VIETNAM WAR

Organized Crime?
Part 2: Political Turmoil

By William P. Litynski

Coup detat or Organized Crime?

The Assassinations of South Vietnams President Ngo Dinh Diem and American President John F. Kenned in No!em"er #$%&

South Vietnams President Ngo Dinh Diem was assassinated in Saigon, South Vietnam on November 2, 1963. Ngo Dinh Diem was a Roman Catholi .

!meri an President "ohn #. $ennedy and his wi%e "a kie $ennedy ride in a motor ade in Dallas, &e'as, (nited States o% !meri a on November 22, 1963, moments )e%ore President $ennedy was assassinated. President "ohn #. $ennedy was a Roman Catholi .

President of France 'harles de (aulle )center* and +thio,ias +m,eror -aile Selassie salute as foreign dignitaries render a final tri"ute to the late President John F. Kenned at the Arlington National 'emeter in Arlington. Virginia. /.S.A. on No!em"er 2%. #$%&. Charles de Gaulle, who was born in Lille, France on November 22, !"#, celebrated his $%rd birthda& on November 22, "'%( 'harles de (aulle ser!ed as the President of France from Januar 0. #$1$ until A,ril 20. #$%$. The #$%& 2ilder"erg 3eetings )a ,ri!ate +uro,ean ,olitical and "usiness conference* 4as held in 'annes. France from 2$5&# 3arch #$%&. President de (aulle himself re6ected the 7arren 'ommissions !ersion of the Kenned Assassination.

9The started on me 4ith :Ngo Dinh; Diem. ou remem"er. -e 4as corru,t and he ought to "e <illed. )o we *illed him( +e all got together and got a goddamn bunch o, thugs and we went in and assassinated him( No4. 4e!e reall had no ,olitical sta"ilit since then.= > /.S. President 8 ndon 2aines Johnson. in a ta,e5recorded con!ersation )Source: ?outu"e*
8 ndon 2aines Johnson

-.olitical power grows out o, the barrel o, a gun(/ 0 1ao 2se3tung

Vietnam War, Part *+ Lyndon Baines "ohnson , -s alation

Le%t to right+ (.S. !m)assador to South Vietnam .enry Ca)ot Lodge "r., Se retary o% State Dean Rusk, President Lyndon B. "ohnson, Se retary o% De%ense Ro)ert / Namara, and (nder Se retary o% State 0eorge W. Ball meet 1ri2ately on No2em)er 34, *564, the day a%ter President "ohn #. $ennedy was assassinated in Dallas. 7Photo+ Ce il Stoughton8Lyndon B. "ohnson Presidential Li)rary9

Le%t to right+ !2erell .arriman 7le%t9, the (nder Se retary o% State %or Politi al !%%airs, President Lyndon B. "ohnson, C:! Dire tor "ohn / Cone, C:! agent William -. Col)y 7sitting )ehind / Cone9, National Se urity !d2isor / 0eorge Bundy 7se ond %rom right in the rear9, and Se retary o% De%ense Ro)ert / Namara meet in the ;2al ;%%i e in De em)er *564.

2elephone Conversation 4etween .resident 5ohnson and the .resident6s )pecial 7ssistant ,or National )ecurit& 7,,airs 84und&9 +ashington, 1a& 2$, "':, ;2: a(m(
Source: /.S.. De,artment of State. Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-68, Volume @@VAA. 3ainland Southeast Asia: Begional Affairs. 7ashington. D'. Document Num"er 1& Criginal Source: Johnson 8i"rar . Becordings and Transcri,ts. Becording of a tele,hone con!ersation "et4een the President and 3c(eorge 2und . Ta,e %D.20 PNC ###. No classification mar<ing. This transcri,t 4as ,re,ared " the Cffice of the -istorian s,ecificall for this !olume. :-ere follo4s discussion of the Sea"orn mission to -anoi and ,lans for Am"assador Ste!enson to meet 4ith the President.; 5ohnson; < will tell &ou the more, < =ust sta&ed awa*e last night thin*ing o, this thing, and the more that < thin* o, it < don6t *now what in the hell, it loo*s li*e to me that we6re getting into another >orea( <t =ust worries the hell out o, me( < don6t see what we can ever hope to get out o, there with once we6re committed( < believe the Chinese Communists are coming into it( < don6t thin* that we can ,ight them #,### miles awa& ,rom home and ever get an&where in that area( < don6t thin* it6s worth ,ighting ,or and < don6t thin* we can get out( 7nd it6s =ust the biggest damn mess that < ever saw( 2und : At is an a4ful mess. Johnson: And 4e 6ust got to thin< a"out it. AEm loo<ing at this Sergeant of mine this morning and heEs got % little old <ids o!er there. and heEs getting out m things. and "ringing me in m night reading. and all that <ind of stuff. and A 6ust thought a"out ordering all those <ids in there. 7nd what in the hell am < ordering them out there ,or? +hat in the hell is ?ietnam worth to me? +hat is Laos worth to me? +hat is it worth to this countr&? +e6ve got a treat& but hell, ever&bod& else has got a treat& out there, and the&6re not doing a thing about it( 2und : ?eah. eah. 5ohnson; O, course, i, &ou start running ,rom the Communists, the& ma& =ust chase &ou right into &our own *itchen( 2und : ?eah. thatEs the trou"le. And that is 4hat the rest of that half of the 4orld is going to thin< if this thing comes a,art on us. ThatEs the dilemma. thatEs eFactl the dilemma. Johnson: 2ut e!er "od that A tal< to thatEs got an sense no4 the 6ust sa s Ch. m (od. ,lease gi!e us thought. Cf course A 4as reading 3ansfieldEs stuff this morning. and it is 6ust 3ilGuetoast as it can "e. -eEs got no s,ine at all. 2und : ?eah. Johnson: 2ut this is a terri"le thing that 4eEre getting read to do. 2und : 3r. President. A 6ust thin< it figure it is reall the onl "ig decision in one sense. this is the one that 4e ha!e to either reach u, and get it. or 4e let it go " . And AEm not telling ou toda 4hat AEd do in our ,osition. A 6ust thin< that the most that 4e ha!e to do 4ith it is ,ra 4ith it for another 4hile. Johnson: An "od else that 4e got that can ad!ise 4ith. that might ha!e an 6udgement on this Guestion. that might "e fresh. that might ha!e some ne4 a,,roach. 7ould 2radle "e an goodH 7ould 'la "e an goodH 2und : No. 2radle 4ould "e no good. A do not thin< 'la 4ould add. A thin< ouEre constantl searching. if A understand ou correctl . for some means of stiffening this thing that does not ha!e this escalating as,ect to it. and AE!e "een u, and do4n this 4ith 2o" 3cNamara. and A ha!e u, and do4n it again 4ith 3i<e Forrestal. And A thin< that there are some marginal things that 4e can do. . . . "ut A thin<. also. 3r. President. ou can do. 4hat A thin< Kenned did at least once 4hich is to ma<e the threat 4ithout ha!ing made our o4n internal decision that ou 4ould actuall carr it through. No4 A thin< that the ris< in that is that 4e ha!e. at least. it seemed to do it a"out once or t4ice "efore. And thereEs another dilemma in here. 4hich is the difficult our o4n ,eo,le ha!e in. AEm not tal<ing a"out Dean Bus< or 2o" 3cNamara or me. "ut ,eo,le 4ho are at second remo!ed. 4ho 6ust find it !er hard to "e firm. if the Ere not a"solutel clear 4hat our decision is. And et ou must safeguard that decision and <ee, our . . . Johnson: 7hat does 2ill thin< that 4e ought to doH

2und : -eEs in fa!or of touching things u,. "ut ou ought to tal< to him a"out it. AE!e got an eFtremel good memorandum from Forrestal that AEm 6ust getting read for ou that sho4s 4hat he thin<s a"out it. @2A Johnson: 7hat does he thin<H 2und : -e thin<s that 4e ought to "e read to mo!e a little "it. a little "it. And mainl the Vietnamese. Cn the other hand. a readiness to do more. -e "elie!es reall thatEs the "est 4a of gal!aniIing the South. that if the feel that 4e are ,re,ared to ta<e a little action against the center of this infection. that thatEs the "est 4a . . . Johnson: 7hat action do 4e ta<e. thoughH 2und : 7ell. A thin< that 4e reall do need to do some target fodder 4or<. 3r. President. that sho4s ,recisel 4hat 4e do and donEt mean here. The main o"6ect is to <ill as fe4 ,eo,le as ,ossi"le. 4hile creating an en!ironment in 4hich the incenti!e to react is as lo4 as ,ossi"le. 2ut A canEt sa to ou that this is a small matter. ThereEs one other thing that AE!e thought a"out. AE!e onl 6ust thought o!ernight. and itEs on this same matter of sa ing to a gu . ou go to Korea. or ou go to Vietnam. and ou fight in the rice ,addies. A 4ould lo!e to <no4 4hat ha,,ened if 4e 4ere to sa in this same s,eech. and from no4 on. no"od goes on this tas< 4ho doesnEt !olunteer. A thin< that 4e might turn around the atmos,here of our o4n ,eo,le out there. if it 4ere a !olunteer enter,rise. A sus,ect that the Joints 'hiefs 4onEt agree to that. "ut AEd li<e to <no4 4hat 4ould ha,,en. Af 4e reall dramatiIed this as Americans against terror and Americans <ee,ing their commitment. and Americans 4ho ha!e onl ,eace as their o"6ect. and onl Americans 4ho 4ant to go ha!e to go. ou might change the tem,er of it some. Johnson: 7ell. ou 4ouldnEt ha!e a 'or,oralsE (uard 4ould ouH 2und : A 6ust donEt <no4. A 6ust donEt <no4. Af thatEs true. then AEm not sure that 4eEre the countr to do this 6o". Johnson: A donEt thin< that itEs 6ust 3orse and Bussell. and (ruening. A thin< itEs . . . 2und : A <no4 it isnEt. A <no4 it 3r. President. it is $JK of the ,eo,le that donEt 4ant an ,art of it. Johnson: Did ou see the ,oll this morningH %1K of them donEt <no4 an thing a"out it. and of those that do. the ma6orit thin< that 4eEre mishandling it. 2ut the donEt <no4 4hat to do. that (allu,. 2und : ?eah. eah. 5ohnson; <t6s damn eas& to get into a war, but i, it6s going to be aw,ul hard to ever eBtricate &oursel, i, &ou get in( 2und : Ver eas . AEm !er sensiti!e to the fact that the ,eo,le 4ho are ha!ing trou"le 4ith the intransigent ,ro"lem find it !er eas to come and sa to the President of the /nited States. go and "e tough. Johnson: 7hat does 8i,,mann thin< that ou ought to doH 2und : 7ell. AEm going to tal< 4ith him at greater length. "ut 4hat he reall thin<s is that ou should ,ro!ide a di,lomatic structure 4ithin 4hich the thing can go under the control of -anoi. and 4al< a4a from it. A donEt thin< thatEs an unfair statement. "ut A 4ill as< him. Johnson: ?ou mean that he thin<s that -anoi ought to ta<e South VietnamH 2und : ?es sir. di,lomaticall . Johnson: /h. huh. 2und : 3a "e " calling it a neutraliIation and remo!ing American force and letting it sli, a4a the 4a that 8aos did. 4ould if 4e didnEt do an thing. and 4ill if 4e donEt do an thing. 7e 4ould guarantee the neutralit in some sort of a treat that 4e 4ould 4rite. A thin<. AEm sorr . AEm not sure that AEm the "est ,erson to descri"e 8i,,mannEs !ie4s. "ecause A donEt agree 4ith them. Johnson: 7ho. 4ho. 4ho. 4ho has he "een tal<ing to "esides ouH -as he tal<ed to Bus< on an of thisH -as he tal<ed to 3cNamaraH

