TL2101

Mekanika Fluida I

Benno Rahardyan

Pertemuan
Mg Topik Sub Topik Tujuan Instruksional (TIK)
1 Pengantar Definisi dan sifat-sifat fluida, Memahami berbagai
berbagai jenis fluida yang kegunaan mekflu
berhubungan dengan bidang TL dalam bidang TL
Pengaruh tekanan Tekanan dalam fluida, tekanan Mengerti prinsip-2
hidrostatik tekanan statitka
2 Pengenalan jenis Aliran laminar dan turbulen, Mengerti, dapat
aliran fluida pengembangan persamaan untuk menghitung dan
penentuan jenis aliran: bilangan menggunakan prinsip
reynolds, freud, dll dasar aliran staedy state
Idem Idem Idem
3 Prinsip kekekalan Prinsip kontinuitas aliran, Mengerti, dapat
energi dalam komponen energi dalam aliran menggunakan dan
aliran fluida, penerapan persamaan menghitung sistem prinsi
Bernoulli dalam perpipaan hukum kontinuitas
4 Idem Idem + gaya pada bidang Idem
terendam
5 Aplikasi Aplikasi kekekalan energi dalam Latihan menggunakan
kekekalan aplikasi di bidang TL prinsip kekekalan
energi eneri khususnya
dalam bidang air
minum
Pipes are Everywhere!

Owner: City of
Hammond, IN
Project: Water Main
Relocation
Pipe Size: 54"
Pipes are Everywhere!
Drainage Pipes
Pipes
Pipes are Everywhere!
Water Mains
Types of Engineering
Problems
 How big does the pipe have to be to
carry a flow of x m3/s?
 What will the pressure in the water
distribution system be when a fire
hydrant is open?
 FLUID DYNAMICS
THE BERNOULLI EQUATION

The laws of Statics that we have learned cannot solve

Dynamic Problems. There is no way to solve for the flow
rate, or Q. Therefore, we need a new dynamic approach
to Fluid Mechanics.
 The Bernoulli Equation
By assuming that fluid motion is governed only by pressure and
gravity forces, applying Newton’s second law, F = ma, leads us to
the Bernoulli Equation.

P/ + V2/2g + z = constant along a streamline

(P=pressure  =specific weight V=velocity g=gravity z=elevation)

A streamline is the path of one particle of water. Therefore, at any two

points along a streamline, the Bernoulli equation can be applied and,
using a set of engineering assumptions, unknown flows and pressures
can easily be solved for.
 Free Jets

The velocity of a jet of water is clearly related to the depth of water

above the hole. The greater the depth, the higher the velocity. Similar
behavior can be seen as water flows at a very high velocity from the
reservoir behind the Glen Canyon Dam in Colorado
Closed Conduit Flow
 Energy equation
 EGL and HGL
 Head loss
– major losses
– minor losses
 Non circular conduits
The Energy Line and the Hydraulic Grade Line
Looking at the Bernoulli equation again:
P/γ + V2/2g + z = constant on a streamline
This constant is called the total head (energy), H
Because energy is assumed to be conserved, at any point along
the streamline, the total head is always constant
Each term in the Bernoulli equation is a type of head.
P/γ = Pressure Head
V2/2g = Velocity Head
Z = elevation head
These three heads, summed together, will always equal H

Next we will look at this graphically…

 p1 V12 p2 V22
 1  z1  h p  2  z 2  ht  hL
 2g  2g

Conservation of Energy
 Kinetic, potential, and thermal
energy
hp = head supplied by a pump
ht = head given to a turbine
hL = mechanical energy converted to thermal

downstream from cross section 1!

Cross section 2 is ____________
Point to point or control volume? irreversible
Why ? _____________________________________
V is average velocity, kinetic energy  V 2
 Energy Equation
Assumptions
 hydrostatic
Pressure is _________ in both cross sections
– pressure changes are due to elevation only
p  h
 section is drawn perpendicular to the streamlines
(otherwise the _______
kinetic energy term is incorrect)
 Constant ________at
density the cross section
 Steady flow
_______

p1 V12 p2 V22
1  z1  h p   2  z 2  ht  hL
 2g  2g
 EGL (or TEL) and HGL
p V2 p
EGL   z HGL   z
 2g γ
pressure elevation
head (w.r.t. velocity head (w.r.t.
reference pressure) head datum)
 The energy grade line must always slope ___________
downward (in
direction of flow) unless energy is added (pump)
 The decrease in total energy represents the head loss or
energy dissipation per unit weight
 EGL and HGL are coincident and lie at the free surface for
water at rest (reservoir)
 If the HGL falls below the point in the system for which it
lower than
is plotted, the local pressures are _____ ____reference pressure
__________
______
 Energy equation
V2 Energy Grade Line
velocity head  Hydraulic G L
2g

static head p
pressure
Why is static head 
head important?

z elevation
pump
z=0 2 2 datum
p1 V p V
 1 1
 z1  h p  2   2 2
 z 2  ht  hL
 2g  2g
The Energy Line and the Hydraulic Grade Line
Lets first understand this drawing:
Measures the Measures the 1: Static Pressure Tap
Static Pressure Total Head
Measures the sum of the
elevation head and the
12 12 pressure Head.
EL
V2/2g 2: Pilot Tube
HGL
Measures the Total Head
EL : Energy Line
P/γ Q
Total Head along a system
HGL : Hydraulic Grade line
Sum of the elevation and
the pressure heads along a
Z
system
The Energy Line and the Hydraulic Grade Line
Understanding the graphical approach of
Energy Line and the Hydraulic Grade line is Point 1:
key to understanding what forces are
Majority of energy
supplying the energy that water holds.
stored in the water is in
the Pressure Head
EL
V2/2g Point 2:
HGL V2/2g
Majority of energy
P/γ stored in the water is in
2 the elevation head
P/γ Q
If the tube was
Z
symmetrical, then the
velocity would be
constant, and the HGL
1 Z
would be level
 Bernoulli Equation
Assumption
_________
 Frictionless (viscosity can’t be a
significant parameter!)
 Along a streamline
__________
 ______
Steady flow
 Constant density
________
 No pumps, turbines, or head loss
2 Why no 
point velocity
V p
z    const no
Does direction matter? ____
2g 
Useful when head loss is small
 Pipe Flow: Review
 We have the control volume energy
equation for pipe flow.
 We need to be able to predict the
relationship between head loss and flow.
 How do we get this relationship?
__________analysis
dimensional _______.

