Module 10: Applications and

Processing of Metal Alloys

ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• How are metal alloys classified and what are their
common applications?
• What are some of the common fabrication techniques
for metals?
• What heat treatment procedures are used to improve the
mechanical properties of both ferrous and nonferrous alloys?

Chapter 11 - 1
 Classification of Metal Alloys
Metal Alloys

Adapted from Fig.

Ferrous Nonferrous 11.1, Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.

Steels
Steels Cast Irons
Cast Irons
<1.4 wt% C
<1.4wt%C 3-4.5 wt%C
3-4.5 wt% C

T(ºC) microstructure: ferrite,

1600 graphite/cementite

1400 L
+L Adapted from Fig. 9.24, Callister &
1200  1148ºC L+Fe3C Rethwisch 8e. (Fig. 9.24 adapted from
austenite Binary Alloy Phase Diagrams, 2nd ed.,
Eutectic: Vol. 1, T.B. Massalski (Ed.-in-Chief),
1000 4.30
ASM International, Materials Park, OH,
+Fe3C 1990.)
+

800 727ºC Fe3C



ferrite Eutectoid: cementite

600 0.76 +Fe3C
400
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 6.7
(Fe)
Co , wt% C Chapter 11 - 2
 Steels
Low Alloy High Alloy
low carbon Med carbon high carbon
<0.25 wt% C 0.25-0.6 wt% C 0.6-1.4 wt% C

heat
Name plain HSLA plain
plain tool stainless
treatable
Cr,V Cr, Ni Cr, V,
Additions none none none Cr, Ni, Mo
Ni, Mo Mo Mo, W
Example 1010 4310 1040 4340 1095 4190 304, 409
Hardenability 0 + + ++ ++ +++ varies
TS - 0 + ++ + ++ varies
EL + + 0 - - -- ++
Uses auto bridges crank pistons wear drills high T
struc. towers shafts gears applic. saws applic.
sheet press. bolts wear dies turbines
vessels hammers applic. furnaces
blades Very corros.
resistant
increasing strength, cost, decreasing ductility
Based on data provided in Tables 11.1(b), 11.2(b), 11.3, and 11.4, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Chapter 11 - 3
 Refinement of Steel from Ore
Coke
Iron Ore Limestone

BLAST FURNACE
heat generation
gas C+O2  CO2
refractory
vessel reduction of iron ore to metal
layers of coke CO2 + C  2CO
and iron ore 3CO + Fe2O3 2Fe +3CO2
air purification
slag
Molten iron CaCO3  CaO+CO2
CaO + SiO2 + Al2O3  slag

Chapter 11 - 4
 Ferrous Alloys
Iron-based alloys
• Steels
• Cast Irons

Nomenclature for steels (AISI/SAE)

10xx Plain Carbon Steels
11xx Plain Carbon Steels (resulfurized for machinability)
15xx Mn (1.00 - 1.65%)
40xx Mo (0.20 ~ 0.30%)
43xx Ni (1.65 - 2.00%), Cr (0.40 - 0.90%), Mo (0.20 - 0.30%)
44xx Mo (0.5%)
where xx is wt% C x 100
example: 1060 steel – plain carbon steel with 0.60 wt% C
Stainless Steel >11% Cr
Chapter 11 - 5
 Cast Irons
• Ferrous alloys with > 2.1 wt% C
– more commonly 3 - 4.5 wt% C
• Low melting – relatively easy to cast
• Generally brittle

• Cementite decomposes to ferrite + graphite

Fe3C  3 Fe () + C (graphite)

