Chapter -01

Reproduction in Organisms

Life Span: The period which begins from birth and ends with the
natural death of an organism is known as its life span.

Reproduction is an important biological process by which an

organism will give rise to another organism similar to itself.
Some basic facts about reproduction are discussed below.

 Reproduction is the process that ensures that species are continued from
generation to generation. It leads to the development of genetic
vavariation.

 This variation in genetics is inherited during reproduction.

 Reproduction in which only one parent is called asexual.

 Reproduction in which two parents of the opposite sex are involved in the
fusion of male and female gametes is known as sexual reproduction.

Asexual Reproduction Sexual Reproduction

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

 In this asexual reproduction, only one parent participates in producing the

offspring. As a result, the offspring produced are identical to each other and
also to the parents.

 Asexual reproduction is most commonly seen in unicellular organisms, as

well as in plants and animals with relatively simple organizations. It is also
seen in organisms that are multicellular.

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS

The most commonly seen modes of asexual reproduction in the case of animals
are as follows:
1. Fission:

 Fission, commonly known as binary fission, takes place in prokaryotic

microorganisms and a few multicellular organisms too.

 After a growth period, the organism is split into independent organisms. Some
single-celled eukaryotes go through binary division via mitosis.

 In different organisms, part of an individual is separated and a second

individual is formed.

 For example, in lots of asteroid echinoderms, this technique takes place while
the central disk separates.

 Some sea anemones and a few polyps also reproduce via division.

 In some cases, it is seen that the nucleus divides several times by amitotic
divisions. This leads to the formation of several new copies of nuclei.
Cytoplasmic division does not take place during this time. The cytoplasm will
accumulate around each nucleus. Therefore, many unicellular and seedless
offspring are formed from a single cell. This method of propagation is known
as multiple fission. Eg Amoeba and Paramecium.
Differences between binary and multiple fission-

S.No. Characteristics Binary Fission Multiple Fission

1 Number of Parents divide into Parent divide in many

daughters two daughters. daughters.
produced
2 Time of Formation During favorable During unfavorable
conditions. conditions.

3 Fate of Parent Nothing is left with Residual cytoplasm is left.

parents.

2. Budding

 The budding is a type of asexual reproduction that occurs from the growth of
part of a cell or a region of the body that leads to the separation of the original
organism into two individuals.

 The budding process is common in some invertebrates such as corals and

hydras.
 In hydras a bud is formed that grows up and detaches from the main body;
whereas in sprouting corals the bud does not fall off and reproduces as part of
a new colony.
3. Sporulation or Spore Formation:

 Sporulation is also known as sporogenesis. It is a form of asexual

reproduction that involves spores. Spores, from "sporā" which means "seed"
and "genesis" which means "birth" or "origin", are dormant reproductive cells
that are similar to seeds in that they serve as units of multiplication.

 As spores are different from the seeds, they lack the embryo created by the
fusion of male and female gametes.

 Spores have thick walls and are very resistant to various adverse conditions
such as high temperatures and low huhumidity.

 When the conditions are right, they germinate to give birth to new individuals.
Spores are found in some plants and fungi.

4. Fragmentation:

 Fragmentation refers to the breaking up of the parent organism into fragments

and each fragment is capable of becoming a new organism. This is observed
in
 fungi (e.g. yeasts and lichens), molds, vascular and nonvascular plants,
cyanobacteria, and animals (e.g. stars, planarians, and many annelids).

 This form of asexual reproduction in animals can also be unintentional.

Human activity, predation, and other environmental factors can cause them to
break up into fragments.

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS

The modes of asexual reproduction which are seen commonly in plants are:
1.Fission: It is known to be the simplest of all asexual methods. It is commonly
found in fungi and algae. Single-cell stem cells divide mitotically to form two
identical daughter cells and the mother. Each daughter cell eventually becomes
an independent organism.