2 2
p1 V p2 V
 1  z1  hp 
1
 2  z2  ht  hL
2
 2g  2g
Example Pipe Flow
Problem
cs1

Find the discharge, Q. D=20 cm

100 m L=500 m
valve
cs2
Describe the process in terms of energy!
p1 V12 p2 V22
1  z1  H p  2  z2  Ht  hl
 2g  2g

z1 
V22
2g
 z2  hl a
V2  2 g z1  z2  hl f
 Flow Profile for Delaware
Aqueduct
Rondout Reservoir
(EL. 256 m) 70.5 km
West Branch Reservoir
(EL. 153.4 m)

p1 V12 p2 V22
 1  z1  H p   2  z2  H t  hl
 2g  2g
Sea Level
(Designed for 39 m3/s)
hl  z1  z2

Need a relationship between flow rate and head loss

Ratio of Forces

 Create ratios of the various forces

 The magnitude of the ratio will tell us
which forces are most important and
which forces could be ignored
 Which force shall we use to create the
ratios?
 Inertia as our Reference
Force
F M
 F=ma F  a  f  a f 2 2
 LT
 Fluids problems (except for statics) include a
velocity (V), a dimension of flow (l), and a
density ()
 Substitute V, l,  for the dimensions MLT

l
M  l 3
Ll T
V
 Substitute for the dimensions of specific force
V2
fi  
l
 Dimensionless fi  
V2
l
Parameters
r Vl V
Re = fu   2
 Reynolds Number m l
V
 Froude Number Fr = fg   g
gl
V 2 l 
 Weber Number W f 
2
 l
 Mach Number r c2
V f Ev =
M l
 Pressure/Drag Coefficients c ( Dp + r g Dz )
2  p  C  2Drag
Cp  d
V 2
V 2
A
– (dependent parameters that we measure experimentally)
 Problem solving approach
1. Identify relevant forces and any other relevant parameters
2. If inertia is a relevant force, than the non dimensional Re, Fr,
W, M, Cp numbers can be used
3. If inertia isn’t relevant than create new non dimensional force
numbers using the relevant forces
4. Create additional non dimensional terms based on geometry,
velocity, or density if there are repeating parameters
5. If the problem uses different repeating variables then
substitute (for example d instead of V)
6. Write the functional relationship
Friction Factor : Major
losses
 Laminar flow
– Hagen-Poiseuille
 Turbulent (Smooth, Transition, Rough)
– Colebrook Formula
– Moody diagram
– Swamee-Jain
Laminar Flow Friction
Factor
D 2 hl
V Hagen-Poiseuille
32  L
32 LV
hl 
gD 2
LV2
hl  f Darcy-Weisbach
D 2g

32 LV LV2
f
gD 2
D 2g
64  64
f 
VD R
Pipe Flow: Dimensional
Analysis
 What are the important forces?
______,viscous
Inertial ______,________.
pressure Therefore
________number and _______________
Reynolds Pressure coefficient .
 What are the important geometric
parameters? diameter,
_________________________
length, roughness height
– Create dimensionless geometric groups
______,
l/D /D
______
 Other repeating parameters?
Write the functional relationship

 l   2p
Cp  f Re, ,  Cp 
 D D V 2
  l  
Dimensional C p  f  , , Re 
D D 
Analysis
 How will the results of dimensional analysis
guide our experiments to determine the
relationships that govern pipe flow?
 If we hold the other two dimensionless
parameters constant and increase the
length to diameter ratio, how will Cp
change?
D     2p
Cp proportional to l C p  f  , Re  C p 
l D 
2
V
 D  
f   C p   f  , Re  f is friction factor
 l  D 
 Laminar Flow Friction
Factor
 D 2 hl
V Hagen-Poiseuille
32  L
32  LV 128LQ
hf  hf 
 gD 2  gD 4

L V2
hf  f Darcy-Weisbach
D 2g

32  LV L V2
f
 gD 2
D 2g
64  64
f  -1 on log-log plot
Slope of ___
VD Re


Viscous Flow in
Pipes
 Viscous Flow:
Dimensional Analysis
D  VD  2p
Cp  f  , R 

Where R and Cp 
l D   V 2
 Two important parameters!
R - Laminar or Turbulent
/D - Rough or Smooth
Laminar and Turbulent
Flows
 Reynolds apparatus

VD inertia
R 
 damping

Transition at R of 2000
 Boundary layer growth:
Transition length
What does the water near the pipeline wall experience?
_________________________
Drag or shear
Why does the water in the center of the pipeline speed
Conservation of mass
up? _________________________

Pipe
Entrance

v v v
Non-Uniform Flow
Need equation for entrance length here
 Images - Laminar/Turbulent Flows

Laser - induced florescence image of an

incompressible turbulent boundary layer

Laminar flow (Blood Flow)