– generally a slow process

Chapter 11 - 6
 Fe-C True Equilibrium Diagram
T(ºC)
1600
Graphite formation
1400 L Liquid +
promoted by
 +L Graphite
• Si > 1 wt% 1200  1153ºC
Austenite 4.2 wt% C
• slow cooling
1000
  + Graphite
800
740ºC
0.65
600
Adapted from Fig. 11.2,
 + Graphite
Callister & Rethwisch 8e. 400
[Fig. 11.2 adapted from 0 1 2 3 4 90 100
Binary Alloy Phase (Fe) C, wt% C
Diagrams, 2nd ed.,
Vol. 1, T.B. Massalski (Ed.-
in-Chief), ASM International,
Materials Park, OH, 1990.]
Chapter 11 - 7
 Types of Cast Iron
Adapted from Fig.
11.3(a) & (b),
Gray iron Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.
• graphite flakes
• weak & brittle in tension
• stronger in compression
• excellent vibrational dampening
• wear resistant

Ductile iron
• add Mg and/or Ce
• graphite as nodules not flakes
• matrix often pearlite – stronger
but less ductile
Chapter 11 - 8
Types of Cast Iron (cont.)
Adapted from Fig.
11.3(c) & (d),
White iron Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.
• < 1 wt% Si
• pearlite + cementite
• very hard and brittle

Malleable iron
• heat treat white iron at 800-900ºC
• graphite in rosettes
• reasonably strong and ductile

Chapter 11 - 9
Types of Cast Iron (cont.)

Compacted graphite iron

• relatively high thermal conductivity
• good resistance to thermal shock
• lower oxidation at elevated
temperatures
Adapted from Fig. 11.3(e),
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Chapter 11 - 10
Chapter 11 - 11
Chapter 11 - 12
Chapter 11 - 13
 Production of Cast Irons

Adapted from Fig.11.5,

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Chapter 11 - 14
 Limitations of Ferrous Alloys

1) Relatively high densities

2) Relatively low electrical conductivities
3) Generally poor corrosion resistance

Chapter 11 - 15
 Nonferrous Alloys
• Cu Alloys • Al Alloys
Brass: Zn is subst. impurity -low : 2.7 g/cm3
(costume jewelry, coins, -Cu, Mg, Si, Mn, Zn additions
corrosion resistant) -solid sol. or precip.
Bronze : Sn, Al, Si, Ni are strengthened (struct.
subst. impurities aircraft parts
(bushings, landing & packaging)
gear) NonFerrous • Mg Alloys
Cu-Be: -very low : 1.7g/cm3
precip. hardened Alloys -ignites easily
for strength -aircraft, missiles
• Ti Alloys
-relatively low : 4.5 g/cm3 • Refractory metals
-high melting T’s
vs 7.9 for steel • Noble metals -Nb, Mo, W, Ta
-reactive at high T’s -Ag, Au, Pt
-space applic. -oxid./corr. resistant
Based on discussion and data provided in Section 11.3, Callister & Rethwisch 3e.
Chapter 11 - 16
 Metal Fabrication
• How do we fabricate metals?
– Blacksmith - hammer (forged)
– Cast molten metal into mold

• Forming Operations
– Rough stock formed to final shape

Hot working vs. Cold working

• Deformation temperature • Deformation below
high enough for recrystallization
recrystallization temperature
• Large deformations • Strain hardening occurs
• Small deformations

Chapter 11 - 17
 Metal Fabrication Methods (i)

FORMING CASTING MISCELLANEOUS

• Forging (Hammering; Stamping) • Rolling (Hot or Cold Rolling)
(wrenches, crankshafts) (I-beams, rails, sheet & plate)
force
die roll
Ad
A o blank A d often at Ao
elev. T
roll
Adapted from
force Fig. 11.8,
• Drawing • Extrusion Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.
(rods, wire, tubing) (rods, tubing)
Ao
die Ad container
tensile die holder
Ao force
force ram billet extrusion Ad
die
container die
die must be well lubricated & clean ductile metals, e.g. Cu, Al (hot)
Chapter 11 - 18
 Metal Fabrication Methods (ii)

FORMING CASTING MISCELLANEOUS

• Casting- mold is filled with molten metal

– metal melted in furnace, perhaps alloying
elements added, then cast in a mold
– common and inexpensive
– gives good production of shapes
– weaker products, internal defects
– good option for brittle materials

Chapter 11 - 19
 Metal Fabrication Methods (iii)

