only in
the straight-necked flasks because dust entered
in it. No microorganisms grew in a swan-necked
flasks (dust can’t enter)
 The Cell Theory
• 1. All organisms are made up of one or
more cells (Schleiden and Schwann)
• 2. Cells are the basic units of structure and
function of all organisms (Schleiden and
Schwann)
• 3. New cells come from existing cells by
cell reproduction (Virchow)
STRUCTURES OF A PROKARYOTE (BACTERIUM)
 PARTS OF BACTERIUM AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

NUCLEOID (meaning nucleus-like) is an irregularly shaped region within

the cell of a prokaryote that contains all or most of the genetic material. In
contrast to the nucleus , a nucleiod is not surrounded by a nuclear membrane.
 Some of the Differences Between Bacteria and Viruses are as follows:
S.N. Characteristics
1 Size
2 Cell Wall
3 Ribosomes
4 Number of cells
5 Living/Non-Living
6 DNA and RNA
7 Infection
8 Reproduce
9 Reproduction
10 Duration of illness
11 Fever
12 Cellular Machinery
Bacteria Viruses
Larger (1000 nm) Smaller (20-400 nm)
Peptidoglycan or No cell wall. Protein coat
Lipopolysaccharide present instead.
Present Absent
One cell (Unicellular) No cells
Between living and non-
Living organisms
living things.
DNA and RNA floating freely DNA or RNA enclosed
in cytoplasm. inside a coat of protein.
Localized Systemic
Need a living cell to
Able to reproduce by itself
reproduce
Invades a host cell and
takes over the cell causing
Fission- a form of asexual it to make copies of the viral
reproduction DNA/RNA. Destroys the
host cell releasing new
viruses.
A bacterial illness commonly Most viral illnesses last 2 to
will last longer than 10 days. 10 days.
A bacterial illness notoriously A viral infection may or may
causes a fever. not cause a fever.
Possesses a cellular
Lack cellular machinery
machinery
 Visible under Light Visible only under Electron
13 Under Microscope
Microscope. Microscope.

Viruses are not beneficial.

However, a particular virus
Some bacteria are beneficial may be able to destroy brain
14 Benefits
(Normal Flora) tumors. Viruses can be
useful in genetic
engineering.

Virus does not respond to

15 Treatment Antibiotics
antibiotics.

Staphylococcus aureus, Vibrio HIV, Hepatitis A virus, Rhino

16 Examples
cholerae, etc Virus, etc

Food poisoning, gastritis and

AIDS, common cold,
17 Diseases/Infections ulcers, meningitis, pneumonia,
influenza, chickenpox, etc
etc
CAPSID – the shell that
encloses the nucleic acid
in a virus

A bacteriophage is a virus that attacks bacteria

Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
Comparison of Prokaryotes & Eukaryotes
• Feature Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
Animals Plants
Average size 1-10 um 10-20um 30-50um
Cell membrane Yes Yes Yes
Cell wall Yes No Yes
Nucleus No Yes Yes
Ribosomes Yes Yes Yes
ER No Yes Yes
Golgi complex No Yes Yes
Mitochondria No Yes Yes
Vacuoles No Small or Large
absent
Plastid No No
Yes
Lysosomes No Often present Rare
Microtubles No Yes Yes
Cilia or flagella Yes Often present Mostly