Simulation of turbulent flow coming out of a

tailpipe Turbulent flow Laminar flow

http://www.engineering.uiowa.edu/~cfd/gallery/lim-turb.html
Laminar, Incompressible,
Steady, Uniform Flow
 Between Parallel Plates
 Through circular tubes
 Hagen-Poiseuille Equation
 Approach
– Because it is laminar flow the shear
forces can be quantified
– Velocity profiles can be determined from
a force balance
Laminar Flow through
Circular Tubes
 Different geometry, same equation
development (see Streeter, et al. p
268)
 Apply equation of motion to cylindrical
sleeve (use cylindrical coordinates)
 Laminar Flow through
Circular Tubes: Equations
a2  r 2 d
u  p  h  a is radius of the tube
4  dl
a2 d
umax   p  h  Max velocity when r = 0
4  dl
Velocity distribution is paraboloid of
a2 d
V   p  h  average velocity
revolution therefore _____________
8 dl (V) is 1/2 umax
_____________
a 4 d
Q  p  h  Q = VA = Vpa2
8 dl
 Laminar Flow through
Circular Tubes: Diagram
a2  r 2 d
u  p  h 
4  dl

du r d
  p  h  Velocity
dr 2  dl
Shear
Laminar flow
du r d
    p  h 
dr 2 dl Shear at the wall
h hl d
  r  l  True for Laminar or 0  
 2l  Turbulent flow 4l
 Laminar flow
Continue
Momentum is
Mass*velocity (m*v)
Momentum per unit volume is
*vz
Rate of flow of momentum is
*vz*dQ
dQ=vz2πrdr
but
vz = constant at a fixed value of r
 v z (v2rdr ) z  v z (v2rdr ) z dz  0
Laminar flow
 Laminar flow
Continue

2 r zr r dz  2 (r  dr) zr r dr dz p z 2 rdr  p z dz 2rdr   g2rdrdz  0

dvz p  pz 0  pz L  gL

 
dr

R 4 p

R Hagen-Poiseuille
Q 2vz dr 
0
8 L
 The Hagen-Poiseuille
Equation
p1 V12 p2 V22
 z1   1  Hp   z2   2  Ht  hl cv pipe flow
1 2g 2 2g
p1 p2 Constant cross section
 z1   z 2  hl
1 2
h or z
p  p  p  dp  hl
hl   1  z1    2  z 2  hl     h    h   
 1  2    dl    L
Laminar pipe flow equations
a 4 d D 4 d  p 
Q  p  h  Q   h
8 dl 128 dl   
D 4 hl D 2 hl
Q V
128 L 32  L
Prof. Dr. Ir. Bambang Triatmodjo, CES-UGM :

Hidraulika I, Beta Ofset Yogyakarta, 1993

Hidraulika II, Beta Ofset Yogyakarta, 1993
Soal-Penyelesaian Hidraulika I, 1994
Soal-Penyelesaian Hidraulika II, 1995
 Air mengalir melalui pipa berdiameter
150 mm dan kecepatan 5,5
m/det.Kekentalan kinematik air adalah
1,3 x 10-4 m2/det. Selidiki tipe aliran

Bilangan reynolds :
VD 5,5 x0,15
Re    6,35 x10 5

v 1,3 x10 6
Karena Re  4000 berarti aliran turbulen
 Minyak di pompa melalui pipa
sepanjang 4000 m dan diameter 30 cm
dari titik A ke titik B. Titik B terbuka ke
udara luar. Elevasi titik B adalah 50 di
atas titik A. Debit 40 l/det. Debit aliran
40 l/det. Rapat relatif S=0,9 dan
kekentalan kinematik 2,1 x 10-4
m2/det. Hitung tekanan di titik A.
Diameter pipa : D  30 cm
Panjang pipa : L  4000 m
Debit aliran : Q  0,04 m 3 / dtk
4
Kehilangan tenaga
Kekentalan kinematik : v  2,1x10 m / dtk 2

32vVL 32 x 2,1x10  4 x0,566,4000

   900 kg / m 3
Rapat relatif : S  0,9  hf  2
 2
 17,23 m
gD 9,82 x0,3
Elevasi ujung atas pipa ( B ) terhadap 2 2
pA V p V
 A  z A  B  B  z B  hf
ujung bawah ( A) : Z B  Z A  50m  2g  2g
Kecepatn aliran : VA  VB
Q 0,04 pA
V   0,566 m / dtk  0  0  50  17,23
A  x0,32 
4 pA
 67,23m
Bilangan reynolds : 
VD 0,566 x0,3 p A  67,23 x900 x9,81
Re   4
 808,6
v 2,1x10 p A  593,574 N / m 2
Karena Re  2000 berarti aliran La min er p A  593,574kPa
Minyak dipompa melalui pipa
berdiameter 25 cm dan panjang 10 km
dengan debit aliran 0,02 m3/dtk. Pipa
terletak miring dengan kemiringan
1:200. Rapat minyak S=0,9 dan
keketnalan kinematik v=2,1x 10-4
m2/det. Apabila tekanan pada ujung
atas adalah p=10 kPA ditanyakan
tekanan di ujung bawah.
Diameter pipa : D  25 cm Kehilangan tenaga
Panjang pipa : L  10.000 m 32vVL 32 x 2,1x10  4 x0,4074 x10000
hf  
Kemiringan pipa : 1 : 200 gD 2 9,82 x0,252
Debit aliran : Q  0,02 m 3 / dtk  44,65 m
Kekentalan kinematik : v  2,1x10  4 m 2 / dtk Selisih elevasi kedua ujung :
   900 kg / m 3
Rapat relatif : S  0,9  1
z x10.000  50m
200
Tekanan di B : pB  10kPa  10.000 Nm 2 2 2
p A VA pB VB
  zA    z B  hf
 2g  2g
Kecepatn aliran :
VA  VB
Q 0,02
V   0,4074 m / dtk pA 10.000
A  x0,252 0  50  44,65
4  900 x9,81
Bilangan reynolds : pA
 95,78m
VD 0,4074 x0,25 
Re    485
v 2,1x10  4 p A  95,78 x900 x9,81
Karena Re  2000 berarti aliran La min er p A  845,642 N / m 2
p A  845,642kPa
Turbulent Pipe and
Channel Flow: Overview
 Velocity distributions
 Energy Losses
 Steady Incompressible Flow through
Simple Pipes
 Steady Uniform Flow in Open Channels
 Turbulence
 A characteristic of the flow.
 How can we characterize turbulence?
– intensity of the velocity fluctuations
– size of the fluctuations (length scale) u

u  u  u
u

instantaneous mean velocity 

velocity velocity fluctuation
 Turbulent flow

When fluid flow at higher flowrates,

the streamlines are not steady and uz
straight and the flow is not laminar. Uz
Generally, the flow field will vary in úz
average

both space and time with fluctuations

that comprise "turbulence
ur
For this case almost all terms in the Ur
average
Navier-Stokes equations are important úr

and there is no simple solution p

P = P (D, , , L, U,) p
average
P’
Time
 Turbulent flow

All previous parameters involved three fundamental dimensions,

Mass, length, and time
From these parameters, three dimensionless groups can be build
P L
2  f (Re, )
U D

