Air Compressors

The machine which takes in air or any other gas at low pressure and
compresses it to high pressure are called compressors.
A compressor used for increasing the pressure of air is called as an air
compressor.
They are power consuming machines in which mechanical work is
converted into the pressure head of air or gas.
Air Compressor –
1) Takes in atmospheric air,
2) Compresses it, and
3) Delivers it to a storage vessel i.e. Reservoir.
Generally, the compressors are driven by Prime Movers(Electric motors,
I.C. Engines or Gas Turbines).
Applications of Air Compressors:
• Painting vehicles in an auto body shop.
• Adding air to tires on bikes and on vehicles
• Using various pneumatic tools
• In dental and medical services
• Using an air blowgun to clean machinery
• In pneumatic control system valves

Working principle of air compressors:

https://youtu.be/bJluUxA7aaY
Classification
 Positive Displacement Compressors

Positive displacement compressors causes movement by trapping a fixed

amount of air then forcing (displacing) that trapped volume into the
discharge pipe.

It can be further classified according to the mechanism used to move air.

1.Rotary Compressor
2.Reciprocating compressor
Rotary Air Compressors
• The gas is compressed by the rotating action Of a roller inside a cylinder.

• The roller rotates off-centre around a shaft so that part of the roller is
always in contact with The cylinder.

• Volume of the gas occupies is reduced and the air is compressed.

• High efficient as sucking and compressing air occur simultaneously.

Working of Rotary Air Compressors:

Youtube: https://youtu.be/b93GSe-xgqI
Reciprocating Compressors
It is a positive-displacement compressor that

•1.Uses pistons driven by a crankshaft to Deliver gases at high pressure.

•2.The intake gas enters the suction manifold, Then flows into the
compression cylinder.

•3.It gets compressed by a piston driven in a reciprocating motion via a

crankshaft.

•4.Discharged at higher pressure.

Working of Reciprocating Compressors

Youtube : https://youtu.be/kFQu9uoZWKg
Positive Displacement Compressors
 Pumps
A pump moves liquids or gases from a lower pressure to a higher
pressure and is responsible for this difference in pressure.
The classification of pumps according to operating principle is
shown below
Reciprocating Pumps
The reciprocating pump is a positive displacement pump that
sucks and raises the liquid by displacing it with a piston/plunger
that executes a reciprocating motion in a closely fitting cylinder.
The amount of liquid pumped is equal to the volume displaced by
the piston.
The pumps designed with disk pistons create pressures upto 25
bar and the plunger pumps built up still higher pressures.
Discharge from these pumps is almost wholly dependent on the
pump speed.
MAIN COMPONENTS

1. Cylinder
2. Piston
3. Suction valve
4. Delivery valve
5. Suction pipe
6. Delivery pipe
7. Crank and connecting rod mechanism operated by a power
source e.g. steam engine, internal combustion engine or an
electric motor
Working principles:
The pump operates as follows:
—Let us suppose that initially the crank is
at the inner dead centre (I.D.C.) and crank
rotates in the clockwise direction. As the
crank rotates, the piston moves towards
right and a vacuum is created on the left
side of the piston. This vacuum causes
suction valve to open and consequently the
liquid is forced from the sump into the left
side of the piston. When the crank is at the
outer dead centre (O.D.C) the suction
stroke is completed and the left side of the
cylinder is full of liquid.
When the crank further turns
from O.D.C to I.D.C., the piston
moves inward to the left and high
pressure is built up in the
cylinder. The delivery valve
opens and the liquid is forced into
the delivery pipe. The liquid is
carried to the discharge tank
through the delivery pipe. At the
end of delivery stroke the crank
comes to the I.D.C and the piston
is at the extreme left position
Youtube:
1. https://youtu.be/41vb6T42_Tk
2. https://youtu.be/fHLkZV2_Cb4
Uses
• Reciprocating pumps are positive displacement type pump are
mainly used where high pressure is required more than
discharge. These are used in various places like:
• In oil and gas industries.
• petrochemical and refinery industries.
• As a feed water pump in boiler because high pressure water is
required.
• Hilly areas and also in agriculture
Centrifugal pumps
• A centrifugal pump is a pump which raises the water from a
lower level to a higher level by the action of centrifugal force.