absent except for sperm

Cell Division Binary Fission Mitosis or Meiosis
 Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes
• Prokaryotes: *NO NUCLEUS
*Small and Simple – few
organelles
*Have cell membranes
and cytoplasm
Ex. Bacteria
• Eukaryotes: *Contain nuclei
*Contains organelles that
perform specialized
functions
*Uni-or multicellular
PLANT VS. ANIMAL CELLS
CELL STRUCTURE AND
FUNCTIONS
 The 3 Basic Cell Parts
• Cell membrane – thin, flexible barrier
around cell
• Nucleus – large, centralized structure that
contains genetic material and controls
cellular activities
• Cytoplasm – material inside membrane (but
not inside the nucleus) that supports the
internal cell shape and organelles
• Cell membrane – (a.k.a. “security guard of the cell”)
*provides barrier between internal and external
environment of cell
*is semi-permeable (some things can go in,
some cannot; some things can exit, some
never can)
*made up of phospholipid bilayer with proteins
embedded that allow for needed passage of
large molecules
• Nucleus (a.k.a. the “brain or command center of
the cell”
– With double nuclear membrane
– Contains Chromatin(inactive DNA)
– Synthesizes mRNA from DNA for
protein synthesis
– Contain Nucleolus that
manufactures ribosomes
 Cytoplasm (a.k.a. Protoplasm)
• Entire region between the nucleus and the
cell membrane
• The semifluid substance that fills this area
is called CYTOSOL, and this is what the
organelles are suspended in
 Endoplasmic Reticulum –
(a.k.a. “highway system” of cell)
• EXTENSIVE – accounts for more than half the
total membrane system in eukaryotic cells
• Name means “little net within the cytoplasm”
• Extends from the nuclear membrane to the cell
membrane
• Smooth and rough e.r. are actually connected,
not distinct, separate sections
• Job is to transport materials quickly from one
place to another in cell
 Rough E.R.
(with attached ribosomes)
• Makes secretory proteins
(ex. Insulin made by R.E.R. of pancreatic cells)
• Most are glycoproteins (proteins covalently bound
to carbohydrates)
• Rough E.R. is also a membrane factory – grows
by adding proteins and phospholipids; parts can
be taken from here and added to other membrane
systems using the vesicles for transport
Figure 7.11 Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

CISTERNAE are
flattened membrane
vesicles of the ER and
Golgi apparatus
Figure 7.10 Ribosomes
 Ribosomes
(aka “protein factories”)
• Sites of protein synthesis
• Are made of rRNA and protein
• Cells with high rates of protein synthesis have MANY
ribosomes (Ex. human pancreas cell which produces
insulin and glucagon has MILLIONS of ribosomes)
• “free” ribosomes are floating freely in cytosol that make
proteins for use inside the cell
• “attached” ribosomes are those bound to endoplasmic
reticulum that make proteins which are packed then
transported outside for use by the neighboring cells.
 Smooth E.R.
(without ribosomes)
• Functions in synthesis of lipids, metabolism of
carbohydrates, detoxification of drugs and poisons
*Lipids – oils, phospholipids, steroids
(sex hormones and adrenal hormones)
*Liver cells – glycogen; gets converted to
glucose phosphate which cannot leave
cell, so e.r. makes enzyme that
converts this to glucose
*Detox – liver; adds hydroxyl groups to drugs,
makes them soluble and able to be
flushed out of body
 Golgi apparatus/body/complex
(aka “Gift wrapper” or packaging center)

• Finishes, sorts, ships cell products

from the E.R to the membrane
• Similar in appearance to the ER
• Golgi will modify products as needed
– gives more variety by removing
some monomers and substituting
others
Figure 7.12 The Golgi apparatus
 Vacuoles
(aka “Bank Vaults”, “trash cans”, “storage tanks” of
the cell)

• Sites of storage in cells

*good things stored – water,
minerals,
food etc.
*bad things stored – broken down cell
parts, waste
 Lysosomes
(aka “suicide bags” of the cell)
• A special type of vesicle that originates from the
Golgi apparatus/complex
• Membrane-bound sac of hydrolytic enzymes
• Different lysosomes break down each of the
major classes of macromolecules – proteins,
polysaccharides, fats, nucleic acids
• Work best at pH of 5
• Contain powerful digestive enzymes wthat
destroy the bacteria and worn-out cell parts
• Used in autophagy (“self-engulfing”) – recycle the
cell’s own organic material for use
• Lysosomes
– Intracellular digestion
– Releases nutrients
– Breakdown of waste
 Mitochondria and Chloroplasts
(aka the “powerhouses”
• Mitochondria – carry on cellular respiration
– sites of energy production in cell
(glucose broken down to produce ATP)
• The inner membrane folds to form
fingerlike projections called cristae
Figure 7.17 The mitochondrion, site of cellular respiration
 Figure 7.18 The chloroplast, site of photosynthesis

