Engineering Data

Analysis

ENGR. EARL EDRENE G. DILLA, CCpE

MATH
019A
 PRELIM TOPICS
1. OBTAINING DATA
1.1 Methods of Data Collection
1.2 Planning and Conducting
Surveys
1.3. Introduction to Design
Experiments
2. PROBABILITY
2.1 Relationship among Events MATH
019A
2.2 Rules of Probability
 PRELIM TOPICS
3. Discrete Probability Distribution
3.1 Random Variables
3.2 Cumulative Distribution
3.3 Binomial Distribution
3.4 Poisson Distribution
4. Continuous Probability
Distribution
4.1 Continuous Random Variables MATH
4.2 Normal and Exponential 019A

Distribution
 METHODS OF DATA
COLLECTION

Data collection is the process of gathering and

measuring information on variables of interest, in an
established systematic fashion that enables one to MATH
answer stated research questions, test hypotheses, 019A
and evaluate outcomes.
 TYPES OF DATA
1. PRIMARY DATA
data which are collected a fresh
and for the first time and thus
happen to be original in
character and known as PRIMARY
DATA.
2. SECONDARY DATA
data which have been collected by
someone else and which have already
MATH
been passed through the statistical 019A
process.
 METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION:
PRIMARY DATA

1. Observation
2. Interview
3. Questionnaire
4. Case Study
5. Survey

MATH
019A
 METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION: PRIMARY DATA

OBSERVATION
Observation method is a method
under which data from the field is
collected with the help of observation by
the observer or by personally going to the
field.

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Subjective bias Time consuming
eliminated
Current information Limited information
Independent to Unforeseen factors MATH
respondent’s variable 019A
 TYPES OF OBSERVATION
STRUCTURED and UNSTRUCTURED
1. Structured Observation
when observation is done by characterizing style of
recording the observed information, standardized
conditions of observation , definition of the units to
be observed , selection of pertinent data of
observation.
Example: An auditor performing inventory analysis in store

2. Unstructured Observation
when observation is done without any thought
before observation. MATH
019A
Example: Observing children playing with new toys.
 TYPES OF OBSERVATION
PARTICIPANT and NON-PARTICIPANT
1. Participant
when the Observer is member of the group which
he is observing.
Advantages: 1. Observation of natural behavior
2. Closeness with the group
3. Better understanding

2. Non-participant
when observer is observing people without giving
any information to them.
Advantages: 1. Objectivity and neutrality MATH
019A
2. More willingness of the respondent
 TYPES OF OBSERVATION
CONTROLLED and UNCONTROLLED
1. Controlled
when the observation takes place in natural
condition. It is done to get spontaneous picture of
life and persons.

2. Uncontrolled
when observation takes place according to
definite pre arranged plans , with experimental
procedure then it is controlled observation
generally done in laboratory under controlled
condition.
MATH
019A
 METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION: PRIMARY DATA

INTERVIEW METHOD
INTERVIEW METHOD
This method of collecting data
involves presentation or oral-
verbal stimuli and reply in
terms of oral-verbal responses.

Interview Method is an oral verbal communication

where interviewer asks questions (which are aimed
to get information required for study) to
respondent.
MATH
019A
 TYPES OF INTERVIEW
• Personal interviews : The interviewer asks
questions generally in a face to face contact to
the other person or persons.
• Structured interviews : in this case, a set of pre-
decided questions are there.
• Unstructured interviews : in this case, we don’t
follow a system of pre-determined questions.
• Focused interviews : attention is focused on the
given experience of the respondent and its possible
effects.
• Clinical interviews : concerned with broad
underlying feelings or motivations or with the course
of individual’s life experience, rather than with the MATH
019A
effects of the specific experience, as in the case of
focused interview.
 TYPES OF INTERVIEW
• Group interviews : a group of 6 to 8 individuals is
interviewed.
• Qualitative and quantitative interviews : divided
on the basis of subject matter i.e. whether
qualitative or quantitative.
• Individual interviews : interviewer meets a single
person and interviews him.
• Selection interviews : done for the selection of
people for certain jobs.
• Depth interviews : it deliberately aims to elicit
unconscious as well as other types of material
relating especially to personality dynamics and
motivations. MATH
019A
• Telephonic interviews : contacting samples on
telephone.
 METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION: PRIMARY DATA

QUESTIONNAIRE METHOD
QUESTIONNAIRE METHOD
This method of data collection is
quite popular, particularly in
case of big enquiries.