2und : -eEs tal<ed to (eorge 2all. And heEs tal<ed to. A donEt thin< that heEs tal<ed to Bus<. and A donEt thin< heEs tal<ed to 3cNamara. Johnson: 7ouldnEt it "e good for he and 3cNamara to sit do4nH 2und : A thin< that it 4ould "e !er good. "ut A donEt thin<. A thin<. A had ,lanned to ha!e lunch 4ith 7alter on 3onda . "ecause A couldnEt find a 4or<a"le time "efore for that. "ut A can do it sooner. if ouEd li<e me to. Johnson: A 4ish ou 4ould. 2und : A 4ill. Johnson: AEd tr to get his ideas a little more concrete "efore A lea!e here. And AEd li<e to ha!e him tal< to 3cNamara. A might. A might 6ust ha!e the three of ou in this afternoon sometime. 2und : All right. Johnson: 7alter. 3cNamara and him :2allH;. AEd li<e to hear 7alter and 3cNamara de"ate. 2und : De"ate itH @%A Johnson: ?eah. :-ere follo4s discussion of a ,ossi"le time that afternoon for the President to meet 4ith 3cNamara. 3c(eorge 2und . 2all. and 7alter 8i,,mann.;

[2] Apparent reference to a memorandum from Forrestal to Bund , !a "6, printed in Foreign Relations, 1964-1968, #ol$ %, &ocument 1'8$ @%A According to the (resident)s &ail &iar , the (resident met *ith !c+amara, !c,eorge Bund , Ball, and -ippmann from 4./0 p$m$ to appro1imatel 2 p$m$ 34ohnson -i5rar 6 Ball *rote Rus7 an account of the meeting, noting that -ippmann 8made his usual argument for neutrali9ation$8 Ball reported that *hen he pressed, -ippmann admitted that he assumed Southeast Asia *as 8destined ine#ita5l to 5ecome a 9one of :hinese :ommunist control8 and the 5est U$S$ course *as to slo* that e1pansionism and 8ma7e it less 5rutal$8 Ball did not thin7 the (resident 85ought -ippmann)s thesis,8 5ut 4ohnson *as impressed *ith -ippmann)s #ie* that the United States *as losing the 5attle of international pu5lic relations$ After the (resident left, the group de5ated Southeast Asia and ;ietnam for another hour$ 3-etter from Ball to Rus7, !a /1< &epartment of State, Ball Files. -ot '4 & "'", ;ietnam 3Ball)s !emos66

Source: htt,s:LL444.mthol o<e.eduLacadLintrelL!ietnamLl"6"und .htm

8 ndon 2aines Johnson Address at Johns -o,<ins /ni!ersit : Peace 7ithout 'onGuest A,ril M. #$%1 3r. (arland. Senator 2re4ster. Senator T dings. 3em"ers of the congressional delegation. mem"ers of the facult of Johns -o,<ins. student "od . m fello4 Americans: 8ast 4ee< #M nations sent their !ie4s to some t4o doIen countries ha!ing an interest in southeast Asia. 7e are 6oining those #M countries and stating our American ,olic tonight 4hich 4e "elie!e 4ill contri"ute to4ard ,eace in this area of the 4orld. A ha!e come here to re!ie4 once again 4ith m o4n ,eo,le the !ie4s of the American (o!ernment. Tonight Americans and Asians are d ing for a 4orld 4here each ,eo,le ma choose its o4n ,ath to change. This is the ,rinci,le for 4hich our ancestors fought in the !alle s of Penns l!ania. At is the ,rinci,le for 4hich our sons fight tonight in the 6ungles of Vietnam. Vietnam is far a4a from this Guiet cam,us. 7e ha!e no territor there. nor do 4e see< an . The 4ar is dirt and "rutal and difficult. And some DJJ oung men. "orn into an America that is "ursting 4ith o,,ortunit and ,romise. ha!e ended their li!es on VietnamEs steaming soil. 7h must 4e ta<e this ,ainful roadH 7h must this nation haIard its ease. and its interest. and its ,o4er for the sa<e of a ,eo,le so far a4a H 7e fight "ecause 4e must fight if 4e are to li!e in a 4orld 4here e!er countr can sha,e its o4n destin . And onl in such a 4orld 4ill our o4n freedom "e finall secure. This <ind of 4orld 4ill ne!er "e "uilt " "om"s or "ullets. ?et the infirmities of man are such that force must often ,recede reason. and the 4aste of 4ar. the 4or<s of ,eace. 7e 4ish that this 4ere not so. 2ut 4e must deal 4ith the 4orld as it is. if it is e!er to "e as 4e 4ish. The 4orld as it is in Asia is not a serene or ,eaceful ,lace. The first realit is that North Vietnam has attac<ed the inde,endent nation of South Vietnam. Ats o"6ect is total conGuest. Cf course. some of the ,eo,le of South Vietnam are ,artici,ating in attac< on their o4n go!ernment. 2ut trained men and su,,lies. orders and arms. flo4 in a constant stream from north to south. This su,,ort is the heart"eat of the 4ar. And it is a 4ar of un,aralleled "rutalit . Sim,le farmers are the targets of assassination and <idna,,ing. 7omen and children are strangled in the night "ecause their men are lo al to their go!ernment. And hel,less !illages are ra!aged " snea< attac<s. 8arge5scale raids are conducted on to4ns. and terror stri<es in the heart of cities. 2he con,used nature o, this con,lict cannot mas* the ,act that it is the new ,ace o, an old enem&( Over this war 33 and all 7sia 33 is another realit&; the deepening shadow o, Communist China( 2he rulers in Canoi are urged on b& .e*ing( 2his is a regime which has destro&ed ,reedom in 2ibet, which has attac*ed <ndia, and has been condemned b& the Dnited Nations ,or aggression in >orea( <t is a nation which is helping the ,orces o, violence in almost ever& continent( 2he contest in ?ietnam is part o, a wider pattern o, aggressive purposes( +h& are these realities our concern? +h& are we in )outh ?ietnam? +e are there because we have a promise to *eep( )ince "E: ever& 7merican .resident has o,,ered support to the people o, )outh ?ietnam( +e have helped to build, and we have helped to de,end( 2hus, over man& &ears, we have made a national pledge to help )outh ?ietnam de,end its independence( 7nd < intend to *eep that promise(