Chloroplast
(aka “food factory” of the cell
• Site where carbon dioxide and water, with the
help of sunlight and chlorophyll, are
converted into glucose through the process
called photosynthesis
• Chloroplast is a plastid containing green
pigment called chlorophyll; manufactures food
• Leucoplasts are storage plastids (colorless);
contain proteins, lipids, or starch
• Chromoplasts are plastids that contain red,
yellow, or orange pigments (found in ripe
fruits or in leaves during fall/autumn)
 Cytoskeleton
(aka “Cell Bone” )
“hay in mud makes bricks”

• Network of fibers extending into cytoplasm

of cell
• Provides structural support, and aids in cell
motility and cell regulation
• Made up of microtubules (thickest),
microfilaments (thinnest), and intermediate
filaments
• Microtubules – pipelike structures
composed of proteins
• - give shape to cell and enable the cell to
move

• Microfilaments – very thin threadlike fibers

found within the cell
• Allows movement of materials within the
cell
 Cilia and Flagella
(“hairs and tails”)
• Cilia are short projections from cell body
(hair-like structures)
• flagella are much longer (whip-like
structures)
• Movement may not be for entire organism;
may be part of a larger unit – ex. Cilia
lining the windpipe propel foreign
substances out…
• Peroxisomes (formerly known as
microbodies)
– Degrades toxic Hydrogen Peroxide to
water and oxygen

• Vesicles
– Material transport
– Are derived from either cell membrane,
ER, or Golgi Apparatus
Cell Wall (a.k.a. protective wall)
• Non-living part found in plant cells, fungi and
bacteria (another barrier in ADDITION to the cell
membrane)
• Protects the cell, gives shape and rigidity
• In plants, cell wall is made of polysaccharide
called cellulose. In bacteria, it is made of
peptidoglycan. In fungi, made of chitin.
• Is very porous and allows molecules to pass
through, but is NOT SELECTIVELY PERMEABLE
Organelles do not work alone…
• Organelles work interdependently and their
vital functions sustain the life to the cell
• The location of organelles inside the cell has
something to do with their functions
• The presence of membrane-bound
organelles in eukaryotic cell makes it highly-
compartmentalized. This allows organelles
to work efficiently (can focus on their job).
PLANT VS. ANIMAL CELLS
 CHEMISTRY OF CELLS
• INORGANIC COMPOUNDS:
– WATER, ACIDS, BASES, SALTS

ORGANIC MOLECULES OF CELLS

- CARBOHYDRATES, LIPIDS, PROTEIN,
NUCLEIC ACIDS
 WATER
• Most chemical reactions in living things
take place in water in the cell.
• Water is a polar inorganic compound
 Special Properties of Water
• 1. Water has high heat capacity –
• Heat capacity is the capability of a
substance to absorb heat energy
• Water is able to absorb a high amount of
heat before increasing in temperature,
allowing humans to maintain body
temperature
2. Water has strong cohesion force .
Cohesion holds hydrogen bonds (connects water
molecules) together to create surface tension on
water. Since water is attracted to other molecules,
adhesive forces pull the water toward other
molecules.(covalent bond connects hydrogen and
oxygen in a water molecule)

3. Water has high surface tension –

Surface tension is the property of the surface of a
liquid that allows to resist an external force due to
the cohesive nature of its molecules
• 4. Water has high heat of vaporization -
pulls heat from the body, keeps you cool
(evaporative cooling)
• 5. Water has high polarity – it attracts
almost anything thus becoming a universal
solvent
• 6. Water has high specific heat capacity
• Specific heat is the amount of heat, in
calories, needed to raise the temperature
of 1 gram of water by 1 degree celsius
 ACIDS
• A substance that can donate a hydrogen ion (H+)
• A chemical that produces hydrogen ions in a
water solution is an acid.
• Ex. When HCl gas is added to water,
hydrochloric acid is formed.
• Acids have pH less than 7.0
• changes blue litmus paper to red (bra)
• Sour tasting
• generally fruits are acidic
 BASE
• Substance that can donate hydroxide ions (OH-1)
• A chemical that produces hydroxide ions in
water solution
• In aqueous solution, is slippery to the touch,
• With pOH greater than 7
• Changes red litmus paper to blue (rbb)
• taste astringent/bitter
• Generally vegetables are basic
 SALT
• Any chemical compound formed from the
reaction of an acid with a base, with all or
part of the hydrogen of the acid replaced
by a metal or other cation
 Organic Molecules of Cells
• Proteins
• Carbohydrates
• Lipids
• Nucleic acids
 Proteins
• Most diverse and complex macromolecules
in the cell
• Used for structure, function and information
• Made of linearly arranged amino acid
residues
– “folded” up with “active” regions
 Types of Proteins According
to Functions
1) Enzymes – catalyzes covalent bond breakage or
formation
2) Structural – collagen, elastin, keratin, etc.
3) Motility – actin, myosin, tubulin, etc.
4) Regulatory – bind to DNA to switch genes on or off
5) Storage – ovalbumin, casein, etc.
6) Hormonal – insulin, nerve growth factor (NGF), etc.
7) Receptors – hormone and neurotransmitter receptors
8) Transport – carries small molecules or irons
9) Special purpose proteins – green fluorescent protein, etc.
Humans have
around 30,000
genes.