UD inertia
Re  
 Viscous forces
 Turbulence: Size of the
Fluctuations or Eddies
 Eddies must be smaller than the physical
dimension of the flow
 Generally the largest eddies are of similar size
to the smallest dimension of the flow
 Examples of turbulence length scales
depth (R = 500)
– rivers: ________________
– pipes: _________________
diameter (R = 2000)
– lakes: ____________________
depth to thermocline
 Actually a spectrum of eddy sizes
 Turbulence: Flow
Instability
 In turbulent flow (high Reynolds number) the force
viscosity
leading to stability (_________) is small relative to
the force leading to instability (_______).
inertia
 Any disturbance in the flow results in large scale
motions superimposed on the mean flow.
 Some of the kinetic energy of the flow is transferred
to these large scale motions (eddies).
 Large scale instabilities gradually lose kinetic energy
to smaller scale motions.
 The kinetic energy of the smallest eddies is
dissipated by viscous resistance and turned into heat.
head loss
(=___________)
 Velocity Distributions
 Turbulence causes transfer of momentum from
center of pipe to fluid closer to the pipe wall.
 Mixing of fluid (transfer of momentum) causes
the central region of the pipe to have relatively
constant
_______velocity (compared to laminar flow)
 Close to the pipe wall eddies are smaller (size
proportional to distance to the boundary)
Turbulent Flow Velocity
Profile
du
  Turbulent shear is from momentum transfer
dy

du
  h = eddy viscosity
dy
Length scale and velocity of “large” eddies
  l I u I
du Dimensional analysis
u I  lI
dy y
du
  l 2
I
dy
 Turbulent Flow Velocity
Profile
du du
    l 2
I
dy dy
l I  y
increases as we
Size of the eddies __________
move further from the wall.
du
   y 2 2
k = 0.4 (from experiments)
dy
2
 du 
   y  
2 2
 dy 
 

  du 
 y 
  dy 
 
Log Law for Turbulent,
Established Flow, Velocity
Profiles
  du 
 y 
  dy 
 
u 1 yu*
 ln  5.5 Integration and empirical results
u*  
Laminar Turbulent
0 Shear velocity
u* 

y

u*  u I

x
Pipe Flow: The Problem

 We have the control volume energy

equation for pipe flow
 We need to be able to predict the
head loss term.
 We will use the results we obtained
using dimensional analysis
Friction Factor : Major
losses
 Laminar flow
– Hagen-Poiseuille
 Turbulent (Smooth, Transition, Rough)
– Colebrook Formula
– Moody diagram
– Swamee-Jain
Turbulent Pipe Flow Head
Loss
L V2
Proportional
___________ to the length of the pipe hf  f
D 2g
 square of the velocity
Proportional to the _______
(almost)
________ with surface roughness
Increases

 Is a function of density and viscosity

independent of pressure
 Is __________
Smooth, Transition, Rough 2
LV
Turbulent Flow h f
D 2g
f

 Hydraulically smooth 1  Re f 
pipe law (von  2 log  
f  2.51 
Karman, 1930)
 Rough pipe law (von 1  3.7 D 
 2 log  
Karman, 1930) f   
 Transition function
for both smooth and
1  D 2.51 
rough pipe laws  2 log   
f  3.7 Re f 
(Colebrook)
(used to draw the Moody diagram)
 Pipe Flow Energy Losses
p1 V12 p2 V22
1  z1  hp  2  z2  ht  hl
 2g  2g

p Horizontal pipe
hl  

 D  
f   C p   f  , R 
 Dimensional Analysis
 L D 
 2p 2 ghl
Cp  Cp 
V 2 V2
2 ghl D LV2
f 2 hl  f Darcy-Weisbach equation
V L D 2g
Turbulent Pipe Flow Head
Loss
 Proportional to the length of the pipe
___________
 ___________
Proportional to the square of the
velocity (almost)
 ________ with the diameter (almost)
Inversely
 ________
Increase with surface roughness
 Is a function of density and viscosity
 Is independent
__________ of pressure
 Surface Roughness

Additional dimensionless group /D need

to be characterize
Thus more than one curve on friction factor-
Reynolds number plot

Fanning diagram or Moody diagram

Depending on the laminar region.
If, at the lowest Reynolds numbers, the laminar portion
corresponds to f =16/Re Fanning Chart
or f = 64/Re Moody chart
Friction Factor for Smooth, Transition, and
Rough Turbulent flow
P D
f 
L 2 U 2

Smooth pipe, Re>3000

1
f

 4.0 * log Re* 
f  0.4

f  0.079Re0.25

 1 D
 4.0 * log  2.28
Rough pipe, [ (D/)/(Re√ƒ) <0.01]  f 

Transition function
1 D  D/ 
for both smooth and  4.0 * log  2.28  4.0 * log4.67  1
rough pipe f    Re f 
Smooth, Transition, Rough 2
LV
Turbulent Flow h  f
D 2g
f