COMPONENT PARTS OF A CENTRIFUGAL PUMP

1. Impeller :a wheel (or rotor) with a series of backward curved vanes (or blades). It is mounted
on a shaft which is usually coupled to an electric motor.

2. Casing :The casing is an airtight chamber surrounding the pump impeller. It contains suction
and discharge arrangements, supporting for bearings, and facilitates to house the rotor
assembly. The essential purposes of the casing are:
(i) To guide water to and from the impeller
(ii) To partially convert the kinetic energy into pressure energy
3.Suction pipe.
The pipe which connects the centre/eye of the
impeller to sump from which liquid is to be
lifted is known as suction pipe. To prevent the
entry of solid particles, debris etc. the suction
pipe is provided with a strainer at its lower
end. The lower end of the pipe is also fitted
with a non-return foot valve which does not
permit the liquid to drain out of the suction
pipe when pump is not working; this also
helps in priming

4.Delivery pipe:
The pipe which is connected at its lower end
to the outlet of the pump and it delivers the
liquid to the required height is known as
delivery pipe.
A regulating valve is provided on the delivery
pipe to regulate the supply of water
Working principle of centrifugal pump
• The first step in the operation of a centrifugal pump is priming. Priming is the operation in which suction pipe casing of
the pump and the position of fluid with the liquid which is to be pumped so that all the air from the position of pump is
driven out and no air is left.
• After the pump is primed the delivery valve is still kept closed and electric motor is started to rotate the impeller
• After the impeller attains the normal speed the delivery valve is opened.when the liquid is continuously sucked (from
sump well) up the suction pipe, it passes through the eye of casing and enters the impeller at its center. This liquid is
impelled out by the rotating vanes and it comes out at the outlet tips of the vanes into the casing. Due to impeller action
the pressure head as well as velocity heads of the liquid are increased (some of this velocity heads is converted into
pressure head in the casing and in the diffuser blades/vanes if they are also provided).
• From casing, the liquid passes into pipe and is lifted to the required height (and discharged from the outlet or upper
end of the delivery pipe)

• https://youtu.be/IiE8skW8btE
• https://youtu.be/BaEHVpKc-1Q
• https://youtu.be/DmJCDOTIDRY
Uses
• Oil refineries and power plants.
• Municipal water applications.
• They are used to move the general water supply from the pressure main in
cases where a little or no suction lift is required.
• They can also be used for boiler feed applications, wastewater
management, flood protection, drainage and irrigation.
Work done by the Pump
 Boilers
The equipment used for producing and transferring steam is called
Steam generators/ Boilers.
Principle of Steam Generators/ Boilers:

The fluid (water) contained in the boiler called shell and the thermal energy
released during combustion of fuel, which may be solid, liquid or gaseous, is
transferred to water and this converts water into steam at the desired
temperature and pressure.
A closed vessel in which steam is produced from water by combustion of
fuel
Purpose of boilers
•For generating power in steam engines or
• steam turbines
•In textile industries for sizing and bleaching
•For heating the buildings in cold weather
Boiler classifications
The boiler may be classified as :

1. Horizontal, vertical or inclined

2. Fire tube & water tube
3. Externally fired & internally fired
4. Forced circulation & internally fired
5. High pressure & low pressure
6. Forced circulation & natural circulation
7. Stationary & portable
8. Single tube & multi tube boilers
1. Horizontal , vertical or inclined

If the axis of boiler is horizontal, the boiler is

called horizontal.
If the axis is vertical then it is called vertical.
If the axis is inclined then it is called inclined.