2o dishonor that pledge, to abandon this small and brave nation to its enemies, and to the terror that must ,ollow, would be an un,orgivable wrong( +e are also there to strengthen world order( 7round the globe, ,rom 4erlin to 2hailand, are people whose well3being rests, in part, on the belie, that the& can count on us i, the& are attac*ed( 2o leave ?ietnam to its ,ate would sha*e the con,idence o, all these people in the value o, an 7merican commitment and in the value o, 7merica6s word( 2he result would be increased unrest and instabilit&, and even wider war( +e are also there because there are great sta*es in the balance( Let no one thin* ,or a moment that retreat ,rom ?ietnam would bring an end to con,lict( 2he battle would be renewed in one countr& and then another( 2he central lesson o, our time is that the appetite o, aggression is never satis,ied( 2o withdraw ,rom one battle,ield means onl& to prepare ,or the neBt( +e must sa& in southeast 7sia 33 as we did in Furope 33 in the words o, the 4ible; GCitherto shalt thou come, but no ,urther(G There are those 4ho sa that all our effort there 4ill "e futile 55 that 'hinaEs ,o4er is such that it is "ound to dominate all southeast Asia. 2ut there is no end to that argument until all of the nations of Asia are s4allo4ed u,. There are those 4ho 4onder 4h 4e ha!e a res,onsi"ilit there. 7ell. 4e ha!e it there for the same reason that 4e ha!e a res,onsi"ilit for the defense of +uro,e. 7orld 7ar AA 4as fought in "oth +uro,e and Asia. and 4hen it ended 4e found oursel!es 4ith continued res,onsi"ilit for the defense of freedom. Our ob=ective is the independence o, )outh ?ietnam, and its ,reedom ,rom attac*( +e want nothing ,or ourselves 33 onl& that the people o, )outh ?ietnam be allowed to guide their own countr& in their own wa&( 7e 4ill do e!er thing necessar to reach that o"6ecti!e. And 4e 4ill do onl 4hat is a"solutel necessar . An recent months attac<s on South Vietnam 4ere ste,,ed u,. Thus. it "ecame necessar for us to increase our res,onse and to ma<e attac<s " air. This is not a change of ,ur,ose. At is a change in 4hat 4e "elie!e that ,ur,ose reGuires. 7e do this in order to slo4 do4n aggression. 7e do this to increase the confidence of the "ra!e ,eo,le of South Vietnam 4ho ha!e "ra!el "orne this "rutal "attle for so man ears 4ith so man casualties. 7nd we do this to convince the leaders o, North ?ietnam 33 and all who see* to share their conHuest 33 o, a ver& simple ,act; +e will not be de,eated( +e will not grow tired( +e will not withdraw, either openl& or under the cloa* o, a meaningless agreement( 7e <no4 that air attac<s alone 4ill not accom,lish all of these ,ur,oses. 2ut it is our "est and ,ra erful 6udgment that the are a necessar ,art of the surest road to ,eace. 7e ho,e that ,eace 4ill come s4iftl . 2ut that is in the hands of others "esides oursel!es. And 4e must "e ,re,ared for a long continued conflict. At 4ill reGuire ,atience as 4ell as "ra!er . the 4ill to endure as 4ell as the 4ill to resist. A 4ish it 4ere ,ossi"le to con!ince others 4ith 4ords of 4hat 4e no4 find it necessar to sa 4ith guns and ,lanes: Armed hostilit is futile. Cur resources are eGual to an challenge. 2ecause 4e fight for !alues and 4e fight for ,rinci,les. rather than territor or colonies. our ,atience and our determination are unending. Cnce this is clear. then it should also "e clear that the onl ,ath for reasona"le men is the ,ath of ,eaceful settlement. )uch peace demands an independent )outh ?ietnam 33 securel& guaranteed and able to shape its own relationships to all others 33 ,ree ,rom outside inter,erence 33 tied to no alliance 33 a militar& base ,or no other countr&( These are the essentials of an final settlement. 7e 4ill ne!er "e second in the search for such a ,eaceful settlement in Vietnam. There ma "e man 4a s to this <ind of ,eace: in discussion or negotiation 4ith the go!ernments concernedN in large grou,s or in small onesN in the reaffirmation of old agreements or their strengthening 4ith ne4 ones.

7e ha!e stated this ,osition o!er and o!er again. fift times and more. to friend and foe ali<e. And 4e remain read . 4ith this ,ur,ose. for unconditional discussions. And until that "right and necessar da of ,eace 4e 4ill tr to <ee, conflict from s,reading. 7e ha!e no desire to see thousands die in "attle 55 Asians or Americans. 7e ha!e no desire to de!astate that 4hich the ,eo,le of North Vietnam ha!e "uilt 4ith toil and sacrifice. 7e 4ill use our ,o4er 4ith restraint and 4ith all the 4isdom that 4e can command. 2ut 4e 4ill use it. This 4ar. li<e most 4ars. is filled 4ith terri"le iron . For 4hat do the ,eo,le of North Vietnam 4antH The 4ant 4hat their neigh"ors also desire: food for their hungerN health for their "odiesN a chance to learnN ,rogress for their countr N and an end to the "ondage of material miser . And the 4ould find all these things far more readil in ,eaceful association 4ith others than in the endless course of "attle. These countries of southeast Asia are homes for millions of im,o!erished ,eo,le. +ach da these ,eo,le rise at da4n and struggle through until the night to 4restle eFistence from the soil. The are often 4rac<ed " disease. ,lagued " hunger. and death comes at the earl age of DJ. Sta"ilit and ,eace do not come easil in such a land. Neither inde,endence nor human dignit 4ill e!er "e 4on. though. " arms alone. At also reGuires the 4or< of ,eace. The American ,eo,le ha!e hel,ed generousl in times ,ast in these 4or<s. No4 there must "e a much more massi!e effort to im,ro!e the life of man in that conflict5torn corner of our 4orld. The first ste, is for the countries of southeast Asia to associate themsel!es in a greatl eF,anded coo,erati!e effort for de!elo,ment. 7e 4ould ho,e that North Vietnam 4ould ta<e its ,lace in the common effort 6ust as soon as ,eaceful coo,eration is ,ossi"le. The /nited Nations is alread acti!el engaged in de!elo,ment in this area. As far "ac< as #$%# A conferred 4ith our authorities in Vietnam in connection 4ith their 4or< there. And A 4ould ho,e tonight that the Secretar (eneral of the /nited Nations could use the ,restige of his great office. and his dee, <no4ledge of Asia. to initiate. as soon as ,ossi"le. 4ith the countries of that area. a ,lan for coo,eration in increased de!elo,ment. For our ,art A 4ill as< the 'ongress to 6oin in a "illion dollar American in!estment in this effort as soon as it is under4a . And A 4ould ho,e that all other industrialiIed countries. including the So!iet /nion. 4ill 6oin in this effort to re,lace des,air 4ith ho,e. and terror 4ith ,rogress. The tas< is nothing less than to enrich the ho,es and the eFistence of more than a hundred million ,eo,le. And there is much to "e done. The !ast 3e<ong Bi!er can ,ro!ide food and 4ater and ,o4er on a scale to d4arf e!en our o4n TVA. The 4onders of modern medicine can "e s,read through !illages 4here thousands die e!er ear from lac< of care.

Schools can "e esta"lished to train ,eo,le in the s<ills that are needed to manage the ,rocess of de!elo,ment. And these o"6ecti!es. and more. are 4ithin the reach of a coo,erati!e and determined effort. A also intend to eF,and and s,eed u, a ,rogram to ma<e a!aila"le our farm sur,luses to assist in feeding and clothing the need in Asia. 7e should not allo4 ,eo,le to go hungr and 4ear rags 4hile our o4n 4arehouses o!erflo4 4ith an a"undance of 4heat and corn. rice and cotton. So A 4ill !er shortl name a s,ecial team of outstanding. ,atriotic. distinguished Americans to inaugurate our ,artici,ation in these ,rograms. This team 4ill "e headed " 3r. +ugene 2lac<. the !er a"le former President of the 7orld 2an<. An areas that are still ri,,ed " conflict. of course de!elo,ment 4ill not "e eas . Peace 4ill "e necessar for final success. 2ut 4e cannot and must not 4ait for ,eace to "egin this 6o". This 4ill "e a disorderl ,lanet for a long time. An Asia. as else4here. the forces of the modern 4orld are sha<ing old 4a s and u,rooting ancient ci!iliIations. There 4ill "e tur"ulence and struggle and e!en !iolence. (reat social change 55 as 4e see in our o4n countr no4 55 does not al4a s come 4ithout conflict.

7e must also eF,ect that nations 4ill on occasion "e in dis,ute 4ith us. At ma "e "ecause 4e are rich. or ,o4erfulN or "ecause 4e ha!e made some mista<esN or "ecause the honestl fear our intentions. -o4e!er. no nation need e!er fear that 4e desire their land. or to im,ose our 4ill. or to dictate their institutions. 2ut 4e 4ill al4a s o,,ose the effort of one nation to conGuer another nation. 7e 4ill do this "ecause our o4n securit is at sta<e. 2ut there is more to it than that. For our generation has a dream. At is a !er old dream. 2ut 4e ha!e the ,o4er and no4 4e ha!e the o,,ortunit to ma<e that dream come true. For centuries nations ha!e struggled among each other. 2ut 4e dream of a 4orld 4here dis,utes are settled " la4 and reason. And 4e 4ill tr to ma<e it so. For most of histor men ha!e hated and <illed one another in "attle. 2ut 4e dream of an end to 4ar. And 4e 4ill tr to ma<e it so. For all eFistence most men ha!e li!ed in ,o!ert . threatened " hunger. 2ut 4e dream of a 4orld 4here all are fed and charged 4ith ho,e. And 4e 4ill hel, to ma<e it so. The ordinar men and 4omen of North Vietnam and South Vietnam 55 of 'hina and Andia 55 of Bussia and America 55 are "ra!e ,eo,le. The are filled 4ith the same ,ro,ortions of hate and fear. of lo!e and ho,e. 3ost of them 4ant the same things for themsel!es and their families. 3ost of them do not 4ant their sons to e!er die in "attle. or to see their homes. or the homes of others. destro ed. 7ell. this can "e their 4orld et. 3an no4 has the <no4ledge 55 al4a s "efore denied 55 to ma<e this ,lanet ser!e the real needs of the ,eo,le 4ho li!e on it. A <no4 this 4ill not "e eas . A <no4 ho4 difficult it is for reason to guide ,assion. and lo!e to master hate. The com,leFities of this 4orld do not "o4 easil to ,ure and consistent ans4ers. 2ut the sim,le truths are there 6ust the same. 7e must all tr to follo4 them as "est 4e can. 7e often sa ho4 im,ressi!e ,o4er is. 2ut A do not find it im,ressi!e at all. The guns and the "om"s. the roc<ets and the 4arshi,s. are all s m"ols of human failure. The are necessar s m"ols. The ,rotect 4hat 4e cherish. 2ut the are 4itness to human foll . A dam "uilt across a great ri!er is im,ressi!e. An the countr side 4here A 4as "orn. and 4here A li!e. A ha!e seen the night illuminated. and the <itchens 4armed. and the homes heated. 4here once the cheerless night and the ceaseless cold held s4a . And all this ha,,ened "ecause electricit came to our area along the humming 4ires of the B+A. +lectrification of the countr side 55 es. that. too. is im,ressi!e. A rich har!est in a hungr land is im,ressi!e. The sight of health children in a classroom is im,ressi!e. These 55 not might arms 55 are the achie!ements 4hich the American Nation "elie!es to "e im,ressi!e. And. if 4e are steadfast. the time ma come 4hen all other nations 4ill also find it so. +!er night "efore A turn out the lights to slee, A as< m self this Guestion: -a!e A done e!er thing that A can do to unite this countr H -a!e A done e!er thing A can to hel, unite the 4orld. to tr to "ring ,eace and ho,e to all the ,eo,les of the 4orldH -a!e A done enoughH As< oursel!es that Guestion in our homes 55 and in this hall tonight. -a!e 4e. each of us. all done all 4e couldH -a!e 4e done enoughH 7e ma 4ell "e li!ing in the time foretold man ears ago 4hen it 4as said: OA call hea!en and earth to record this da against ou. that A ha!e set "efore ou life and death. "lessing and cursing: therefore choose life. that "oth thou and th seed ma li!e.O This generation of the 4orld must choose: destro or "uild. <ill or aid. hate or understand. 7e can do all these things on a scale ne!er dreamed of "efore. 7ell. 4e 4ill choose life. An so doing 4e 4ill ,re!ail o!er the enemies 4ithin man. and o!er the natural enemies of all man<ind.