2. Buds:

 Some algae produce branches of Advent like in the case of Dictyota, Fucus,
or buds like in Protosiphon. Like yeast, mushrooms produce sprouts.

 These structures are the result of uneven division and adhere to the mother
cell.
 Eventually, they separate and mature into a new organism.

3. Fragmentation

 The process of fragmentation is very common in plants. It is a very common

way of plant vegetative reproduction.

 The process of fragmentation occurs when rooting branches are torn or

detached from the main group due to mechanical pressure or some different
reason.

 Different plants have different mechanisms.

4. Spore formation:

 Asexual reproduction in plants takes place by many varieties of motile and

non- motile spores which are also known as conidia.

 Ciliated motile asexual spores, which are known as zoospores are produced
by algae and fungi. These zoospores swim in water for some of the time with
the help of flagella attached to them. In the later stage, they directly develop
into new independent individuals under favorable conditions. e.g. Ulothrix,
and Oedogonium.

 Some of the fungi are terrestrial too. These have non-flagellated and non-
motile
 spores/ conidia. These spores are therefore light in weight and dry. They have
a tough coat and are well adapted for dispersal by wind. E.g. Penicillium,
Aspergillus.

 The structure which bears the true spores is defined as the sporangium. The
sporangium is present on a sporophyte. It helps the sporophyte multiplies
rapidly in an asexual manner to generate large numbers by spores. Some ferns,
for example, Nephrolepis bear spores and reproduce asexually by them.
These plants are homosporous; this means that they possess only one kind
of spore in their entire lifetime.

 While in Selaginella (pteridophyte) and gymnosperms are heterosporous

because of the fact that they bear two types of spores.
Asexual spores in algae.
A- Biflagellate

B-Quadri Flagellate

C- Multiflagellate

D-Synzoospore

E-Aplanospores
F-Tetraspore

G-Akinete

H-Exospore

I-

Endospore

Vegetative
Propagatio
n
It is a type of process in which new plants are obtained without the production of
sexual structures i.e seeds or spores. It involves the propagation of plants
through different types of vegetative parts such as the rhizome, sucker, tuber,
bulb, etc. In this, a fusion of the male and the female gamete does not take place
and requires only one parent. This is grouped into natural and artificial.
(i) NATURAL METHODS:

 With natural propagation methods, the development of a new plant from an

organ of the mother plant takes place under suitable environmental conditions;
These altered organs can develop from the stem, leaf, root, or even the
flower.

 Vegetative propagation

 By roots: sweet potatoes, asparagus, and dahlias.

 Through the leaves: With this method, the shoots develop on the leaf edges.
These buds help in producing the new plants, as can be seen in Bryophyllum.

 Through flower buds: In plants such as agave and oxalis, flower buds produce
new plants and in Dioscorea axillary buds do so.

 Through the stem: corridors observed in the grass, dislocations found in

Pistia, runners in Nephrolepis, and runners in mint plants.

LEAF OF BRYOPHYLLUM

EYE OF POTATO TUBER

 OFFSET

(ii) ARTIFICIAL METHODS: In this type of method, only a small part of the
plant organ is utilized for obtaining a new complete plant. Amongst them, the
most common methods which are used are cutting, layering, and grafting.

(a) Cutting

 In cutting, a small piece of root is cut and when planted in moist soil, it will
lead to the artificial inducement and development of adventitious roots. For
example, in lemon.

 In Rose, sugarcane, hibiscus, and chrysanthemum plants are developed by

cuttings that involve stem pieces with the presence of nodes. The small
cuttings are planted in moist soil to develop new plants. Underground parts of
the stem leading to the development of adventitious roots, whereas buds
develop and sprout on the aerial parts of stems. The new plants are in a
common language known as cutting. Later, these cuttings are transplanted in
different prepared places.
(b) Layering: This method is used for growing rose, lemon, grape, hibiscus, and
jasmine. The lower branches of these plants are bent a little bit and covered with
soil in such a way that the tip of the branch protrudes from the ground and the
middle part of the plant is inside the soil. It will then develop adventurous roots
from this buried area of the stem of the plant, at that time this branch is cut off
and separated from the mother plant, whereby a new plant is obtaine
(c) Grafting: Grafting is carried out on plants that are having difficulty in
forming roots or that generally have a weak root system.