Advantage of horizontal boiler:

a. it can be repaired easily.
b. occupies less floor area
2. Fire tube & water tube boiler
In the fire tube boiler the hot gases
are inside the
tubes & the water surrounds in the
tube.
ex. Cochran, locomotive etc.

In the water tube boiler the water is

inside the
tube & the hot gases are surround
them.
ex. Stirling

Video :https://youtu.be/0fley-DLWyc
3. Externally & internally fired
The boiler is known as externally
fired if the fire is
outside the shell.
ex. Babcock & wilcox

In case of internally fired boilers, the

furnace is located
inside the boiler shell.
ex: cochran, lancashire etc
4. Forced circulation & natural circulation
In forced circulation type of
boilers the circulation of
water is done by forced
pumps.
ex. Velox,lamont .

In natural circulation type of

boiler the circulation of
water in boiler takes place
due to natural convention.
ex. Lancashire, babcock
5.High pressure & low pressure boilers
The boilers which produce steam at
pressure of
80 bar and above are called high
pressure boiler.
ex. Velox

The boiler which produce steam at

pressure
below 80 bar are called low pressure
boiler.
ex. cochran
7. Single tube multi-tube boilers
The fire tube boilers are
classified as single tube
& multi tube boilers,
depending upon the fire
tube is one more than
one.
Ex: cornish boiler
Boiler terms
• Shell: Consists of one or more steel plates bent into a cylindrical form and riveted
or welded together. The shell ends are closed with end plates
• Setting: The primary function of setting is to confine heat to the boiler and form a
passage for gases. It is made of brick work and may form the wall of the furnace
and combustion chamber
• Grate: it is a platform in the furnace upon which fuel is burnt
• Furnace: it is the chamber formed by the space above the grate and below the
boiler shell, in which combustion takes place.
• Water space and steam space: the volume of the shell that is occupied by the
water is termed as water space while the entire shell volume less the water and
tubes is called steam space
• Mountings: The items which are used for safety of boiler are called mountings
• Accessories: The items which are used for increasing the boiler efficiency are
called accessories
• Water level: The level at which water stands in the boiler is called water level
• Refractory: insulation material used for lining combustion chamber
• Foaming: Formation of steam bubbles on the surface of boiler water due
to high surface tension of water
• Scale: A deposit of medium due to extreme hardness occurring on the
water heating surfaces of boiler because of an undesirable condition in the
boiler water
• Blowing off: The removal of mud and other impurities of water from the
lowest part of the boiler. Accomplished with the help of blow off cock or
valve
• Lagging: Insulation wrapped on the outside of the boiler shell or steam
piping
Boiler mountings
Mainly seven (7) mountings are required and essential to a Boiler:
1.Water level indicator. (Water gauge)
2.Main steam stop valve.
3.Pressuregauge.
4.Feed check valve.
5.Fusibleplug.
6.Blow down valve. (Blow off cock)
7.Safetyvalve
Water Level indicator
Water Level Indicator
Function:Indicates the water level
in the drum
•. The maximum &minimum level
is indicated on that.
Location:
•Placed on the boiler shell. One
end is placed in the steam space
&other end is placed on water
space.
Safety Valves
Function:
•The valve is opened when the steam pressure in
the boiler exceeds the set pressure, The excess
steam goes out from the boiler till pressure is
reached to set pressure.
Location:
•placed on the upper part of the boiler shell. Its end
is placed in the steam space. There are four types
of safety valves:
1.Dead Weight safety valve
2.Lever Loaded Safety valve
3.Spring Loaded Safety valve
4.High Steam& Low Safety Water Safety valve
Pressure Gauge
Function:
•It indicates the Steam pressure in
boiler.
Location:
•Mostly placed on the top of the boiler.
It is fitted in such a way that it can be
read from the ground. One end is in
the steam space.
Fusible plug
Function:
It is use to protect the boil
against damage due to
overheating caused by low
water level in the boiler.