To Dr. +isenho4er and 3r. (arland. and this great institution. Johns -o,<ins. A than< ou for this o,,ortunit to con!e m thoughts to ou and to the American ,eo,le. (ood night. Source: htt,:LL444.,"s.orgL4g"hLameFLhonorLfilmmoreL,sP,eace.html

South Vietnams President (en. Van 3inh Duong )left* greets /.S. Am"assador to South Vietnam -enr 'a"ot 8odge Jr. )right* in Saigon. South Vietnam in Decem"er #$%&. )Photo: 8arr 2urro4sLTime 8ife*

/.S. Am"assador to South Vietnam (en. 3aF4ell D. Ta lor )third from right* ,oses for a grou, ,ortrait 4ith South Vietnams strongman (en. Duong Van 3inh )92ig 3inh=. second from right* and his famil in Saigon. )Photo: S*ords and (lo*shares " (en. 3aF4ell D. Ta lor )#$M2**

South Vietnams President (en. Van 3inh Duong )second from left*. Secretar of Defense Bo"ert 3cNamara )third from left*. /.S. Am"assador to South Vietnam -enr 'a"ot 8odge Jr. )third from right*. and 'AA Director John AleF 3c'one )right* a,,ear at a ,ress conference in Saigon. South Vietnam in Decem"er #$%&. )Photo: 8arr 2urro4sLTime 8ife*
.residents o, the Iepublic o, ?ietnam, 8)outh ?ietnam9 Name 2oo* O,,ice Le,t O,,ice NgJ KLnh MiNm 2' October "EE 2 November "'% DQRng VSn 3inh Ngu Tn KhUnh DQRng VSn 3inh Ngu Tn KhUnh .rovisional Leadership Committee DQRng VSn 3inh Phan KhVc SWu Ngu&Pn ?Qn 2hiNu TrXn VSn -QRng DQRng VSn 3inh 2 No!em"er #$%& &J Januar #$%D 0 Fe"ruar #$%D #% 3arch #$%D 2M August #$%D 0 Se,tem"er #$%D 2% Ccto"er #$%D : 5une "'E 2# A,ril #$M1 20 A,ril #$M1 &J Januar #$%D 0 Fe"ruar #$%D #% 3arch #$%D 2M August #$%D 0 Se,tem"er #$%D 2% Ccto"er #$%D #D June #$%1 2 7pril "$E 20 A,ril #$M1 &J A,ril #$M1 .art& Can Lao .art& 3ilitar 3ilitar 3ilitar 3ilitar 3ilitar 3ilitar 'i!ilian a,,ointed " militar 1ilitar&R National )ocial Memocratic Front 8 "'!3 9 H A,,ointed " National Assem"l Note Mied in coup d6Otat chairman. 3ilitar Be!olutionar 'ouncil None None None 'ommittee: Duong Van 3inh. Ngu en Khanh and Tran Thien Khiem chairman. Pro!isional 8eadershi, 'ommittee None Flection; "'$ and "$ ( acting acting

N72<ON7L )FCDI<2S 7C2<ON 1F1OI7NM7 N)71 2$%; )outh ?ietnam

Source: 8 ndon 2aines Johnson Presidential 8i"rar htt,:LL444.l"6li".uteFas.eduLJohnsonLarchi!es.homLNSA3sLnsam2M&.as,

Source: 8 ndon 2aines Johnson Presidential 8i"rar htt,:LL444.l"6li".uteFas.eduLJohnsonLarchi!es.homLNSA3sLnsam2M&.as,

Source: 8 ndon 2aines Johnson Presidential 8i"rar htt,:LL444.l"6li".uteFas.eduLJohnsonLarchi!es.homLNSA3sLnsam2M&.as,

N72<ON7L )FCDI<2S 7C2<ON 1F1OI7NM7 N)71 % %; Ie )F7 stories 8re,; N)71 %#!9

Source: 8 ndon 2aines Johnson Presidential 8i"rar htt,:LL444.l"6li".uteFas.eduLJohnsonLarchi!es.homLNSA3sLnsam&#&.as,

/.S. Am"assador to South Vietnam -enr 'a"ot 8odge Jr. )center* listen as South Vietnams President (eneral Duong Van 3inh )92ig 3inh=* chats 4ith 'hairman of the Joint 'hiefs of Staff (en. 3aF4ell D. Ta lor at (ia 8ong Palace in Saigon. Vietnam in 3a #$%D. )Photo: 8arr 2urro4sLTime 8ife*

8eft to right: Secretar of Defense Bo"ert S. 3cNamara. (eneral 3aF4ell D. Ta lor. (eneral Ngu en Khanh. and /.S. Am"assador to South Vietnam -enr 'a"ot 8odge Jr. in Saigon. )Photo: ;ietnam. A =istor " Stanle Karno4*

/.S. Arm (en. 3aF4ell D. Ta lor )left*. the 'hairman of the Joint 'hiefs of Staff. South Vietnams President (en. Ngu en Khanh )center*. and Secretar of Defense Bo"ert S. 3cNamara )right* cele"rate at a ,ress conference in Saigon. South Vietnam in 3arch #$%D. )Source: %n Retrospect. >he >raged and -essons of ;ietnam " Bo"ert S. 3cNamara*

Le%t to right+ C:! Dire tor "ohn !le' / Cone, New <ork 0o2ernor Nelson Ro ke%eller, Se retary o% De%ense Ro)ert S. / Namara, and Se retary o% State Dean Rusk laugh together during a meeting at the State De1artment in Washington, D.C. in /ay *56=. 7Photo+ #ran is /iller8&ime Li%e9

Se retary o% De%ense Ro)ert S. / Namara 7le%t9 talks with (.S. !rmy 0eneral William Westmoreland 7right9, and (.S. !m)assador to South Vietnam .enry Ca)ot Lodge "r. 7 enter9 in Saigon, South Vietnam in /ay *56=. 7Larry Burrows8&ime Li%e9

)Photo: American >raged . ?enned , 4ohnson, and the @rigins of the ;ietnam Aar " Da!id Kaiser*

)Photo: S*ords and (lo*shares " (en. 3aF4ell D. Ta lor )#$M2**

Brown Brothers .arriman , Co. 1artners 7%rom le%t to right9 -. Roland .arriman, %ormer (.S. Senator Pres ott Bush, $night Woolley, and %ormer Se retary o% De%ense Ro)ert Lo2ett meet 1ri2ately at the Brown Brothers .arriman , Co. o%%i e on "uly 3>, *56=. &he staged 0ul% o% &onkin in ident took 1la e during the %irst week o% !ugust *56=. !ll %our men were mem)ers o% Skull , Bones, a se ret so iety lo ated at <ale (ni2ersity.

Photogra1h taken %rom USS Maddox 7DD?@4*9 during her staged engagement with three North Vietnamese motor tor1edo )oats in the 0ul% o% &onkin, 3 !ugust *56=. &he 2iew shows all three o% the )oats s1eeding towards the Maddox. 7Sour e+ ;%%i ial (.S. Na2y Photogra1h, %rom the olle tions o% the Na2al .istori al Center9