 Hydraulically smooth 1  Re f 
 2 log



pipe law (von f  2.51 
Karman, 1930)
 Rough pipe law (von 1  3 .7 D 
Karman, 1930)  2 log



f   
 Transition function
for both smooth and  D 
1  2.51 
rough pipe laws  2 log 
f  3 .7 Re f 
(Colebrook)  
(used to draw the Moody diagram)
 Moody Diagram
0.10
0.08
D
f   C p 
0.05
0.04
 l  0.06 0.03
0.05 0.02


friction factor

0.015
0.04 0.01
0.008

0.03
0.006
0.004
D
laminar
0.002

0.02 0.001
0.0008
0.0004
0.0002
0.0001
0.00005
0.01 smooth

1E+03 1E+04 1E+05 1E+06 1E+07 1E+08

R
 Fanning Diagram

1 D
1 D 
 4.0 * log  2.28  4.0 * log4.67
D / 
 1  4.0 * log  2.28
f   Re f  f 





f =16/Re
 Swamee-Jain
 1976 0.25
f 2
 limitations    5.74  
 /D < 2 x 10-2 log  3.7 D  Re0.9   no f
  
– Re >3 x 103
– less than 3% deviation
 
ghf   1.78 
from results obtained
with Moody diagram
Q   2.22 D 5/ 2
log   
L  3.7 D 3/ 2 ghf 
 easy to program for  D 
 L 
computer or 0.04
calculator use  4.75
 L  
5.2
1.25  LQ 
2

L D  0.66     Q 
9.4
 
ghf hf  gh
 f   ghf  
L
Each equation has two terms. Why?
 Colebrook Solution for Q
8 LQ 2 1  D 2.51 
hf  f 2  2 log   
 g D5 f  3.7 Re f 
2
 D
2
1 1 8 LQ 1 2.51 
  4 log   
f hf  2 g D 5 f  3.7 Re f 
4Q
Re 
D
4Q  2 g D5
Re f  hf 8 hf g
 D 8 LQ 2 f 2 5 
 D LQ 2
1 2 ghf D 3
Re f 
 L
 Colebrook Solution for Q
2
 
 
1 8 LQ 2   2.51 
 4 log 
hf  g D
2 5
 3.7 D 1 2 ghf D 3 
 
  L 
 
 
2 L Q  2.51
 log   
 ghf D 5 / 2  3.7 D 1 2 ghf D 3 
 
  L 

 ghf   L 
Q D5 / 2 log   2.51 3 
2 L  3.7 D 2 ghf D 
Swamee 
1.25  Q   Q 
D  0.66  
2 5 2 1/ 4


 Q  Q  
2 5 2 1/ 5 0.04

       
D?   g    g  Q g   g  


8 LQ 2 1/ 5 1/ 25
Q 
1/ 5
 1/ 4
 Q  
5/ 4  Q 
2 2 2
hf  f 2
 g D5 D  0.66        
 g     g 
Q g  
 
1/ 5
2  2  2 1/ 4 2 1/ 5 
1/ 5

8
D5  f 2
Q  Q  5/ 4  Q   Q  
D           
 g
 8 g     g  Q  g   
 
1/ 5
64 Q 2 64  5/ 4  Q 2    Q2  
1/ 4 1/ 5
D f 2
5
f 2      
 8g  
   g  Q  g  

1/ 5
 Q  64 
2 1/ 5 1/ 5
1     5/ 4  Q   Q  
2 2 1/ 4 2
D    f 2 f      
 8 g         
4 4    g  Q g  
 
 Pipe roughness
pipe material pipe roughness  (mm)
glass, drawn brass, copper 0.0015
commercial steel or wrought iron 0.045
asphalted cast iron 0.12

d Must be
galvanized iron 0.15
dimensionless!
cast iron 0.26
concrete 0.18-0.6
rivet steel 0.9-9.0
corrugated metal 45
PVC 0.12
 Solution Techniques
find head loss given (D, type of pipe, Q)
0.25 8 LQ 2
4Q f hf  f 2
Re     5.74  
2
D  g D 5

log  3.7 D  Re0.9  

  
find flow rate given (head, D, L, type of pipe)

 ghf   L 
Q D5 / 2 log   2.51 
2 L  3.7 D 2 ghf D 3 

find pipe size given (head, type of pipe,L, Q)

0.04
  LQ 2

4.75
 L  
5.2

D  0.66  
1.25
  Q 
9.4
 
 gh
 f   ghf  
 Exponential Friction
Formulas
RLQ n
 Commonly used in commercial and hf = m
D
industrial settings
 Only applicable over range
_____of__
data
____
collected
 Hazen-Williams exponential friction
formula
 4.727 1.852
 Cn USC units 10.675 L æQ ö
R hf = 4.8704 SI units
10.675 D èC ø
 n
SI units
 C C = Hazen-Williams coefficient
 Head loss:
Hazen-Williams Coefficient
C Condition
150 PVC
140 Extremely smooth, straight pipes; asbestos cement
130 Very smooth pipes; concrete; new cast iron
120 Wood stave; new welded steel
110 Vitrified clay; new riveted steel
100 Cast iron after years of use
95 Riveted steel after years of use
60-80 Old pipes in bad condition
 1.852

Hazen-Williams hf 
10.675 L  Q 
 
D 4.8704  C 
SI units
vs
8 LQ 2
Darcy-Weisbach hf  f 2
 g D5

 Both equations are empirical

 Darcy-Weisbach is dimensionally correct,
andpreferred
________.
 Hazen-Williams can be considered valid only
over the range of gathered data.
 Hazen-Williams can’t be extended to other
fluids without further experimentation.
 Non-Circular Conduits:
Hydraulic Radius Concept
LV2
 A is cross sectional area hf = f
D 2g
 P is wetted perimeter
 Rh is the “Hydraulic Radius”
(Area/Perimeter)
 Don’tp confuse with radius!
D 2
For a pipe L V2
A 4 D hf = f
Rh = = = D = 4 Rh 4 Rh 2 g
P pD 4

We can use Moody diagram or Swamee-Jain with D = 4Rh!