Location:
It is fitted in the crown plate in
the case of fire tube boiler or
on the furnace from where,
steam is in direct contact.
Feed Check Valve
Function:
•To control the feed water.
The feed water entering back
to pump is prevented by this
valve.
Location:
•Opposite side of the boiler or
at the bottom it is fitted. It is
fitted at the end of the line
from where feed water is
entering to boiler.
Steam stop valve
Function
It regulate the flow of steam
from boiler to the steam
pipe or from one steam pipe
to the other.

Location
Fitted on the top of the
boiler shell
Blow off cock
Function:
•To improve salt, mud &
other impurities from the
boiler. It is also used to
empty the boiler at the
time of inspection.
Location:
•It is placed at the bottom
pipe or is fitted on elbow
pipe.
Boiler accessories
• Feed water pump
• Injector
• Economiser
• Air pre heater
• Super heater
• Steam drier or separator
• Feed water pump
Function:
To pump water into the boiler from the water source.

• Injector:
Function of the injector is the same as that of feed pump i.e.; to deliver feed
water to boiler under pressure

• Economiser:
a considerable quantity of heat of the plant is carried away by flue gases, so
to utilise these waste heat. An economiser is placed in the path of the flue
gases to preheat the feed water.

• Air pre –heater:

the function of the pre-heater is to heat the air before it enters the
combustion chamber.
• Super heater:
super pre-heater is used for stationary boiler. The function of the super
heater is to convert dry saturated steam into super heated at the desired
temperature
• Steam drier:
the function of the steam drier or separator is to separate water particles
from steam before it is supplied to the point of application
 Steam engine
A steam engine is an external combustion heat engine that
makes use of the thermal energy that exists in steam, converting it
to mechanical work.
Development of steam engine
Newcomen Atmospheric
Engine
Thomas Newcomen (1663-1729), a blacksmith,
experimented for 10 years to develop the first truly
successful steam engine to drive a pump to remove
water from mines. His ability to sell the engine was
hampered by Savery's broad patent. He was forced to
establish a firm with Savery, despite the improved
performance of his engine, the significant mechanical
differences, the elimination of the need for steam
pressure, and the use of vacuum in a very different
manner. A schematic of a Newcomen engine is shown.
The engine is called an "atmospheric" engine because
the greatest steam pressure used is near atmospheric
pressure.

Video : https://youtu.be/GMgP-
4O99qU
Watt Atmospheric Steam Engine
Newcomen engines were extremely inefficient. The users recognized
how much energy was needed. The steam cylinder was heated and
cooled repeatedly, which wasted energy to reheat the steel, and also
caused large thermal stresses. James Watt (1736-1819) made a
breakthrough development by using a separate condenser. Watt
discovered the separate condenser in 1765. It took 11 years before he
saw the device in practice! The greatest impediment to the
implementation of the Watt engine was the technology to make a large
piston/cylinder with close enough tolerances so that they would seal a
moderate vacuum. The technology improved about the same time that
Watt found the financial backing that he needed through a partnership
with Matthew Boulton.
Principle of operation: The Watt engine, like the Newcomen engine,
operated on the principle of a pressure difference created by a vacuum
on one side of the piston to push the steam piston down. However,
Watt's steam cylinder remained hot at all times. Valves permitted the
steam to flow into a separate condenser and then condensate was
pumped along with any gases using the air pump.

Video: https://youtu.be/1jVOTBZWkY4
The Double-acting Piston and the Rotative Engine
Watt and Boulton successfully applied their engine to pumping
water from wells. Boulton was an industrialist of great vision,
and took advantage of the opportunity to apply the engine to
other industries. Moving the steam engine indoors, the device
became useful for operating mills and textile factories, etc.
The engine pictured is an example of an engine from the late
1700s. Note the chain that connected the piston to the beam
in earlier engines has been replaced with a parallel motion
mechanism. Watt told his son that he was even more proud of
this invention than he was of the engine itself. The mechanism
made it possible for the piston to act in a perfectly aligned
up/down motion while the beam traced an arc. The
mechanism also made it possible to transfer work in the
upward stroke! Steam is finally doing work by pushing
upwards! The boilers used for this device are also
atmospheric pressure boilers. The cylinder space above the
piston is connected to the condenser vacuum in order to
permit the steam to push up the piston.
Video : https://youtu.be/5O_fxquO9gE
Types of steam engine
Steam engines can be classified in two main ways:
By the technology used.
Most steam engines use either
1.piston engines or
2.Turbines