3cNamara as<s (ia,: 7hat ha,,ened in Ton<in (ulfH

3c6 1992 :op right +ando$net 3c6 1992 Associated (ress Y 7hile 3cNamara !isits -anoi. old soldiers attac< his ste4ardshi, -ANCA. Vietnam )No! $. #$$1 5 #%:J% +ST* 55 7hen former Defense Secretar Bo"ert 3cNamara met the enem Es leading strategist Thursda . he raised a Guestion heEd sa!ed for &J ears: 7hat reall ha,,ened in the Ton<in (ulf on Aug. D. #$%DH 9A"solutel nothing.= re,lied retired (en. Vo Ngu en (ia,. 2oth sides agree that North Vietnam attac<ed a /.S. Na! shi, in the gulf on Aug. 2 as it cruised close to shore. 2ut it 4as an alleged second attac< t4o da s later that led to the first /.S. "om"ing raid on the North and ,ro,elled America dee, into 4ar. 3an /.S. historians ha!e long "elie!ed the Johnson administration fa"ricated the second attac< to 4in congressional su,,ort for 4idening the 4ar. 2ut for 3cNamara. (ia,Es 4ord 4as the clincher. 9AtEs a ,rett damned good source.= he said after the meeting. As defense secretar from #$%#5%0 under Presidents Kenned and Johnson. 3cNamara 4as one of the leading ,ro,onents of /.S. su,,ort for South Vietnam against the 'ommunist North. 2ut he left office con!inced the 4ar 4as doomed to failure. he sa s. re!ealing his change of heart in memoirs ,u"lished this ear. The 015 ear5old (ia,. 4earing his oli!e green uniform 4ith four gold stars on his shoulder. greeted him 4ith an understatement: OA heard a"out ou long ago.O 3cNamara laughed. OA heard a"out ?C/ long ago.O he re6oined. Then the tal<ed for more than an hour. 4ith 3cNamara freGuentl leaning for4ard and 6a""ing his finger for em,hasis as he tal<ed a"out the lessons of histor . 3cNamara. M$. emerged from the meeting descri"ing it as eFtraordinar and sa ing he 4as struc< " the lac< of hostilit . 3cNamara came to -anoi for the first time to as< the Vietnamese to ta<e ,art in a conference of to, Vietnam 7ar decision5 ma<ers. 2he New Sor*3based Council on Foreign Ielations, which is organizing the gathering, sa&s it would be an opportunit& to share archival materials and correct the historical record( O?ou lost ... &.2JJ.JJJ ,eo,le.O 3cNamara told (ia,. O7e lost 10.JJJ.O -e said the conference 4ould hel, Oensure that our nations and other nations learn ho4 to a!oid such conflicts in the future.O -e ela"orated to re,orters after4ard: 9The ma6or Guestions are: 'ould 4e ha!e a!oided a traged 55 a traged for them and a traged for us 55 or could 4e ha!e minimiIed itH= (ia, and Vietnamese officials ha!e said the 4ill gi!e the conference serious consideration. 3cNamara 4asted little time in raising a Guestion that clearl had nagged him for decades. OTo this da A donEt <no4 4hat ha,,ened on August 2 and August D. #$%D. in the Ton<in (ulf.O he said to (ia,. OA thin< 4e ma ha!e made t4o serious mis6udgments. ... Did 4hat 4e thought 4as an attac< on August D. #$%D. the so5called second attac< 55 did it occurHO (ia, re,lied. OCn the fourth of August. there 4as a"solutel nothing.O Be,orters 4ere ushered from the room soon after. "ut 3cNamara later Guoted (ia, as sa ing he "elie!ed /.S. sur!eillance shi,s 4ere tr ing to ,ro!o<e an attac< so President Johnson 4ould ha!e an eFcuse to ste, u, /.S. in!ol!ement. 3cNamara. s,ea<ing later to re,orters. dis,uted that inter,retation: OThat ,oint that (ia, made is a"solutel 4ithout foundation.O Johnson Guic<l 4on congressional a,,ro!al of the 9Ton<in (ulf Besolution= authoriIing him to 9ta<e all necessar measures= to re,el attac<s on /.S. forces. The first /.S. com"at troo,s landed in South Vietnam se!en months later. 3cNamara said the administration "elie!ed the second attac< had ta<en ,lace and that it had to res,ond forcefull . 1cNamara and the rest o, the delegation ,rom the Council on Foreign Ielations also met 2hursda& with Meput& .remier .han ?an >hai and Meput& ?ice .resident Ngu&en 2hi 4inh. former foreign minister in South VietnamEs ,ro5'ommunist 9,ro!isional re!olutionar go!ernment= during the 4ar. Source: htt,:LL!i.uh.eduL,agesL"uIImatL4orld#$0PD.html

George +( 4all on the ?ietnam +ar; <n Cis Own +ords

0eorge W. Ball, (nder (.S. Se retary o% State 7*56*?*5669

9Cn Ccto"er #. #$%#. Premier Diem called on the /nited States for a "ilateral defense treat N on Ccto"er #&. he as<ed for /nited States com"at troo,s and a su"stantial amount of eGui,ment. President Kenned res,onded " sending a fact5finding mission to Vietnam headed " (eneral 3aF4ell Ta lor and 7alt Bosto4. "oth 7hite -ouse ad!isers. The inclusion of Bosto4 4orried me. A friend of mine since the Second 7orld 7ar. he 4as an articulate amateur tactician. < thought him undul& ,ascinated b& the then ,addish theories about counter3insurgenc& and that intriguing new invention o, the pro,essors, -nation building(/ Still. 3aF4ell Ta lorEs ,resence 4as reassuring. Though A then <ne4 him onl slightl . A had a fa!ora"le im,ression of his 6udgment. -e tal<ed 4ith an elegance uneF,ected in a soldier. and he loo<ed eFactl as a general should: clean5cut. scholarl . handsome. and resolute. An the ,ast he had. at least am"iguousl . eF,ressed a!ersion to the in!ol!ement of American forces on the Asian mainland. so A ho,ed he might "e another 3atthe4 Bidg4a . ?et. as A <ne4 from eF,erience 4ith m French friends. there was something about ?ietnam that seduced the toughest militar& minds into ,antas& . At this time. the /nited States maintained in South Vietnam an ad!isor grou, of a"out se!en hundred men )roughl the limit ,ro!ided " the #$1D (ene!a Accords*. No4 (eneral Ta lor ca"led from Saigon in earl No!em"er #$%# that 4e should introduce a militar force into South Vietnam to raise national morale. ,erform logistical tas<s Oin su,,ort of militar and flood relief o,erations.O conduct com"at o,erations necessar for self5defense and for securit of the area in 4hich it 4as stationed. ,ro!ide emergenc reser!es to "ac< u, the Vietnamese armed forces Oin the case of a heightened militar crisis.O and Oact as an ad!ance ,art of such additional forces as ma "e introduced.O Such /nited States troo,s. the general noted. might O"e called u,on to engage in com"at to ,rotect themsel!es. their 4or<ing ,arties. and the area in 4hich the li!e. As a general reser!e. the might "e thro4n into action )4ith /.S. agreement* against large. formed guerrilla "ands 4hich ha!e a"andoned the forests for attac<s on ma6or targets.O 'ontrar to the later eF,erience of thousands of oung Americans. Ta lor also asserted that. 9as an area for the o,erations of /.S. troo,s. SVN )South Vietnam* is not an eFcessi!el difficult or un,leasant ,lace to o,erate.==

> >he (ast =as Another (attern. !emoirs " (eorge 7. 2all )#$02*. ,. &%1
9Cn Saturda morning. No!em"er D. #$%#. A attended a meeting 4ith (eneral Ta lor in Secretar Bus<Es conference room. Secretar 3cNamara. De,ut Secretar of Defense Bos4ell (il,atric. and a fe4 others 4ere also ,resent. 3cNamara and (il,atric. 4ho 4ere in!aria"l ,rom,t. arri!ed in ad!ance of the general. and A tal<ed 4ith them a"out the Ta lor ,ro,osals. A 4as. A said. a,,alled at the re,orts recommendationsN we must not commit ,orces to )outh ?ietnam or we would ,ind ourselves in a protracted con,lict ,ar more serious than >orea( 2he ?iet Cong were mean and tough, as the French had learned to their sorrow, and there was alwa&s danger o, provo*ing Chinese intervention as we had in >orea( 1oreover, < said, unli*e >orea, the ?ietnam problem was not one o, repelling overt invasion but o, miBing ourselves up in a revolutionar& situation with strong anticolonialist overtones( To m disma . A found no s m,ath for these !ie4s. 2oth 3cNamara and (il,atric seemed ,reoccu,ied 4ith the single Guestion. Cow can the Dnited )tates stop )outh ?ietnam ,rom a ?iet Cong ta*eover? -o4 did A ,ro,ose to a!oid itH The 9falling domino= theor 4as a "rooding omni,resence. A 4as de,ressed " the direction affairs 4ere ta<ing. so at the end of a meeting on another su"6ect the follo4ing Tuesda . No!em"er M. A raised the Guestion 4ith President Kenned . A told him that A strongl o,,osed the recommendations of the Bosto4 mission. 2o commit 7merican ,orces to )outh ?ietnam would, in m& view, be a tragic error( Once that process started, < said, there would be no end to it( -+ithin ,ive &ears we6ll have three hundred thousand men in the paddies and =ungles and never ,ind them again( 2hat was the French eBperience( ?ietnam is the worst possible terrain both ,rom a ph&sical and political point o, view(/ To m sur,rise. the President seemed Guite un4illing to discuss the matter. res,onding 4ith an o!ertone of as,erit : 9(eorge. ouEre 6ust craIier than hell. That 6ust isnEt going to ha,,en.==