 Pipe Flow Summary (1)

 Shear increases linearly

_________ with
distance from the center of the pipe (for
both laminar and turbulent flow)
 Laminar flow losses and velocity
distributions can be derived based on
momentum and energy conservation
 Turbulent flow losses and velocity
distributions requireexperimental
___________
results
Pipe Flow Summary (2)
 Energy equation left us with the elusive
head loss term
 Dimensional analysis gave us the form of
the head loss term (pressure coefficient)
 Experiments gave us the relationship
between the pressure coefficient and the
geometric parameters and the Reynolds
number (results summarized on Moody
diagram)
 Questions
 Can the Darcy-Weisbach equation and
Moody Diagram be used for fluids other
than water? Yes
_____
What about the Hazen-Williams equation? ___
No
 Does a perfectly smooth pipe have head loss?
Yes
_____
 Is it possible to decrease the head loss in a
pipe by installing a smooth liner? ______
Yes
Darcy Weisbach
 Major and Minor Losses
Major Losses:
Hmaj = f x (L/D)(V2/2g)

f = friction factor L = pipe length D = pipe diameter

V = Velocity g = gravity

Minor Losses:
Hmin = KL(V2/2g)
Kl = sum of loss coefficients V = Velocity g = gravity

When solving problems, the loss terms are added to the system at the
second point

P1/γ + V12/2g + z1 = P2/γ + V22/2g + z2 + Hmaj + Hmin

 Hitung kehilangan tenaga karena gesekan di
dalam pipa sepanjang 1500 m dan diameter 20
cm, apabila air mengalir dengan kecepatan 2
m/det. Koefisien gesekan f=0,02

Penyelesaian :
Kehilangan tenaga
Panjang pipa : L = 1500 m
Diameter pipa : D = 20 cm = 0,2 m L V2
hf  f
D 2g
Kecepatan aliran : V = 2 m/dtk
1500 x 2 2
Koefisien gesekan f = 0,02  0,02
0,2 x 2 x9,81
 30,58 m
Air melalui pipa sepanjang 1000 m dan
diameternya 150 mm dengan debit 50 l/det.
Hitung kehilangan tenaga karenagesekan
apabila koefisien gesekan f = 0,02

Penyelesaian : Kehilangan tenaga

Panjang pipa : L = 1000 m hf  f
8L
Q 5

Diameter pipa : D = 0,15 m g 2 D 5

Debit aliran : Q = 50 liter/detik  0,02
8 x0,02 x1000
Koefisien gesekan f = 0,02 9,81x 2 x(0,015) 2
 54,4 m
 Hitung kehilangan tenaga karena gesekan di
dalam pipa sepanjang 1500 m dan diameter 20
cm, apabila air mengalir dengan kecepatan 2
m/det. Koefisien gesekan f=0,02

Penyelesaian :
Kehilangan tenaga
Panjang pipa : L = 1500 m
Diameter pipa : D = 20 cm = 0,2 m L V2
hf  f
D 2g
Kecepatan aliran : V = 2 m/dtk
1500 x 2 2
Koefisien gesekan f = 0,02  0,02
0,2 x 2 x9,81
 30,58 m
Air melalui pipa sepanjang 1000 m dan
diameternya 150 mm dengan debit 50 l/det.
Hitung kehilangan tenaga karenagesekan
apabila koefisien gesekan f = 0,02

Penyelesaian : Kehilangan tenaga

Panjang pipa : L = 1000 m hf  f
8L
Q 5

Diameter pipa : D = 0,15 m g 2 D 5

Debit aliran : Q = 50 liter/detik  0,02
8 x0,055 x1000
Koefisien gesekan f = 0,02 9,81x 2 x(0,015) 5
 54,4 m
 Example
Solve for the Pressure Head, Velocity Head, and Elevation Head at each
point, and then plot the Energy Line and the Hydraulic Grade Line

Assumptions and Hints:

P1 and P4 = 0 --- V3 = V4 same diameter tube
We must work backwards to solve this problem
1
γH2O= 62.4 lbs/ft3

R = .5’
4’ R = .25’
2
3 4

1’
 Point 1:
Pressure Head : Only atmospheric  P1/γ = 0
Velocity Head : In a large tank, V1 = 0  V12/2g = 0
Elevation Head : Z1 = 4’

1
γH2O= 62.4 lbs/ft3
4’ R = .5’
R = .25’
2
3 4
1’
 Point 4:
Apply the Bernoulli equation between 1 and 4
0 + 0 + 4 = 0 + V42/2(32.2) + 1
V4 = 13.9 ft/s
Pressure Head : Only atmospheric  P4/γ = 0
Velocity Head : V42/2g = 3’
Elevation Head : Z4 = 1’
1
γH2O= 62.4 lbs/ft3
4’ R = .5’
R = .25’
2
3 4
1’
 Point 3:
Apply the Bernoulli equation between 3 and 4 (V3=V4)
P3/62.4 + 3 + 1 = 0 + 3 + 1
P3 = 0
Pressure Head : P3/γ = 0
Velocity Head : V32/2g = 3’
Elevation Head : Z3 = 1’
1
γH2O= 62.4 lbs/ft3
4’ R = .5’
R = .25’
2
3 4
1’
 Point 2:
Apply the Bernoulli equation between 2 and 3
P2/62.4 + V22/2(32.2) + 1 = 0 + 3 + 1
Apply the Continuity Equation
(Π.52)V2 = (Π.252)x13.9  V2 = 3.475 ft/s
P2/62.4 + 3.4752/2(32.2) + 1 = 4  P2 = 175.5 lbs/ft2

Pressure Head :
1
P2/γ = 2.81’
γH2O= 62.4 lbs/ft3
4’ R = .5’
Velocity Head :
R = .25’ V22/2g = .19’
2
3 4
Elevation Head :
1’ Z2 = 1’
 Plotting the EL and HGL
Energy Line = Sum of the Pressure, Velocity and Elevation heads
Hydraulic Grade Line = Sum of the Pressure and Velocity heads