Each cell has

the full set of the
human genes
but only makes
specific protein.
Why?

Implication in
tissue
engineering
 LIPIDS
– Are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (CHO)
however the ratio of hydrogen to oxygen atoms is greater
than 2:1.
– Lipids are greasy, oily, and waxy. They are hydrophobic
molecules
– Lipids are sources of energy
– The building blocks of lipids are 3 fatty acid and 1 glycerol
 Fatty Acids
– Composed of a long chain of carbon and hydrogen atoms
chemically bonded to a carboxyl group (consists of Carbon
atom linked to an oxygen atom and a hydroxyl (
-OH). It is represented as –COOH

GLYCEROL
- A 3-Carbon molecule that has a hydroxyl (-OH) group
attached to each carbon atom
 Fats, oils, waxes, sterols,
phosholipids are lipids
– .Fats are usually of animal origin
– Fats have single bonds between the carbon atoms of the
hydrocarbon chain.
– Lipids with single bonds between carbon atoms are
saturated lipids

– Oils are usually of plant origin. Oils have double bonds

between some carbon atoms of the hydrocarbon chain.
– Lipids with double bonds between carbon atoms are
unsaturated lipids
 Carbohydrates

• Sugars, storage (glycogen, starch), Structural

polymers (cellulose and chitin)
• Major substrates of energy metabolism
 Nucleic Acids
• DNA
(deoxyribonucleic
acid) and RNA
encode genetic
information for
synthesis of all
proteins
• Blue print of life
 Water Molecule
• Polarity of H2O allows H bonding
• Water disassociates into H+ and
OH-
• Imbalance of H+ and OH- give rise
to “acids and bases”
- Measured by the pH
• pH influence charges of amino
acid groups on protein, causing a
specific activity
• Buffering systems maintain
intracellular and extracellular pH
 Water Molecule
• Hydrophobic “Water-fearing”
– Molecule is not polar, cannot form H bonds
and is “repelled” from water
– Insoluble
• Hydrophillic “Water-loving”
– Molecule is polar, forms H bonds with water
– Soluble
Cell Membrane
 Cell Membrane Composition
• Plasma membrane encloses cell and cell
organelles
• Made of hydrophobic and hydrophillic
components
– Semi-permeable and fluid-like
– “lipid bilayer”
 Cell Membrane Composition
• Integral proteins interact with “lipid bilayer”
– Passive transport pores and channels
– Active transport pumps and carriers
– Membrane-linked enzymes, receptors and
transducers
• Sterols stabilize the lipid bilayer
– Cholesterol
Lipid Molecules
 Osmotic Properties of Cells
• Osmosis (Greek, osmos “to push”)
– Movement of water down its concentration
gradient
• Hydrostatic pressure
– Movement of water causes fluid mechanical
pressure
– Pressure gradient across a semi-permeable
membrane
Hydrostatic Pressure
 Donnan Equilibrium
Add Ions Deionized water

Semi-permeable Balanced charges among

membrane both sides
 Donnan Equilibrium
Add anion

More Cl- leaves I to

Diffusion balance charges
 Ionic Steady State
• Potaasium cations
most abundant
inside the cell
• Chloride anions
ions most abundant
outside the cell
• Sodium cations
most abundant
outside the cell
Donnan Equilibrium