> >he (ast =as Another (attern. !emoirs " (eorge 7. 2all )#$02*. ,. &%%

9Although A disli<e trite meta,hors. A felt as though an accelerating current 4ere ,ro,elling us faster and faster to4ard a gigantic 4aterfall. ?et no one 4as Guestioning the na!igation. onl ho4 to re! u, the engines to ma<e the shi, run faster. 9-o4H= 4as the o"sessi!e Guestion. Cow could we appl& the vast power at our command to impose our will on the North ?ietnamese and the ?iet Cong? A recalled the stor of a small "o at the Ioo 4hose father had ,ointed out a large caged animal and announced: OSee. thatEs a giraffeO > to 4hich the "o had !er sensi"l ans4ered: 97h H= To as< the OgiraffeO Guestion. no4 that 4e 4ere getting into increasingl dee, trou"le. 4as regarded as almost su"!ersi!e. No one 4as ,re,ared to discuss 4h 4e ,ersisted in a 4ar that. in m !ie4. 4e could not 4in. in ,ursuit of an o"6ecti!e that seemed e!er da to ha!e less realit . 3en 4ith minds trained to "e critical 4ithin the four 4alls of their o4n disci,lines > to acce,t no ,ro,osition 4ithout adeGuate ,roof > shed their critical ha"its and a"6ured the hard Guestion 94h .= Cnce the caught hold of the le!ers of ,o4er in 7ashington. the all too freGuentl su"ordinated o"6ecti!it to the eFhilaration of 4or<ing those le!ers and 4atching things ha,,en. The lessons of histor . to m sur,rise. 4ere disdained. At 4as useless for me to ,oint out the meaning of the French eF,erienceN the thought that eF,erience 4ithout rele!ance. Dnli*e the French, we were not pursuing colonialist ob=ectives but nobl& waging war to support a beleaguered people( 4esides, we were not a second3class nation tr&ing to hang on in )outheast 7sia ,rom sheer nostalgic inertiaR we were a superpower3with all that that implied( Dis,arate frames of reference "eclouded understanding. For Canois leaders, control o, the whole o, ?ietnam was a ,anatical, almost religious, ob=ective the& had relentlessl& pursued ,or twent& &earsR ,or 7merica, the war was a marginal a,,air not worth a head3on clash with .e*ing or 1oscow, a struggle to be waged with a limited commitment o, manpower and weaponr&( 2hus .resident 5ohnson ruled out such provocative acts as mining Caiphong Carbor, or blowing up the di*es, or bombing the cit& center o, Canoi, or mounting a land invasion o, North ?ietnamR nor did an&one even consider the use o, nuclear weapons( 2he con,lict was a limited war ,or limited ob=ectives 0 a t&pe o, war,are ,or which a democrac& is organicall& badl& suited( For me. that "uilt5in dis,arit of commitment raised fundamental Guestions. Not onl did 4e suffer the im,licit disad!antage of 4aging limited 4ar against an ad!ersar committed to total 4ar. there 4as also the Guestion 4hether America. as a democratic state. could fight a limited 4ar that lasted more than a ear or so and still <ee, it limited. A free ,eo,le 4ould acce,t sustained sacrifices onl if ,ersuaded that the cause 6ustified their de,ri!ations. Af the ans4er 4ere No. 4e ought to 4ithdra4N if ?es. 4ere 4e not then o"ligated to use our full militar mightH That ,ro"lem haunted me.= > >he (ast =as Another (attern. !emoirs " (eorge 7. 2all )#$02*. ,. &M%5&MM 97t the beginning o, 5une "':, while considering moves that would intensi,& the 7merican involvement, the .resident as*ed me to discuss ?ietnam with .resident de Gaulle( 1& selection ,or that mission was no accidentR in L&ndon 5ohnson6s mind, the ver& ,act that < opposed the war made me the best advocate o, the 7dministration6s position( -e <ne4 that. as long as A remained in the go!ernment. A 4ould defend go!ernment ,olicies. 4hate!er the might "e. The President understood and res,ected m commitment to that ,osition though he li<ed to tease me a"out it. 9(eorge.= he once told me. 9 ouEre li<e the school teacher loo<ing for a 6o" 4ith a small school district in TeFas. 7hen as<ed " the school "oard 4hether he "elie!ed that the 4orld 4as flat or round. he re,lied: ZCh. A can teach it either 4a .= 9Thats ou.= said the President. 9?ou can argue li<e hell 4ith me against a ,osition. "ut A <no4 outside this room ouEre going to su,,ort me. ?ou can teach it flat or round.= President de (aulle recei!ed me in the s,lendor of the +l see Palace 4ith his customar friendl greeting. A told the French President that. although "oth our go!ernments 4anted a !ia"le South Vietnam. the go!ernment of Saigon seemed una"le to sto, the North Vietnamese and Vietcong in!asion. 7ithin a reasona"le time. the /nited States might itself ha!e to ta<e action against the North. e!en though that might. at some ,oint. engage the 'hinese forces. Naturall& we wanted a diplomatic solution, but the )outh was so ,ragile that even tal* o, negotiations might lead to its collapse and a Huic* ?ietcong victor&( +e, however, did not believe in negotiating until our position on the battle,ield was so strong that our adversaries might ma*e the reHuisite concessions( 2hus be,ore serious tal*s, we would have to teach the ?ietnamese a lesson and, in the process, persuade the Chinese also o, our strength( 'hina. as 4e sa4 it. 4as not unli<e the So!iet /nion in #$#M: ,rimiti!e and aggressi!e to4ard its neigh"ors. De (aulle. as A had antici,ated. re6ected m anal sis categoricall . 'hina. he told me. 4as nothing li<e the So!iet /nion in #$#MN it lac<ed the militar . industrial. and intellectual resources that Bussia had e!en at that time. Thus. it 4ould not "ecome aggressi!e until after it had consolidated its ,o4er. 4hich 4ould reGuire a long ,eriod. +e were pursuing the same illusions about ?ietnam that had gotten France into such trouble( <t would, o, course, be nice i, we were right, but he *new something about ?ietnam; it was a hopeless place to ,ight( Ce, there,ore, ,elt obliged to tell me that the Dnited )tates could not win, even though we commanded vastl& more resources than France had been able to mobilize( 2he more power we committed, the more the population would turn against us( +e would never succeed b& ,orce, onl& b& negotiation( < riposted with the established 7dministration line that )outh ?ietnam would never understand a negotiating move at this time, but interpret it as a sign o, 7merican wea*ness( 4ut de Gaulle did not let me get ,ar down that course, interrupting to sa& that our position in ?ietnam was hopeless and France would not involve itsel, in an& wa& in the escalation o, the ,ighting( +e would have to go it alone( ?ietnam, he said 0 and < shall never ,orget the phrase 0 is -rotten countr&(/ France had learned that to its sorrow( Since de (aulleEs !ie4s su,,orted 4hat A had "een arguing to m colleagues. A ho,ed the 4ould reinforce m ,osition. "ut 4hen A returned from +uro,e. A found 8 ndon Johnson unim,ressed. or at least un4illing to listen. as he 4as then ,reoccu,ied 4ith strengthening his domestic flan<s. As a seasoned ,olitician. he had concluded that if there 4ere to "e a ma6or escalation of the 4ar. he must ma<e sure of ha!ing 'ongress "ehind him. Thus he 4ould seiIe the earliest o,,ortunit to o"tain a 'ongressional mandate for a greater in!ol!ement. That o,,ortunit came !er ,rom,tl .= > >he (ast =as Another (attern. !emoirs " (eorge 7. 2all )#$02*. ,. &MM5&M$

9Muring this period, < was aware that we were conducting covert militar& operations under the code name Operation .lan %:7( The 4ere ,art of a strateg of mounting O,rogressi!el escalating ,ressureO on -anoi " 4hat President Johnson li<ed to call 9noncommitting measures.= and the included the dis,atching of PT "oats to "om"ard North Vietnamese coastal installations. During this same ,eriod )Fe"ruar and 3arch #$%D*. the na! had "egun an eFercise under the code name of De Soto Patrol. 4hich consisted of sending destro ers u, the (ulf of Ton<in 4ith the ostensi"le mission of collecting intelligence on such matters as radars and coastal defenses. On 7ugust 2, "':, while the destro&er Maddox was heading south a,ter completing such a mission, North ?ietnamese .2 boats made a run at her( Though some of the PresidentEs ad!isers urged an immediate retaliator mo!e. the President 4ished for an e!en stronger record. So. rather than <ee,ing our shi,s out of this no4 esta"lished danger Ione. the .resident approved sending both the Maddox and the destro&er C. Turner Joy bac* into the Gul,( A 4as u,set " this decisionN the argument that 4e had to 9sho4 the flag= and demonstrate that 4e did not 9intend to "ac< do4n= seemed to me a hollo4 "ra!ado. Thus A 4as distur"ed "ut not sur,rised on August D. #$%D. 4hen 4ord came that "oth destro ers had "een attac<ed. The North Vietnamese ma 4ell ha!e thought that the De Soto Patrols 4ere ,art of the &DA raids and 4ere merel tr ing to defend the coast " attac<ing the destro ers. 3oreo!er. there 4as some e!idence that the commanders might ha!e misread the radar "li,sN if the destro ers 4ere in danger. it could ha!e "een "ecause the 4ere firing at one another. 7ithin the neFt t4o or three da s. e!en President Johnson "egan to dou"t the occurrence of a second attac<. 7ith disgust he said to me at one ,oint. O-ell. those dum". stu,id sailors 4ere 6ust shooting at fl ing fish[O A thought 4e 4ould no4 sto, ris<ing our destro ers. "ut immediatel follo4ing the ,resumed second attac<. Secretar 3cNamara ,ro,osed a further De Soto Patrol to sho4 the flag and ,ro!e to -anoi and the 4orld that 4e 4ere not intimidated. The ,ro6ect 4as "riefl discussedN there 4as general agreement around the ta"leN the President indicated his a,,ro!al to go for4ard. A had said little during the discussion. "ut A no4 s,o<e u,. O3r. President. A urge ou not to ma<e that decision. Su,,ose one of those destro ers is sun< 4ith se!eral hundred men a"oard. Ane!ita"l . thereEll "e a 'ongressional in!estigation. 7hat 4ould our defense "eH +!er one <no4s the De Soto Patrols ha!e no intelligence mission that couldnEt "e accom,lished 6ust as 4ell " ,lanes or small "oats at far less ris<. The e!idence 4ill strongl suggest that ou sent those shi,s u, the (ulf onl to ,ro!o<e attac< so 4e could retaliate. Just thin< 4hat 'ongress and the ,ress 4ould do 4ith that[ The Ed sa ou deli"eratel used American "o s as deco cluc<s and that ou thre4 a4a li!es 6ust so ouEd ha!e an eFcuse to "om". 3r. President. ou couldnEt li!e 4ith that.=\ The Ton<in (ulf attac<55 or attac<s. ho4e!er man there ma ha!e "een > ,ro!ided the President 4ith enough le!erage to eFtract from 'ongress almost unlimited authorit to escalate our in!ol!ement. The Ton<in (ulf Besolution )a terrif ingl o,en5ended grant of ,o4er* disa,,ointed meN A had counted on 'ongress to insert Gualif ing language. "ut 'ongress had a"dicated. A did not <no4 4here 4e 4ere headed. "ut it 4as clear the 4ar 4as getting out of hand.= > >he (ast =as Another (attern. !emoirs " (eorge 7. 2all )#$02*. ,. &M$5&0J 92ecause 4e failed to ad6ust our 4ar aims to 4hat 4as no4 tacitl regarded as our true o"6ecti!e55to sa!e our re,utation5 doctrine decreed that 4e must ne!er agree to a cease5fire in ,lace. 4hich 4ould lea!e North Vietnamese forces in the South. Cur a!o4ed 4ar aim 4as to restore the Saigon go!ernmentEs so!ereignt o!er the 4hole of South Vietnam and our failure to achie!e it 4ould im,air our re,utation as a guarantor. Nor should 4e agree to a coalition go!ernment that 4ould ,ermit the North Vietnamese a,,aratchi<s a "eachhead from 4hich the could Guic<l su"!ert and o!er4helm the softer South Vietnamese elements > a ,rediction that im,lied a !ote of no confidence in the Saigon hierarch . )ince we had now reduced our reasons ,or continuing to struggle in ?ietnam to the simple ob=ective o, saving ourselves ,rom humiliation 0 in other words, preserving our reputation > 4e should ha!e concentrated on a sim,le Guestion: Cow can we withdraw ,rom ?ietnam with the least loss o, ,ace? The indis,ensa"le first ste, 4as to free oursel!es from su"ser!ience to 4hate!er regime might at the time "e in ,o4er in South Vietnam. +e could never achieve terms that would satis,& the )aigon governmentR its war aims were rigidl& de,ined b& the desire o, those in power to *eep their =obs( 7e 4ere constantl on the !erge. as A <e,t ,ointing out. of "ecoming a O,u,,et of our ,u,,et.O Cur first ,ro"lem 4as to re,osition oursel!es so 4e could negotiate "ilaterall 4ith North Vietnam to secure the return of our ,risoners and the ,eaceful 4ithdra4al of our forces. That reGuired that 4e demonstrate 4hat 4as e!er da more o"!ious: the South Vietnamese 4ere not fulfilling their ,art of the "argain. 2he )aigon government was corrupt and without ,irm national roots(=