V2/2g=.19’

EL

P/γ
=2.81’ V2/2g=3’ V2/2g=3’
Z=4’

HGL
Z=1’ Z=1’
Z=1’
 Pipe Flow and the Energy Equation
For pipe flow, the Bernoulli equation alone is not sufficient. Friction loss
along the pipe, and momentum loss through diameter changes and
corners take head (energy) out of a system that theoretically conserves
energy. Therefore, to correctly calculate the flow and pressures in pipe
systems, the Bernoulli Equation must be modified.
P1/γ + V12/2g + z1 = P2/γ + V22/2g + z2 + Hmaj + Hmin
Major losses: Hmaj
Major losses occur over the entire pipe, as the friction of the fluid over
the pipe walls removes energy from the system. Each type of pipe as a
friction factor, f, associated with it.
Energy line with no losses
Hmaj
Energy line with major losses

1 2
 Pipe Flow and the Energy Equation
Minor Losses : Hmin

Momentum losses in Pipe diameter changes and in pipe bends are called
minor losses. Unlike major losses, minor losses do not occur over the
length of the pipe, but only at points of momentum loss. Since Minor
losses occur at unique points along a pipe, to find the total minor loss
throughout a pipe, sum all of the minor losses along the pipe. Each
type of bend, or narrowing has a loss coefficient, KL to go with it.

Minor
Losses
 Minor Losses
 We previously obtained losses through an
expansion using conservation of energy,
momentum, and mass
 Most minor losses can not be obtained
analytically, so they must be measured
 Minor losses are often expressed as a loss
coefficient, K, times the velocity head. V2
hK
High R 2g
2
 2p 2 ghl V
C p  f geometry, R  Cp  Cp  hl  C p
V 2 V2 2g
Head Loss: Minor Losses
 Head loss due to
outlet, inlet, bends, elbows, valves, pipe size
changes
 Flow expansions have high losses
– Kinetic energy decreases across expansion
–
potential thermalenergy
Kinetic energy  ________ and _________
– Examples – Vehicle drag Hydraulic jump
________________________________
Vena contracta Minor losses!
__________________________________________
 Losses can be minimized by gradual transitions
 Minor Losses

 Most minor losses can not be obtained

analytically, so they must be measured
 Minor losses are often expressed as a
loss coefficient, K, times the velocity
head. High Re
C p = f ( geometry, Re )

2 ghl V2 V2
Cp  hl  C p hl = K
2g 2g
V2
 Head Loss due to Gradual
Expansion (Diffusor)
V1  V2 2
hE  K E 
2g
2
V A
2

hE  K E 2  2  1
2 g  A1 
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
KE 0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 20 40 60 80
diffusor angle ()
 Sudden Contraction

2
 1  V2
hc    1 2
C  2g
 c 

V1 V2

flow separation
 losses are reduced with a gradual contraction Ac
Cc 
A2
 Sudden Contraction

1
0.95
0.9
0.85
Cc 0.8
0.75
0.7
0.65
0.6
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
A2/A1
F I
2

h  G  1J
1 V 2

HC K2 g
2
c Qorifice  CAorifice 2 gh
c
 Entrance Losses
V2
Losses can be he  K e
reduced by K e  1.0 2g
accelerating the
flow gradually and K  0.5
e
eliminating the
vena contracta
K e  0.04
Head Loss in Bends
High pressure
 Head loss is a
function of the ratio of Possible
the bend radius to the separation
pipe diameter (R/D) R from wall
 Velocity distribution D
returns to normal
Low pressure
several pipe diameters
V2
downstream hb  K b
2g
Kb varies from 0.6 - 0.9
 Head Loss in Valves
 Function of valve type and valve
position
V2
 The complex flow path through hv  K v
valves can result in high head 2g
loss (of course, one of the
purposes of a valve is to create
head loss when it is not fully
open)
Solution Techniques

 Neglect minor losses

 Equivalent pipe lengths
 Iterative Techniques
 Simultaneous Equations
 Pipe Network Software
Iterative Techniques for
D and Q (given total head
loss)
 Assume all head loss is major head
loss.
 Calculate D or Q using Swamee-Jain
equations
 Calculate minor losses
 Find new major losses by subtracting
minor losses from total head loss
 Solution Technique: Head
Loss
 Can be solved directly

V 2 8Q 2
hminor  K hminor  K
2g g 2 D 4
0.25
4Q f  8 LQ 2
Re     5.74  
2
hf  f

log  
D 

 3.7 D Re 0.9   g 2 D 5

hl   h f   hminor
 Solution Technique:
Discharge or Pipe Diameter
 Iterative technique
 Set up simultaneous equations in Excel
0.25
4Q f  8 LQ 2
Re     5.74  
2
hf  f
log  
g 2 D 5
D  0 .9 
 3.7 D Re  

8Q 2 Use goal seek or Solver to

hminor  K
g 2 D 4 find discharge that makes the
calculated head loss equal
the given head loss.
hl   h f   hminor
 Example: Minor and
Major Losses
 Find the maximum dependable flow between the
reservoirs for a water temperature range of 4ºC to 20ºC.