By the application.
Steam engines are used as:

Stationary engines. Stationary steam engines again divide into two main classes:
1. Winding engines, rolling mill engines, and similar applications which need to frequently stop and reverse.
2.Engines providing power, which stop rarely and do not need to reverse. These include nearly all thermal power stations, and
were also used in mills, factories and to power cable railways and cable tramways before the widespread use of electric power
Vehicle engines:
1.Steamboats and steamships.
2.Land vehicles:
Steam locomotives
Steam cars.
Steam rollers.
Traction engines.
Steam rocket cars
How it works
This diagram shows the major components of a piston
steam engine. This sort of engine would be typical in a
steam locomotive.

The engine shown is a double-acting steam engine

because the valve allows high-pressure steam to act
alternately on both faces of the piston. The following video
shows the engine in action.

You can see that the slide valve is in charge of letting the
high-pressure steam into either side of the cylinder. The
control rod for the valve is usually hooked into a linkage
attached to the cross-head, so that the motion of the cross
-head slides the valve as well. (On a steam locomotive, this
linkage also allows the engineer to put the train into reverse.)

You can see in this diagram that the exhaust steam simply
vents out into the air.

Video : https://youtu.be/9mhYnQGZJuM
Video : https://youtu.be/xnClSss50pI
Steam engine boilers:
• The high-pressure steam for a steam engine
comes from a boiler. The boiler's job is to apply
heat to water to create steam. There are two
approaches: fire tube and water tube.
• A fire-tube boiler was more common in the
1800s. It consists of a tank of water perforated
with pipes. The hot gases from a coal or wood fire
run through the pipes to heat the water in the
tank, as shown here:
• In a fire-tube boiler, the entire tank is under
pressure, so if the tank bursts it creates a major
explosion
• Video : https://youtu.be/qtFhLgti6gg
• More common today are water-tube
boilers, in which water runs through a
rack of tubes that are positioned in the
hot gases from the fire. The following
simplified diagram shows you a typical
layout for a water-tube boiler.

• Video : https://youtu.be/2IXu4ljuGf8
Use cases:
• Steam engines were used in pumps, locomotives, steam ships and steam
tractors, and were essential to the Industrial Revolution.
• They are still used for electrical power generation using steam turbine
Petrol and Diesel Engines
Basics:
• A four-stroke engine:
• Is an internal combustion engine
• Converts gasoline into motion
• Is the most common car engine type
• Is relatively efficient
• Is relatively inexpensive
 PETROL ENGINE
• A petrol engine is an internal combustion
engine with spark-ignition, designed to
run on petrol (gasoline) and similar
volatile fuels.
• It was invented in 1876 in Germany by
German inventor Nikolaus August Otto.
• The process differs from a diesel engine
in the method of mixing the fuel and air,
and in using spark plugs to initiate the
combustion process.
• Video : https://youtu.be/48Ndak7Wb64
Four Stroke Cycle of Petrol Engine
• Intake
• Compression
• Power
• Exhaust
Intake Stroke
• Intake valve open
• Piston moves down, ½ turn of
crankshaft.
• A vacuum is created in the
cylinder.
• Atmospheric pressure pushes the
air/fuel mixture into the cylinder
Compression Stroke
• Valves close.
• Piston moves up, ½ turn of
crankshaft.
• Air/fuel mixture is
compressed
• Fuel starts to vaporize and
heat begins to build
Power Stroke
• Valves remain closed.
• Spark plug fires igniting fuel
mixture.
• Piston moves down, ½ turn of
crankshaft.
• Heat is converted to
mechanical energy.
Exhaust Stroke
• Exhaust valve opens
• Piston move up,
crankshaft makes ½ turn.
• Exhaust gases are pushed
out polluting the
atmosphere.
Diesel engine
• Invented by Rudolf Diesel
• The diesel engine (also known as a
compression-ignition engine) is an
internal combustion engine.
• in which ignition of the fuel that has
been injected into the combustion
chamber by injector.
• It has the highest thermal efficiency due
to its very high compression ratio.
• Video :https://youtu.be/DZt5xU44IfQ
Intake Stroke
• Piston moves from TDC to BDC
creating vacuum in the cylinder
• Intake valve opens allowing only
air to enter the cylinder and
exhaust valve remains closed
Compression Stroke
• Both valves stay closed
• Piston moves from BDC to TDC,
compressing air to 22:1
• Compressing the air to this
extent increases the temperature
inside the cylinder to above 1000
degree F.
Power Stroke
• Both valves stay closed
• When the piston is at the end of
compression stroke(TDC) the injector
sprays a mist of diesel fuel into the cylinder.
• When hot air mixes with diesel fuel an
explosion takes place in the cylinder.
• Expanding gases push the piston from TDC
to BDC
Exhaust Stroke
• Piston moves from BDC to TDC
• Exhaust valve opens and the
exhaust gases escape
• Intake valve remains closed
 Difference Between Petrol and Diesel Engine
https://youtu.be/bZUoLo5t7kg
Diesel Engine Petrol Engine