> >he (ast =as Another (attern. !emoirs " (eorge 7. 2all )#$02*. ,. &0M

!B;(& &.- !(&.;R+ William P. Litynski ser2ed in the (.S. !rmy %rom Se1tem)er 3AA*?No2em)er 3AA=, 1rimarily in the #irst !rmored Di2ision in 0ermany 7!1a he &roo1, *?* C!V, Budingen9B he was de1loyed to :raC 7near Baghdad9 %rom !1ril 3AA4 until "uly 3AA=. .e attended Crest2iew .igh S hool in Crest2iew, #lorida %rom *556?3AAA and graduated in 3AAA. .e li2ed at <okota !ir Base, "a1an 7(.S. !ir #or e )ase near &okyo9 %rom *5>@? *554. 7.is mother is %rom "a1an, and his grand%ather was dra%ted twi e )y the :m1erial "a1anese Na2y during World War ::.9 William P. Litynski has tra2eled e'tensi2ely and has 2isited &okyo, London, Paris, Rome, Berlin, Vienna, Brussels, Lu'em)ourg City, /uni h, #rank%urt am /ain, New <ork City, Washington D.C., Boston, Philadel1hia, Chi ago, Seattle, and Dallas. 7-?mail+ w1l4*=Dyahoo. om9

/aE. 0en. &hien $hiem 7L9, President 0en. Duong Van /inh 73L9, and Premier 0en. Nguyen $hanh 7R9 walk together in Saigon, South Vietnam in Se1tem)er *56=. 7Photo+ Larry Burrows8&ime Li%e9

South Vietnams President 0eneral Nguyen $hanh 73L9 2isits a 1agoda with Buddhist /onk &hi h &am Chau in Se1tem)er *56=. 7Photo+ &ime Li%e9

President Lyndon B. "ohnson 7third %rom right9 a11ear at his ran h in &e'as on De em)er *, *564 with 7le%t to right9 unidenti%ied, !rmy Chie% o% Sta%% 0en. -arle 0. Wheeler, Commandant o% the /arine Cor1s 0en. Da2id /. Shou1, De1uty Se retary o% De%ense Roswell L. 0il1atri , Chie% o% Na2al ;1erations !dm. Da2id / Donald, Se retary o% De%ense Ro)ert / Namara, Chairman o% the "oint Chie%s o% Sta%% 0en. /a'well &aylor, and !ir #or e Chie% o% Sta%% 0en. Curtis -. Le/ay. 7Photo+ Stan Wayman8&ime , Li%e Pi tures80etty :mages9

President Lyndon B. "ohnson meets with the "oint Chie%s and senior Pentagon o%%i ials at the Lyndon B. "ohnson Ran h near Stonewall, &e'as on De em)er 33, *56=. Clo kwise %rom the President+ Lyndon B. "ohnson, Se retary o% De%ense Ro)ert / NamaraB /ilitary !ide /aEor 0eneral Chester Cli%tonB !ir #or e Chie% o% Sta%% 0eneral Curtis Le/ayB Chairman o% the "oint Chie%s o% Sta%% 0eneral -arle WheelerB !rmy Chie% o% Sta%% 0eneral .arold $. "ohnsonB De1uty Se retary o% De%ense Cyrus Van eB Chie% o% Na2al ;1erations !dmiral Da2id / DonaldB /arine Cor1s 0eneral Walla e /. 0reene "r. &wo days later, on De em)er 3=, *56=, the Viet Cong )lew u1 the Brinks .otel, whi h was ser2ing as an !meri an )arra ks, and !m)assador &aylor asked that )om)ing o% the North )egin. 7Photo+ Lyndon B. "ohnson Presidential Li)rary Photo )y <oi hi R. ;kamoto9

?iet Cong 2errorism or False3Flag Covert Operation? At 1:11 ,.m. on Decem"er 2D. #$%D. Viet 'ong terrorists eF,loded a "om" in the garage area underneath the 2rin<s -otel in Saigon. South Vietnam. The hotel. housing #21 militar and ci!ilian guests. 4as "eing used as officersE "illets for /.S. Armed Forces in the Be,u"lic of Vietnam. T4o Americans 4ere <illed. and #JM Americans. Vietnamese. and Australians 4ere in6ured. Small "uildings at the rear of the 2rin<s -otel 4ere com,letel destro ed " the force of the "last. )Photo: /.S. Air Force* htt,:LLnarademo.umiacs.umd.eduLcgi5"inLisadgL!ie4o"6ect.,lHo"6ect]M$J0D

)Photo: ;ietnam. A =istor " Stanle Karno4* .rime 1inisters o, the Iepublic o, ?ietnam Name 2oo* O,,ice Ngu en Ngoc Tho D No!em"er #$%& Ngu en Khanh. #st time 0 Fe"ruar #$%D Ngu en @uan Canh. #st time 2$ August #$%D Ngu en Khanh. 2nd time & Se,tem"er #$%D Tran Van -uong. #st time D No!em"er #$%D Ngu en @uan Canh. 2nd time 20 Januar #$%1 Phan -u ^uat Ngu&en Cao >& Ngu en Van 8oc Tran Van -uong. 2nd time Tran Thien Khiem Ngu en 2a 'an Vu Van 3au #% Fe"ruar #$%1 " 5une "'E &# Ccto"er #$%M 20 3a #$%0 # Se,tem"er #$%$ D A,ril #$M1 20 A,ril #$M1

Le,t O,,ice &J Januar #$%D 2$ August #$%D & Se,tem"er #$%D D No!em"er #$%D 20 Januar #$%1 #1 Fe"ruar #$%1 0 June #$%1 % October "'$ #M 3a #$%0 # Se,tem"er #$%$ D A,ril #$M1 2D A,ril #$M1 &J A,ril #$M1

.art& 'i!ilian in militar 6unta 3ilitar 'i!ilian in militar 6unta 3ilitar 'i!ilian in militar 6unta 'i!ilian in militar 6unta Dai Viet ^uoc Dan Dang. ci!ilian in militar 6unta 1ilitar& HHH Dan 'hu Part )Democrac Part * Forces for National Beconciliation

Note None None acting None None acting None None None None None None None

)Photo: ;ietnam. A =istor " Stanle Karno4*

!meri an National Se urity !d2isor / 0eorge Bundy 7le%t9 and South Vietnams President 0eneral Nguyen $hanh walk a ross the runway at Cam1 .olloway in Pleiku, South Vietnam on #e)ruary @, *56F, a%ter the !meri an military )ase was atta ked )y the Viet Cong in a sur1rise raid whi h took se2en !meri an li2es. Bundy was on his way )a k to Washington in the wake o% !meri an and South Vietnamese atta ks on North Vietnamese military installations in retaliation %or the Viet ong raid. 7G Bettmann8C;RB:S9

(.S. !m)assador to South Vietnam /a'well &aylor wat hes 0en. William C. Westmoreland shake hands with National Se urity !d2isor / 0eorge Bundy in Saigon, South Vietnam on #e)ruary =, *56F. 7Photo+ (P:8Bettmann9 7Sour e+ Grand Expectations: The United States, 1945-1974 )y "ames &. Patterson9

Standing on a sand)ag re2etment to get a )etter 2iew o% the air )ase in Pleiku, South Vietnam, National Se urity !d2isor / 0eorge Bundy 7 enter9 and (.S. !rmy 0eneral William C. Westmoreland, Commander o% the (.S. /ilitary !ssistan e Command Vietnam 7/!CV9, are in%ormed on the Pleiku atta k )y Lieutenant Colonel "ohn C. .ughes 7le%t9, Commander o% the F3nd (S !rmy !2iation Battalion, on #e)ruary *A, *56F. &he Viet Congs atta ked the air )ase at Pleiku on the night o% #e)ruary @, *56F. 7Photo+ G Bettmann8C;RB:S9

President 8 ndon 2. Johnson discusses ,olic 4ith /.S. Senator J. 7illiam Ful"right on Jul 20. #$%1. )Photo " ?oichi C<amotoL8 ndon 2. Johnson Presidential 8i"rar *

Prime 3inister of South Vietnam Ngu en 'ao K )left*. /.S. ,resident 8 ndon 2. Johnson )foreground. "ac< of head sho4n*. and President of South Vietnam Ngu en Van Thieu )second from right* meet in -onolulu. -a4aii. in Fe"ruar #$%%. 'AA agent +d4ard (. 8ansdale is seated in the "ac<ground. second from right. )Photo: ?oichi Bo"ert C<amoto*

Dean Rusk 7le%t9 and Ro)ert / Namara 7right9 listen as 0en. William C. Westmoreland talks to President Lyndon B. "ohnson at the Royal .awaiian .otel in .onolulu on #e)ruary 6, *566. 7Photo+ <oi hi R. ;kamoto, Lyndon B. "ohnson Presidential Li)rary9

!2erell .arriman, Dean Rusk 7le%t9, South Vietnamese !m)assador Vu Van &hai, (.S. Senator .iram #ong, and (. !le'is "ohnson 7leaning on ta)le9 ha2e a on2ersation a)oard !ir #or e ;ne on #e)ruary F, *566 en route %rom Washington, D.C., (.S.!. to .onolulu, .awaii, (.S.!. to attend the .onolulu Con%eren e on the Vietnam War. 7Photo+ <oi hi R. ;kamoto8Lyndon B. "ohnson Presidential Li)rary9