The questionnaire is mailed to respondents who are

expected to read and understand the questions
and write down the reply in the space meant for
the purpose in the questionnaire itself. The
respondents have to answer the questions on their
own. MATH
019A
 METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION: PRIMARY DATA

QUESTIONNAIRE METHOD
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

Low cost even if the Low rate of return of duly filled

geographical area is too large questionnaire.

Answers are in respondents word Slowest method of data

so free from bias. collection.

Adequate time to think for Difficult to know if the expected

answers. respondent have filled the form
or it is filled by someone else.
Non approachable respondents
may be conveniently contacted.

Large samples can be used so MATH

results are more reliable. 019A
 METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION: PRIMARY DATA

CASE STUDY METHOD

CASE STUDY METHOD is essentially
an intensive investigation of the
particular unit under
consideration.

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
They are less costly and less They are subject to selection
time-consuming; they are bias
advantageous when exposure
data is expensive or hard to
obtain.
They are advantageous when They generally do not allow MATH
studying dynamic populations in calculation of incidence 019A
which follow-up is difficult. (absolute risk).
 METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION: PRIMARY DATA

SURVEY METHOD
SURVEY METHOD is one of the
common methods of diagnosing
and solving of social problems is
that of undertaking surveys.

ADVANTAGES
Relatively easy to administer
Can be developed in less time
(compared to other data-
collection methods)
Cost-effective, but cost
depends on survey mode
DISADVANTAGES
Respondents may not feel
encouraged to provide
accurate, honest answers
Surveys with closed-ended
questions may have a lower
validity rate than other question
types. MATH
Data errors due to question non- 019A
responses may exist.
 SECONDAY DATA:
SOURCES OF DATA
• Publications of Central, state , local
government
• Technical and trade journals
• Books, Magazines, Newspaper
• Reports & publications of industry ,bank, stock
exchange
• Reports by research scholars, Universities,
economist
• Public Records

MATH
019A
FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED BEFORE USING
SECONDARY DATA

• Reliability of data – Who, when , which

methods, at what time etc.
• Suitability of data – Object ,scope, and
nature of original inquiry should be studied, as if
the study was with different objective then that
data is not suitable for current study
• Adequacy of data– Level of accuracy,
• Area differences then data is not adequate
for study

MATH
019A
 SELECTION OF PROPER METHOD FOR
COLLECTION OF DATA

• Nature ,Scope and object of inquiry

• Availability of Funds
• Time Factor
• Precision Required

MATH
019A
 DESIGNING A SURVEY

Surveys can take different forms. They can be used to

ask only one question or they can ask a series of
questions. We can use surveys to test out people’s
opinions or to test a hypothesis.

When designing a survey, the following steps are useful:

1. Determine the goal of your survey: What question do

you want to answer?
2. Identify the sample population: Whom will you
interview?
3. Choose an interviewing method: face-to-face
interview, phone interview, self-administered paper MATH
survey, or internet survey. 019A
 DESIGNING A SURVEY

4. Decide what questions you will ask in what

order, and how to phrase them. (This is important if
there is more than one piece of information you
are looking for.)

5. Conduct the interview and collect the

information.

6. Analyze the results by making graphs and

drawing conclusions.
MATH
019A
 DESIGNING A SURVEY

Example:
1. Martha wants to construct a survey that shows
which sports students at her school like to play the
most.

Step 1: List the goal of the survey

Step 2: What population should she interview?
Step 3: How should she administer the survey?
Step 4: Create a data collection sheet that she
can use to record her results
MATH
019A
 DESIGNING A SURVEY

Step 1: GOAL
The goal of the survey is to find the answer to the question:
“Which sports do students at Martha’s school like to play the
most?”