These engines work on the Diesel cycle Works on the Otto cycle

The fuel is mixed with air inside the cylinder Air and the fuel are mixed in a carburettor

Ignition is achieved with the help of the hot, compressed

Fuel is ignited with an electric spark
air.

High compression ratio Relatively low compression ratio

High power production Relatively low amounts of power are produced in a Petrol engine

These engines work with fuels that have low volatilities Highly volatile fuels are used in these internal combustion engines

Generally used in heavy vehicles such as trucks and

Used in light vehicles such as motorcycles and cars.
buses

Relatively low fuel consumption High fuel consumption.

High initial and maintenance costs Comparatively low initial cost and maintenance cost
 Gas Turbine
A gas turbine, also called a
combustion turbine, is a type of
internal combustion engine. It has an
upstream rotating compressor
coupled to a downstream turbine,
and a combustion chamber in-
between.
THEORY OF OPERATION
• The compressor, which draws air into the engine,
pressurizes it, and feeds it to the combustion
chamber at speeds of hundreds of miles per hour.

• The combustion system, typically made up of a

ring of fuel injectors that inject a steady stream of
fuel into combustion chambers where it mixes with
the air. The mixture is burned at temperatures of
more than 2000 degrees F. The combustion
produces a high temperature, high pressure gas
stream that enters and expands through the turbine
section.

• The turbine is an intricate array of alternate stationary and rotating aero foil-section
blades. As hot combustion gas expands through the turbine, it spins the rotating blades.
The rotating blades perform a dual function: they drive the compressor to draw more
pressurized air into the combustion section, and they spin a generator to produce
electricity.
BRAYTON CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE FOR
GAS-TURBINE ENGINES
• The Brayton cycle was first proposed by George Brayton for use in the reciprocating oil-
burning engine that he developed around 1870. Today, it is used for gas turbines only
where both the compression and expansion processes take place in rotating machinery
• Gas turbines usually operate on an open cycle, as
shown in Fig. 9–29. Fresh air at ambient conditions
is drawn in to the compressor, where its
temperature and pressure are raised. The high-
pressure air proceeds into the combustion
chamber, where the fuel is burned at constant
pressure. The resulting high-temperature gases
then enter the tur-bine, where they expand to the
atmospheric pressure while producing power. The
exhaust gases leaving the turbine are thrown out
(not recirculated), causing the cycle to be classified
as an open cycle.
• Video : https://youtu.be/BUn5-0VG3Hw