FORMING CASTING MISCELLANEOUS

• Sand Casting
(large parts, e.g.,
• What material will withstand T >1600ºC
auto engine blocks)
and is inexpensive and easy to mold?
• Answer: sand!!!
Sand Sand
• To create mold, pack sand around form
molten metal (pattern) of desired shape

Chapter 11 - 20
 Metal Fabrication Methods (iv)

FORMING CASTING MISCELLANEOUS

• Investment Casting
(low volume, complex shapes
e.g., jewelry, turbine blades)
• Stage I — Mold formed by pouring wax I
plaster of paris around wax pattern.

Plaster allowed to harden.

• Stage II — Wax is melted and then
poured from mold—hollow mold
II
cavity remains.
• Stage III — Molten metal is poured
into mold and allowed to solidify. III

Chapter 11 - 21
 Metal Fabrication Methods (v)

FORMING CASTING MISCELLANEOUS

• Die Casting • Continuous Casting
-- high volume -- simple shapes
-- for alloys having low melting (e.g., rectangular slabs,
temperatures cylinders)

molten
solidified

Chapter 11 - 22
Chapter 11 - 23
Chapter 11 - 24
 Metal Fabrication Methods (vi)

FORMING CASTING MISCELLANEOUS

• Powder Metallurgy • Welding
(metals w/low ductilities) (when fabrication of one large
part is impractical)
pressure
filler metal (melted)
base metal (melted)
fused base metal
heat
heat-affected zone
area unaffected unaffected
contact piece 1 piece 2 Adapted from Fig.
11.9, Callister &
densify Rethwisch 8e.
(Fig. 11.9 from Iron
• Heat-affected zone: Castings
point contact densification Handbook, C.F.
by diffusion at
(region in which the Walton and T.J.
at low T
higher T microstructure has been Opar (Ed.), 1981.)

changed).
Chapter 11 - 25
 Thermal Processing of Metals
Annealing: Heat to Tanneal, then cool slowly.
• Stress Relief: Reduce
stresses resulting from:
- plastic deformation
- nonuniform cooling
- phase transform.
• Spheroidize (steels):
Make very soft steels for
good machining. Heat just
below Teutectoid & hold for
15-25 h.

• Full Anneal (steels):

Types of Make soft steels for
good forming. Heat
Annealing to get , then furnace-cool
to obtain coarse pearlite.
• Process Anneal:
Negate effects of
• Normalize (steels): Deform
cold working by
steel with large grains. Then heat
(recovery/
treat to allow recrystallization
recrystallization)
and formation of smaller grains.

Based on discussion in Section 11.7, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Chapter 11 - 26
Heat Treatment Temperature-Time Paths

a) Full Annealing A
b) Quenching P

c) Tempering
(Tempered
Martensite) A
B
10
0 %
50
0% %

Fig. 10.25,
Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.

b) a)
c)
Chapter 11 - 27
 Hardenability -- Steels
• Hardenability – measure of the ability to form martensite
• Jominy end quench test used to measure hardenability.
Adapted from Fig. 11.11,
flat ground Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
specimen (Fig. 11.11 adapted from
A.G. Guy, Essentials of
(heated to  Materials Science,
phase field) Rockwell C McGraw-Hill Book
Company, New York,
24ºC water hardness tests 1978.)

• Plot hardness versus distance from the quenched end.

Hardness, HRC

Adapted from Fig. 11.12,

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Distance from quenched end

Chapter 11 - 28
 Reason Why Hardness Changes with
Distance
• The cooling rate decreases with distance from quenched end.