[K+]i [Cl-]ii
=
[K+]ii [Cl-]i

A- A- A-
K+
Ca2+ K+ Na+
Na+
A- Cl- K+ Na+
 Erythrocyte Cell
Equilibrium
•No osmotic pressure
- cell is in an isotonic solution
- Water does not cross
membrane

•Increased [Osmotic] in cytoplasm

- cell is in an hypotonic solution
- Water enters cell, swelling

•Decreased [Osmotic] in cytoplasm

- cell is in an hypotonic solution
- Water leaves cell, shrinking
 Cell Lysis
• Using hypotonic
solution
• Or interfering with
Na+ equilibrium
causes cells to burst
• This can be used to
researchers’
advantage when
isolating cells
Molecules Related to Cell
Permeability
• Depends on
– Molecules size (electrolytes more
permeable)
– Polarity (hydrophillic)
– Charge (anion vs. cation)
– Water vs. lipid solubility
 Cell Permeability
• Passive transport is carrier mediated
– Facilitated diffusion
– Solute molecule combines with a “carrier” or
transporter
– Electrochemical gradients determines the
direction
– Integral membrane proteins form channels
 Crossing the Membrane
• Simple or passive diffusion
• Passive transport
– Channels or pores
• Facilitated transport
– Assisted by membrane-floating proteins
• Active transport pumps and carriers
– ATP is required
– Enzymes and reactions may be required
Modes of Transport
 Carrier-Mediated Transport
• Integral protein binds to the solute and undergo
a conformational change to transport the solute
across the membrane
Channel Mediated Transport
• Proteins form aqueous pores allowing specific
solutes to pass across the membrane
• Allow much faster transport than carrier proteins
 Coupled Transport
• Some solutes “go along for the ride” with a
carrier protien or an ionophore
Can also be a Channel
coupled transport
 Active Transport
• Three main mechanisms:
– coupled carriers: a solute is
driven uphill compensated
by a different solute being
transported downhill
(secondary)
– ATP-driven pump: uphill
transport is powered by ATP
hydrolysis (primary)
– Light-driven pump: uphill
transport is powered by
energy from photons
(bacteriorhodopsin)
 Active Transport
• Energy is required
 Na /K Pump
+ +

• Actively transport Na+ out of the cell and K+ into the cell

•Against their
electrochemical
gradients
•For every 3 ATP,
3 Na+ out, 2 K+ in
Na /K Pump
+ +

• Na+ exchange
(symport) is also
used in epithelial
cells in the gut to
drive the
absorption of
glucose from the
lumen, and
eventually into the
bloodstream (by
passive transport)
 Na /K Pump
+ +

• About 1/3 of ATP in an animal cell is used to

power sodium-potassium pumps

• In electrically active nerve

cells, which use Na+ and K+
gradients to propagate
electrical signals, up to 2/3 of
the ATP is used to power
these pumps
 Endocytosis and Exocytosis
• Exocytosis
- membrane vesicle fuses with cell
membrane, releases enclosed material to
extracellular space.
• Endocytosis
- cell membrane invaginates, pinches in,
creates vesicle enclosing contents
Receptor Mediated Endocytosis
 The Cytoskeleton
• The cytoskeleton, a component of structural
functions, is critical to cell motility.
• Cells have three types of filaments that are
distinguishable by the diameter.
• Actin filaments (microfilaments): 5-9 nm
diameter with twisted strands.
Intermediate Filaments: 9-nm diameter

Microtubules: hollow
tube-like structure
~ 24 nm diameter
 Cell Locomotion
Why do we care about cell
locomotion?
Host defense
Angiogenesis
Wound healing
Cancer metastasis
Tissue engineering

Steps:
Protrusion
Adhesion
Traction
• External signals must dictate the direction of cell
migration.
• Cell migration is initiated by the formation of large
membrane protrusion.
• Video microscopy showed that G-actin
polymerizes to F-actin. (Drugs can alter this
process).
• Actin exists as a globular monomer (G-actin) and;
A filamentous polymer (F-actin) protein.
• The addition of Mg2+, K+ or Na+ to a solution of G-
actin induces the formation of F-actin and this
process is reversible.
• Elastic mechanical property of actin filament.