Step 2: POPULATION
A sample of the population would include a random sample
of the student population in Martha’s school. A good
strategy would be to randomly select students (using dice or
a random number generator) as they walk into an all-school
assembly.
MATH
019A
 DESIGNING A SURVEY

Step 3: METHODS
Face-to-face interviews are a good choice in this case.
Interviews will be easy to conduct since the survey consists of
only one question which can be quickly answered and
recorded, and asking the question face to face will help
eliminate non-response bias.

Step 4: DATA

MATH
019A
 DESIGNING A SURVEY

Example:
1. Juan wants to construct a survey that shows how
many hours per week the average student at his
school works.

Step 1: List the goal of the survey

Step 2: What population should she interview?
Step 3: How should she administer the survey?
Step 4: Create a data collection sheet that she
can use to record her results
MATH
019A
 DESIGNING A SURVEY

Step 1: GOAL
The goal of the survey is to find the answer to the question
“How many hours per week do you work?”

Step 2: POPULATION
Juan suspects that older students might work more hours per
week than younger students. He decides that a stratified
sample of the student population would be appropriate in
this case. The strata are grade levels 9th through 12th. He
would need to find out what proportion of the students in his
school are in each grade level, and then include the same
proportions in his sample.
MATH
019A
 DESIGNING A SURVEY

Step 3: METHODS
Face-to-face interviews are a good choice in this case since
the survey consists of two short questions which can be
quickly answered and recorded.

Step 4: DATA

MATH
019A
 THE BASIS OF CONDUCTING AN
EXPERIMENT
1. With an experiment, the researcher is trying to learn
something new about the world, an explanation of 'why'
something happens.

2. The experiment must maintain internal and external

validity, or the results will be useless.

3. When designing an experiment, a researcher must

follow all of the steps of the scientific method, from
making sure that the hypothesis is valid and testable, to
using controls and statistical tests

MATH
019A
PROBABILITY
SAMPLE SPACE
The set of all possible outcomes of a statistical experiment is called the
sample space and is represented by the symbol S.

ELEMENT
Each outcome in a sample space is called an element or a member of
the sample space.

Example #1:
Consider the experiment of tossing a die. If we are interested in the
number that shows on the top face, the sample space would be
MATH
019A
S = {1,2,3,4,5,6}
PROBABILITY | Sample Spaces & Events
Example #2:
An experiment consists of flipping a coin and then flipping it a second time
if a head occurs. If a tail occurs on the first, flip, then a die is tossed once.
To list the elements of the sample space providing the most information, we
construct the tree diagram
S = {HH, HT, T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, T6}

MATH
019A
PROBABILITY | Sample Spaces & Events
EVENT
Is any collection of sample points called subset of a sample space

Example #3. An experiment that tosses a coin 3 times.

S = {HHH, HHT, HTH, HTT, THH, THT, TTH, TTT}
A = event that has at least 1 head
B = event that has at most 1 head

EA = {HHH, HHT, HTH, HTT, THH, THT, TTH}

EB = {HTT, THT, TTH, TTT}

MATH
019A
PROBABILITY | Basic Rules
1. The complement of an event A with respect to S is the subset of all
elements of S that are not in A. We denote the complement of A by the
symbol A’.
2. The intersection of two events A and B, denoted by the symbol
A ∩ B, is the event containing all elements that are common to A and
B.
3. Two event A and B are mutually exclusive, or disjoint, if A ∩ B = Ø
that is, A and B have no elements in common.
4. The union of events A and B, denoted by A∪B, is the event containing
all the elements that belong to A or B or both.

S = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10}
A = {1,3,5,8,9}
MATH
B = {1,4,6,8,10} 019A
PROBABILITY | Basic Rules
Example #4.
If M = {x | 3 < x < 9} and N= {y | 5 < y < 12}, then
M U N = {z | 3 < z < 12}

VENN DIAGRAMS
A∩B=
B∩C =
A∪C=
B’ ∩ A =
A∩B∩C=
(A ∪ B) ∪ C =

MATH
019A
Counting Sample Points
1st Rule: If operations can be performed in n ways, and if for each of these
ways a second operation can be performed in n2 ways, then two operations
can be performed in n1n2 ways

Example#1:
How many 4-digit even number can be formed from 0, 1, 2, 5, 6, and 9 if
each digit can be used only once?

2nd Rule: The number of permutations of n objects is n!