Hardness, HRC
60

40

20 distance from quenched end (in)

0 1 2 3
T(ºC) 0%
600 P 100%

A Adapted from Fig. 11.13, Callister &
Rethwisch 8e. (Fig. 11.13 adapted from
400 H. Boyer (Ed.) Atlas of Isothermal
Transformation and Cooling
M(start) Transformation Diagrams, American
200 Society for Metals, 1977, p. 376.)
A  M
Pe ine ens
0 M(finish) a r P it e
F
M
M ens

li t e e a +
ar
a r it e
t
t

rli Pe
te ar

0.1 1 10 100 1000

Time (s)
l ite

Chapter 11 - 29
 Hardenability vs Alloy Composition
100 10 3 2 Cooling rate (ºC/s)
• Hardenability curves for
60

Hardness, HRC
five alloys each with, 100

80 %M
C = 0.4 wt% C 4340
50
40 4140

Adapted from Fig. 11.14, Callister &

8640

10
Rethwisch 8e. (Fig. 11.14 adapted from

40
5140
figure furnished courtesy Republic Steel 20
Corporation.) 0 10 20 30 40 50
Distance from quenched end (mm)

• "Alloy Steels" 800

(4140, 4340, 5140, 8640) T(ºC) TE
600
-- contain Ni, Cr, Mo A B
(0.2 to 2 wt%) 400
-- these elements shift
the "nose" to longer times M(start)
200
(from A to B) M(90%)
-- martensite is easier 0 -1
10 10 103 105 Time (s)
to form Chapter 11 - 30
 Influences of Quenching Medium &
Specimen Geometry
• Effect of quenching medium:
Medium Severity of Quench Hardness
air low low
oil moderate moderate
water high high
• Effect of specimen geometry:
When surface area-to-volume ratio increases:
-- cooling rate throughout interior increases
-- hardness throughout interior increases
Position Cooling rate Hardness
center low low
surface high high

Chapter 11 - 31
 Precipitation Hardening
• Particles impede dislocation motion.
700
• Ex: Al-Cu system
T(ºC) L CuAl2
• Procedure: 600
-- Pt A: solution heat treat
+L  +L
A
(get  solid solution) 500 
-- Pt B: quench to room temp. C 
400
(retain  solid solution)
-- Pt C: reheat to nucleate 300
small  particles within 0 B 10 20 30 40 50
(Al) wt% Cu
 phase. composition range
available for precipitation hardening
• Other alloys that precipitation
Adapted from Fig. 11.24, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
harden: Temp. (Fig. 11.24 adapted from J.L. Murray, International
Pt A (sol’n heat treat) Metals Review 30, p.5, 1985.)
• Cu-Be
• Cu-Sn
• Mg-Al Pt C (precipitate 

Adapted from Fig.

11.22, Callister & Time
Rethwisch 8e. Pt B
Chapter 11 - 32
 Influence of Precipitation Heat
Treatment on TS, %EL
• 2014 Al Alloy:
• Maxima on TS curves. • Minima on %EL curves.
• Increasing T accelerates
process.
ita ll
cip ma
“ag tes
”
ed
ion

pre ny s
so .

era ita ge
lid uil
lut

“ov cip lar

ge tes
so n-eq

30
ma
tensile strength (MPa)

%EL (2 in sample)
pre wer

d”
no

400 fe
20
300
149ºC 10
200 204ºC 149ºC
204ºC
100 0
1min 1h 1day 1mo 1yr 1min 1h 1day 1mo 1yr
precipitation heat treat time precipitation heat treat time
Adapted from Fig. 11.27, Callister & Rethwisch 8e. (Fig. 11.27 adapted from Metals Handbook:
Properties and Selection: Nonferrous Alloys and Pure Metals, Vol. 2, 9th ed., H. Baker (Managing Chapter 11 - 33
Ed.), American Society for Metals, 1979. p. 41.)
 Summary

• Ferrous alloys: steels and cast irons

• Non-ferrous alloys:
-- Cu, Al, Ti, and Mg alloys; refractory alloys; and noble metals.
• Metal fabrication techniques:
-- forming, casting, miscellaneous.
• Hardenability of metals
-- measure of ability of a steel to be heat treated.
-- increases with alloy content.
• Precipitation hardening
--hardening, strengthening due to formation of
precipitate particles.
--Al, Mg alloys precipitation hardenable.

Chapter 11 - 34