Water 25 m elevation difference in reservoir water levels

Reentrant pipes at reservoirs

Standard elbows
2500 m of 8” PVC pipe
Sudden contraction
Gate valve wide open
1500 m of 6” PVC pipe
Directions
 Assume fully turbulent (rough pipe law)
– find f from Moody (or from von Karman)
 Find total head loss
 Solve for Q using symbols (must include
minor losses) (no iteration required)
 Obtain values for minor losses from notes or
text
Example (Continued)
 What are the Reynolds number in the two
pipes?
 Where are we on the Moody Diagram?
 What value of K would the valve have to
produce to reduce the discharge by 50%?
 What is the effect of temperature?
 Why is the effect of temperature so small?
Example (Continued)
 Were the minor losses negligible?
 Accuracy of head loss calculations?
 What happens if the roughness
increases by a factor of 10?
 If you needed to increase the flow by
30% what could you do?
 Suppose I changed 6” pipe, what is
minimum diameter needed?
 Pipe Flow Summary (3)
 Dimensionally correct equations fit to the
empirical results can be incorporated into
computer or calculator solution techniques
 Minor losses are obtained from the pressure
coefficient based on the fact that the
constantat high
pressure coefficient is _______
Reynolds numbers
 Solutions for discharge or pipe diameter often
require iterative or computer solutions
Loss Coefficients
Use this table to find loss coefficients:
Expansion:
Conservation of Energy

1 2

p1 V12 p2 V22
 z1  1  Hp   z2   2  H t  hl
1 2g 2 2g

p1  p2 V22  V12
  hl z1 = z2
 2g

p1  p2 V12  V22
hl   What is p1 - p2?
 2g
Head Loss due to Sudden Expansion:
Conservation of Momentum

A2
A1
x 1 2

M1  M 2  W  Fp  Fp  Fss Apply in direction of flow

1 2

M 1 x  M 2 x  Fp  Fp
1x 2x
Neglect surface shear
M 1 x   V12 A1 M 2 x  V22 A2 Pressure is applied over all of
section 1.
 V12 A1  V22 A2  p1 A2  p2 A2 Momentum is transferred over
area corresponding to
A1 upstream pipe diameter.
V22  V12 V1 is velocity upstream.
p1  p2 A2
 Divide by (A2 )
 g
Head Loss due to
Sudden Expansion
p1  p2 V12  V22 A1 V2
hl   Mass A  V
Energy
 2g 2 1

A1
V22  V12
Momentum p1  p2 A2

 g
V2
V V2 2
2 1
V1 V12  V22 V22  2V1V2  V12
hl   hl 
g 2g 2g
2 2
V1  V2  2
hl 
V 
1 
2
A1 


K  1 
A1 

hl  1

2g 2g  A2   A2 
 Contraction
EGL

V22
HGL hc  K c
2g

Expansion!!!

V1 V2

vena contracta
 losses are reduced with a gradual contraction
Questions:
 In the rough pipe law region if the flow rate
is doubled (be as specific as possible)
– What happens to the major head loss?
– What happens to the minor head loss?
 Why do contractions have energy loss?
 If you wanted to compare the importance of
minor vs. major losses for a specific
pipeline, what dimensionless terms could
you compare?
 Entrance Losses
 Losses can be reentrant
K e  1.0
reduced by
accelerating the
V2
flow gradually and K e  0.5 he  K e
2g
eliminating the
vena contracta
K e  0.04
 Head Loss in Valves
 Function of valve type
and valve position V 2
hv  K v
 The complex flow path 2g
through valves often
results in high head loss
 What is the maximum
value that Kv can have?

_____
How can K be greater than 1?
 Questions
EGL
HGL

 What is the head

loss when a pipe
V
enters a
reservoir? V2
2g
 Draw the EGL  A 
2

and HGL K  1  1 
 A2 
 p1 V12 p2 V22
 z1  1  Hp   z2   2  H t  hl
1 2g 2 2g

cs1 Example

100 m
valve

D=40 cm
cs
2
D=20 cm
L=1000 m L=500 m
Find the discharge, Q.
What additional information do you need? V22
100m = + hl
Apply energy equation 2g
How could you get a quick estimate? _________________
Use S-J on small pipe
Or spreadsheet solution: find head loss as function of Q.
 Pipe Flow Example
1 γoil= 8.82 kN/m3
Z1 = ?
f = .035 2
Z2 = 130 m
60 m
7m Kout=1
r/D = 0
130 m
r/D = 2

If oil flows from the upper to lower reservoir at a velocity of

1.58 m/s in the 15 cm diameter smooth pipe, what is the
elevation of the oil surface in the upper reservoir?
Include major losses along the pipe, and the minor losses
associated with the entrance, the two bends, and the outlet.
 Pipe Flow Example
1 γoil= 8.82 kN/m3
Z1 = ?
f = .035 2
Z2 = 130 m
60 m
7m Kout=1
r/D = 0
130 m
r/D = 2

Apply Bernoulli’s equation between points 1 and 2:

Assumptions: P1 = P2 = Atmospheric = 0 V1 = V2 = 0 (large tank)
0 + 0 + Z1 = 0 + 0 + 130m + Hmaj + Hmin
Hmaj = (fxLxV2)/(Dx2g)=(.035 x 197m x (1.58m/s)2)/(.15 x 2 x 9.8m/s2)
Hmaj= 5.85m
 Pipe Flow Example
1 γoil= 8.82 kN/m3
Z1 = ?
f = .035 2
Z2 = 130 m
60 m
7m Kout=1
r/D = 0
130 m
r/D = 2

0 + 0 + Z1 = 0 + 0 + 130m + 5.85m + Hmin

Hmin= 2KbendV2/2g + KentV2/2g + KoutV2/2g
From Loss Coefficient table: Kbend = 0.19 Kent = 0.5 Kout = 1
Hmin = (0.19x2 + 0.5 + 1) x (1.582/2x9.8)
Hmin = 0.24 m
 Pipe Flow Example
1 γoil= 8.82 kN/m3
Z1 = ?
f = .035 2
Z2 = 130 m
60 m
7m Kout=1
r/D = 0
130 m
r/D = 2

0 + 0 + Z1 = 0 + 0 + 130m + Hmaj + Hmin

0 + 0 + Z1 = 0 + 0 + 130m + 5.85m + 0.24m

Z1 = 136.09 meters
Pipa ekivalen

 Digunakan untuk menyederhanakan

sistem yang ditinjau
 Ciri khasnya adalah memiliki
keserupaan hidrolis dengan kondisi
nyatanya  Q, hf sama
 Pipa ekivalen dapat dinyatakan melalui
ekivalensi l,D,f