 This method involves joining two plants of the same or different species, this
is achieved by connecting the tissues of the two plants directly to The. When
brought into contact, the meristematic tissue of both plants divides and
multiplies, and finally the cells of each plant fuse.

 The rooted plant is called the stem plant. The plant that is grafted onto it is
called the sprout. A plant is selected as the "scion" that has superior and
desirable properties. The stock is generally strong, robust, and resilient,
mango, apple, pear, citrus, guava, lychee, and many other fruit plants are
obtained and kept in this waway.
 The graft can be of several types, namely, bud graft, lateral graft, and tongue
graft, wedge graft, and crown graft, depending on the methods of joining the
two parts.

SIGNIFICANCE OF VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION

 Vegetative reproduction is an ideal method of reproduction in plants in which

we want to preserve parental characteristics.

 It is best for plants that are less efficient sexually, small seeds, long seed
dormancy, poor seed viability, etc. They can also be easily multiplied by this
method.

 Vegetative propagation is useful for obtaining disease-free plants.

 By using grafting, the desired characters can be brought together from two
varieties.

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

 Sexual reproduction involves the formation of male and female gametes,

either by the same individual or by different individuals of the opposite sex.

 The formed gametes that fuse to form the zygote, which develops into a new
organism. It is a complex and slow process compared to asexual reproduction.

 Since it is the fusion of male and female gametes, the offspring are not
identical to the parents or between them.

 Even with different external morphology, anatomy, and physiology, sexual

reproduction in the patterns of plants, animals, and fungi is similar. All
organisms go through general growth before reproductive growth. Only when
they are reproductively mature can they reproduce sexually. General growth is
called the juvenile phase and, in the case of plants, the vegetative phase.

 The procedures and processes of sexual reproduction are fundamentally

similar in all organisms. The structures which are associated with sexual
reproduction are quite different.

 In all cases, sexual reproduction is characterized by the fusion of the male and
female gametes of the species.
 For the sake of simplicity, these sequential events can be examined as three
different stages, namely pre-fertilization, fertilization, and post-fertilization.

PRE-FERTILIZATION EVENTS

1. Gametogenesis:

 Gametogenesis is defined as the process of the formation of gametes. There

are two types of gametes; male and female gametes derived from male and
female parents, respectively. Gametes are the haploid (n) in nature.

 Gametes that are similar in appearance are called isogametes or homogametic.

They are morphologically and physiologically similar (e.g. Cladophora,
Ulothrix).

 Most sexually reproducing organisms have two morphologically and

physiologically distinct types of gametes called heterogametes or
anisogametes. The male gametes are smaller and more active whereas the
female gametes are larger and sluggish. The male gametes are called
antherozoid or sperm and the female gamete is called egg or ovum.

 Gametes are always haploids. The parent may be either haploid or diploid. A
haploid parent produces gametes which are haploid by mitotic division.

 Various organisms of the Monera, fungi, algae, and Bryophyta, gymnosperms,

angiosperms, and most animals are diploid. This is where meiosis occurs to
produce haploid gametes.

 In diploid organisms, when meiocytes (gamete stem cell, diploid 2n) undergo
meiosis, only one set of chromosomes is built into each gamete.

Types Of Gametes
(a) Isogametes of Cladophora

(b) Fucus

(c) Human Beings

Diversity of sexuality in organisms

2. Gamete transfer

After their formation, the male and female gametes must come into contact for
fertilization. The male gamete is generally mobile and the female gamete is
generally stationary. Gamete transfer requires an appropriate medium. to
transfer.