**A permutation is an arrangement of all or part of a set of objects.

Example#2:
The number of permutations of letters a,b,c,d. MATH
019A
Counting Sample Points
3rd Rule: The number of permutation of n distinct object taken r at a time is
݊!
݊ܲ‫= ݎ‬
݊ −‫! ݎ‬
Example #3:
In one year, three awards (research, teaching, and service) will be given for
a class of 25 graduate students in a statistics department. If each student
can receive at most one award, how many possible selections are there?

Example #4:
A president and a treasurer are to be chosen from a student club consisting
of 50 people. How many different choices of officers are possible if
(a) there are no restrictions;
(b) A will serve only if he is president;
MATH
(c) B and C will serve together or not at all: 019A
(d) D and E will not serve together?
Counting Sample Points
4th Rule: The number of distinct permutations of n things of which n1 are
one of a kind, n2 of a second kind, …, nk of nth kind is

݊!
݊1! ݊2! … ݊݇!
Example#5: In a college football training session, the defensive coordinator
needs to have 10 players standing in a row. Among these 10 players, there
are 1 freshman, 2 sophomores, 4 juniors, and 3 seniors, respectively. How
many different ways can they be arranged in a row if only their class level
will be distinguished?

MATH
019A
Counting Sample Points
5th Rule: The number of combinations of n distinct objects taken r at a time
is

݊!
‫ ݊! ݎ‬− ‫! ݎ‬

Example#6: A young boy asks his mother to get five Game-BoyTM

cartridges from his collection of 10 arcade and 5 sports games. How many
ways are there that his mother will get 3 arcade and 2 sports games,
respectively?

MATH
019A
SW#1(Prelim)
1. If S = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} and
A = {0, 2, 4, 6, 8}
B = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}
C = {2, 3, 4, 5}
D = {1, 6, 7}, list all the elements of the sets corresponding
to the following events:
a. A ∪ C
b. A ∩ B
c. C’
d. (C’∩ D) ∪ B
e. (S ∩ C)’
f. A ∩ C ∩ D’
MATH
019A
Draw venn diagram for each item.
SW#1(Prelim)
2. The resumes of 2 male applicants for a college teaching position in chemistry are
placed in the same file as the resumes of 2 female applicants. Two positions become
available and the first, at the rank of assistant professor, is filled by selecting 1 of the 4
applicants at random. The second position, at the rank of instructor, is then filled by
selecting at random one of the remaining 3 applicants. Using the notation M2F1, for
example, to denote the simple event that the first position is filled by the second male
applicant and the second position is then filled by the first female applicant,

(a) list the elements of a sample space S;

(b) list the elements of S corresponding to event A that the position of assistant
professor is filled by a male applicant;
(c) list the elements of S corresponding to event B that exactly 1 of the 2 positions was
filled by a male applicant;
(d) list the elements of S corresponding to event C that neither position was filled by a
male applicant;
(e) list the elements of S corresponding to the event A ∩ B ;
(f) list the elements of S corresponding to the event A ∪ C: MATH
019A
(g) construct a Venn diagram to illustrate the intersections and unions of the events A,
B, and C.
SW#2 (Prelim)
1. (a) In how many ways can 6 people be lined up to get on a bus?
(b) If 3 specific persons, among 6, insist on following each other, how many ways
are possible?
(c) If 2 specific persons, among 6, refuse to follow each other, how many ways
are possible?

2. (a) How many three-digit numbers can be formed from the digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
and 6, if each digit can be used only once?
(b) How many of these are odd numbers?
(c) How many are greater than 330?

3. If a multiple-choice test consists of 5 questions each with 4 possible answers of

which only 1 is correct,
(a) In how many different ways can a student check off one answer to each
question?
(b) In how many different ways can a student check off one answer to each
question and get all the answers wrong?
MATH
4. Nine people are going on a skiing trip in 3 cars that hold 2, 4 and 5 passengers,
respectively. In how many ways is it possible to transport 9 people to the ski lodge, 019A
using all cars?
Random Variables and Probability Distribution
A random variable is a function that associate a real number with each
element in the sample space.
X denotes a random variable
x denotes its cases