 A large number of male gametes do not reach female gametes, so that male
 gametes are synthesized in very large numbers as compared with female
gametes.

 In angiosperms, pollen grains carry the male gametes and the ovule contains
the ovules. Pollen grains are produced on the anthers and transferred to the
stigma. This phenomenon is known as pollination. Pollination requires the
involvement of external agents such as insects, animals, wind, and water.

 The pollen grains germinate in the stigma and the pollen tubes that carry the
male gametes reach the ovule and eject two gametes near the ovule.

 In bisexual animals, the organism has to develop a special mechanism for the
transmission of gametes, since male and female gametes are formed in
different individuals and this is essential for fertilization.

FERTILIZATION

 The fusion of both gametes i.e male and female is known as syngamy. In this,
a diploid zygote is formed. This process is known as fertilization.

 In most algae, fish, and amphibians, syngamy occurs outside the body of
organisms. This type of gamete fusion is called external fertilization. This is
seen in bony fish and frogs, where large numbers of young are produced.
extremely vulnerable to predators, which threatens their survival.

 Syngamy occurs in the body of the organism in plants (ie fungi, mosses, and
pteridophytes) as well as in reptiles, birds, and mammals. Hence the process is
called internal fertilization. The mobile male gametes reach the egg and fuse
with it, which takes place within the female body.

 In seed plants, the immobile male gametes are transported to the female
gametes through pollen tubes.
POST-FERTILIZATION EVENTS

1. Zygote

 The formation of the zygote is common in sexual reproduction. It is diploid.

With external fertilization, the zygote is formed in the external environment
(water), while with internal fertilization, the zygote is formed in the body by
organisms.

 The further development of the zygote depends on the life cycle of the
organism and the environment to which it is exposed. In organisms such as
algae and fungi, the zygote develops a thick wall that is resistant to
desiccation and damage and usually goes through a dormant phase. before
germination.
 Some unicellular animals (z that form the zygote nucleus. This type of sexual
reproduction is called conjugation.

 The zygote is the vital link that ensures the continuity of species between
organisms from one generation to the next.

2. Embryogenesis

 Embryogenesis is defined as the process of development of the embryo from

the zygote. During embryogenesis, the zygote undergoes cell division
(mitosis) and cell differentiation.

 Cell divisions will lead to the increase in the number of cells in the developing
embryo, while cell differentiation helps the group of cells undergo certain
modifications to form specialized tissues and organs to form organisms.

 In animals, if the development of the zygote takes place in the body of the
female parent, it is called viviparous.

 In egg-laying animals such as reptiles and birds, fertilized eggs, which are
covered by a hard calcareous shell, are deposited in a safe place in the
environment. After an incubation period, the young hatch.

 On the other hand, in viviparous animals such as mammals, including humans,

the zygote develops into a cub that emerges from the mother's body. The
chances of survival of the young are greater with live-bearing organisms due
to
 adequate embryonic care and protection.

Name of Chromosome Chromosome

Organism number in meiocyte. number in a gamete.
(2n) (n)

Human Beings 46 23

House Fly 12 -

Rat - 21
 Dog 78 -

Cat - 19

Fruit Fly 8 -

Ophioglossum - 630

Apple 34 -

Rice - 12

Maize 20 -

Potato - 24

Butterfly 380 -

Onion - 16

 In the case of Angiospermic plants, the zygote is formed, inside the ovule.
Once fertilization takes place, different parts like the sepals, petals, and
stamens of the flower fall off. The pistil is the only part that remains attached
to the plant.

 In plants:

a. The zygote develops into an embryo.

b. Ovule develops into a seed

c. The integument of the ovule develops into a seed coat.

d. The ovary develops into a fruit.

e. Ovary wall develops into pericarp and is protective in function.

After dispersal, seeds germinate under favorable conditions to produce new
plants.
A- POD Fruit

B is T.S Ovaries.