Types:
1. Discrete – if a sample space contains finite number of possibilities
2. Continuous – if a sample space contains infinite number of possibilities

Examples:
1. Number of automobiles accidents per year in Q.C.
2. Length of time to play 15 holes of golf
3. Amount of milk produced yearly by a particular cow
4. Number of eggs laid each month by a hen MATH
5. Length of grain produced per hectare. 019A
Discrete Probability Distribution
- A discrete random variable assumes each of its values with a certain
possibility.
- The set of ordered pairs (x, f(x)) is a probability function, probability mass
function or probability distribution.
1. f(x) ≥ 0
‫= ݔ‬௫ ݂ 1∑. 2
P(X=x) = f(x) .3

Example:
8 computers Find: the probability distribution of the number of
3 out of 8 defectives defectives
Randomly get 2 computers
MATH
019A
Cumulative Distribution Function
The cumulative distribution function F(x) of a discrete random variable x
with probability distribution f(x) is

∞+<for -∞<t ,)‫(ݐ‬F(x) = P(X≤x) = ∑௧ஸ௫ ݂

Example:
Find the cdf of a random variable x using F(x), verify that f(2) = 3/8
Given: f(0) = 1/16 f(2) = 3/8 f(5) = 1/16
f(1) = 1/4 f(3) = 1/4

MATH
019A
Cumulative Distribution Function

MATH
019A
 SW#3 (Prelim)
1. Given the probability distribution:

Construct a cumulative distribution function of X and represent it through a

graph.

2. 7 television set contains 2 defective sets. A consumer makes a random

purchase of 3 of the sets. If X represents the number of defective sets
purchased, find
a. the probability distribution of X. Express the results graphically
as a probability histogram.
b. the cumulative distribution function of the random variable X.
Express the results graphically. MATH
c. P(X = 1); 019A
d. P(0 < X ≤ 2)
 SW#3 (Prelim)
3. 60% of people who purchase sports cars are men. If 10 sports car owners
are randomly selected, find the probability that exactly 7 are men.

4. A quality control engineer is in charge of testing whether or not 90% of the

DVD players produced by his company conform to specifications. To do this,
the engineer randomly selects a batch of 12 DVD players from each day’s
production. The day’s production is acceptable provided no more than 1 DVD
player fails to meet specifications. Otherwise, the entire day’s production has
to be tested.

(i) What is the probability that the engineer incorrectly passes a day’s
production as acceptable if only 80% of the day’s DVD players actually
conform to specification?
(ii) What is the probability that the engineer unnecessarily requires the entire MATH
019A
day’s production to be tested if in fact 90% of the DVD players conform to
specifications?
Joint Probability Distribution
- If X and Y are two discrete random variables, the probability distribution
for their simultaneous occurrence can be represented by a function with
values f(x,y) for any pair values of (x,y) within the range of the random
variables X and Y.
- The function f(x,y) is a joint probability distribution of probability mass
function of the discrete random variables X and Y
1. f(x,y) ≥ 0 for all (x,y)
‫ ݔ‬,‫ = ݕ‬௫ . ∑௬ 1 ∑ . 2
3. P(X = x, Y = y) = f(x,y)
for any region A, in the xy plane
)‫ݔ‬, ‫(ݕ‬P(X,Y) ∈ A = ∑ ∑஺ ݂

MATH
019A
Joint Probability Distribution
Examples
1. A box contains 3 blue, 2 red, and 3 green refills. You are asked to get
two random refills at a time. Find:
a. f(x,y) if X = blue and Y = red
b. P[(X,Y) ∈ A] if the region is given by: {x| x+y ≤ 1}
2. The joint probability distribution of X and Y is given by:
X
f(x,y) 0 1 2 3
0 0 1/30 2/30 3/30
y 1 1/30 2/30 3/30 4/30
2 2/30 3/30 4/30 5/30
Find:
a. P(X≤2, Y = 1) c. P(X>Y) MATH
019A
b. P(X>2, Y ≤ 1) d. P(X+Y = 4)
Joint Probability Distribution
3. A sack of fruit contains 3 oranges, 2 apples, and 3 bananas. A random
sample of 4 pieces of fruit is selected. Find the joint probability distribution
if X = oranges and Y = apples

MATH
019A