South Vietnamese 1aratroo1er 0eneral Do Cao &ri 7le%t, red )eret9 walks with (.S. !m)assador to South Vietnam .enry Ca)ot Lodge "r. in South Vietnam. 7Photo+ &ime Li%e9

Secretar of Defense Bo"ert 3cNamara )left* rides in an air,lane 4ith an unidentified South Vietnamese arm officer. )Photo: Time 8ife*

President Lyndon B. "ohnson s1eaks with South VietnamHs President Nguyen Van &hieu in .onolulu at their last meeting on "uly *5, *56>. 7Photo )y <oi hi R. ;kamato8National !r hi2es9

Clo kwise, le%t to right+ Se retary o% State Dean Rusk, South Vietnams President Nguyen Van &hieu, President Lyndon B. "ohnson, South Vietnams Premier Nguyen Cao $y, unidenti%ied South Vietnamese di1lomat, "a k Valenti, (.S. !rmy 0eneral William C. Westmoreland, .enry Ca)ot Lodge "r., and Se retary o% De%ense Ro)ert / Namara meet )ehind losed doors. 7Photo+ Lyndon B. "ohnson Presidential Li)rary9

Clo kwise, le%t to right+ Walt Rostow, 0en. William C. Westmoreland, Ni holas $atIen)a h, Se retary o% State Dean Rusk, President Lyndon B. "ohnson, Cyrus Van e, and 0en. -arle Wheeler meet together to dis uss the Vietnam War at the White .ouse. 7Photo+ Lyndon B. "ohnson Presidential Li)rary9

(.S. President Lyndon B. "ohnson 7le%t9 2isits South Vietnam on ; to)er 36, *566, with (.S. !rmy 0eneral William Westmoreland, South Vietnams President Lieutenant 0eneral Nguyen Van &hieu, and South Vietnams Prime /inister Nguyen Cao $y. 7National !r hi2es8 Lyndon B. "ohnson Li)rary 1hoto )y <oi hi ;kamoto9

!meri an President Lyndon Baines "ohnson addresses !meri an troo1s stationed at Cam Ranh Bay, South Vietnam on ; to)er 36, *566. With President "ohnson on the s1eakers 1lat%orm are 7le%t to right9+ 0en. William C. Westmoreland, Commander o% (.S. /ilitary !ssistan e Command VietnamB Lt. 0en. Nguyen Van &hieu, South Vietnams Chie% o% StateB South Vietnamese Premier 0en. Nguyen Cao $yB (.S. Se retary o% State Dean RuskB unidenti%iedB and (.S. !m)assador to South Vietnam .enry Ca)ot Lodge "r. 7:mage )y G Bettmann8C;RB:S9

.eads o% states meet together at the S-!&; on2ention on ; to)er 3=, *566. Le%t to right+ Prime /inister Nguyen Cao $y 7South Vietnam9, Prime /inister .arold .olt 7!ustralia9, President Park Chung .ee 7$orea9, President #erdinand /ar os 7Phili11ines9, Prime /inister $eith .olyoake 7New Jealand9, Lt. 0en. Nguyen Van &hieu 7South Vietnam9, Prime /inister &hanom $ittika horn 7&hailand9, President Lyndon B. "ohnson 7(nited States9. 7Photo+ Lyndon B. "ohnson Presidential Li)rary9

Photo shows leaders signing the /anila summit agreement at /al anang Pala e in /anila, Phili11ines on ; to)er 3F, *566. Le%t to right+ !ustralian Prime /inister .arold .olt, South $orean President Park Chung .ee, New Jealand Prime /inister $eith .olyoake, Phili11ine #oreign /inister /ar iso Ramos 7standing9, Phili11ine President #erdinand /ar os, &hailandHs Prime /inister &hamon $ittika horn, (.S. President Lyndon B. "ohnson, (.S. Se retary o% State Dean Rusk, South Vietnamese Chie% o% State Nguyen Van &hieu, and Premier Nguyen Cao $y. 7G Bettmann8C;RB:S9

3anila 'onference of S+ATC nations on the Vietnam 7ar: American and South Vietnamese di,lomats ,artici,ate in a ,ri!ate meeting at 3anila -otel in 3anila. Phili,,ines on Ccto"er 2&. #$%%. From left to right: Secretar of State Dean Bus<. /.S. Am"assador to South Vietnam -enr 'a"ot 8odge Jr.. unidentified. Bo"ert Komer. President 8 ndon 2. Johnson. (en. 7illiam '. 7estmoreland. South Vietnams Prime 3inister Ngu en 'ao K . 7alt Bosto4. and South Vietnams President Ngu en Van Thieu. )8 ndon 2. Johnson Presidential 8i"rar ,hoto " ?oichi C<amoto*

President Lyndon B. "ohnson 7le%t9 stands )eside Phili11ines President #erdinand /ar os at the /anila !ir1ort in /anila, Phili11ines on ; to)er 3@, *566. 7Bettmann8C;RB:S9

President and /rs. Lyndon B. "ohnson 1ose with $ing Bhumi)ol and Kueen Sirikit )e%ore the start o% a %ormal dinner in the Chakri &hrone .all o% the Royal Pala e in Bangkok, &hailand on ; to)er 3>, *566. &hey are shown %ormally dressed in 48= length shot. 7Bettmann8C;RB:S9

L&ndon dances while 7merica is burning; President 8 ndon 2. Johnson dances 4ith Amelda 3arcos. the 4ife of Phili,,ines President Ferdinand 3arcos. in 3anila. Phili,,ines in Ccto"er #$%%. )8arr 2urro4sLTime 8ife*

(.S. !rmy 0en. William C. Westmoreland 7le%t9, Commander o% (.S. %or es in Vietnam, and (.S. !m)assador to South Vietnam .enry Ca)ot Lodge "r. 7right9 greet (.S am)assador to the (nited Nations !rthur 0old)erg at an air1ort in Saigon, South Vietnam on /ar h *, *56@. !ll three men were mem)ers o% the Coun il on #oreign Relations. 7Bettmann8C;RB:S9

Standing at attention during the 1laying o% the national anthems are 7le%t to right9 in %ront rowB South Vietnamese Chie% o% State, Nguyen Van &hieu 7wearing dark suit9B President Lyndon "ohnsonB and Premier Nguyen Cao $y. !t attention in se ond row are 7le%t to right9B Rear !dm. .ora e Bird, Commander o% (.S. na2al %or es in the /arianas :slands 7wearing short slee2ed uni%orm9B Se retary o% State Dean Rusk, and Se retary o% De%ense Ro)ert / Namara during arri2al eremonies at 0uam :nternational !ir1ort in !gana, 0uam, (S! on /ar h *5, *56@. 7#rank "ohnston8Bettmann8C;RB:S9

0en. William C. Westmoreland, Commander o% the (S #or es in Vietnam wears the Boy S out Sil2er Bu%%alo !ward %or distinguished ser2i e as he stands with 0en. -arle Wheeler, Chairman o% the "oint Chie%s o% Sta%%, 0eneral .arold "ohnson, !rmy Chie% o% Sta%% in Washington, D.C. on !1ril 3>, *56@. 7Bettmann8C;RB:S9

Se retary o% De%ense Ro)ert / Namara 7le%t9, (.S. !rmy 0eneral William Westmoreland, Commander o% (. S. #or es in Vietnam, and (.S. !rmy 0eneral -arl Wheeler, Chairman o% the "oint Chie% o% Sta%%, stand together at the White .ouse on "uly *4, *56@, where they met with President Lyndon B. "ohnson. 7Bettmann8C;RB:S9

President #erdinand /ar os 7r9 and his wi%e :melda /ar os 7se ond %rom le%t9, greet South Vietnams Premier Nguyen Cao $y 7l9 and his wi%e 7se ond %rom right9 in /anila, Phili11ines as they arri2e %or a state 2isit on !ugust *A, *566. 7:mage )y G Bettmann8C;RB:S9

President Lyndon B. "ohnson meets with Prime /inister Nguyen Cao $y 7le%t9 o% the Re1u)li o% Vietnam on #e)ruary >, *566 during the .onolulu Con%eren e at Cam1 Smith near .onolulu, .awaii, (.S.!. Se retary o% De%ense Ro)ert / Namara 7le%t9 meets with President Nguyen Van &hieu 7right9 o% the Re1u)li o% Vietnam in the %oreground. 7Photo )y <oi hi R. ;kamoto9

Prime 3inister of South Vietnam (en. Ngu en 'ao K )left* chats 4ith /.S. President 8 ndon 2. Johnson in -onolulu. -a4aii on Fe"ruar 0. #$%%. )7hite -ouse Photogra,h Cffice*

National Se urity !d2isor Walt Rostow shows President Lyndon B. "ohnson a model o% the $he Sanh area in the White .ouse Situation Room on #e)ruary *F, *56>. 7White .ouse 1hoto9

Se retary o% State Dean Rusk 7le%t9, (.S. !rmy 0eneral William C. Westmoreland 7 enter9, and President Lyndon B. "ohnson a11ear at a 1ress on%eren e in Washington, D.C. on !1ril 6, *56>. 7Bettmann8C;RB:S9

President Lyndon B. "ohnson is Eoined )y se2eral o% his to1 ad2isors to dis uss the Vietnam War at Cam1 Da2id on !1ril 5, *56>. :t is )elie2ed )y some that the meeting was held so as to e' use the 1resident %rom attending /artin Luther $ing, "r.Hs %uneral. &he men de1i ted are 7%rom le%t to right9+ (.S. !m)assador to South Vietnam -llsworth Bunker, President Lyndon B. "ohnson, !2erell .arriman, Se retary o% State Dean Rusk, and Chairman o% the "oint Chie%s o% Sta%% 0eneral -arle Wheeler. 7Wally / Namee8C;RB:S9

South Vietnams President 0en. Nguyen Van &hieu 7le%t9 listens as !meri as President Lyndon Baines "ohnson deli2ers a statement at the lose o% the on%eren e in .onolulu, .awaii, (.S.!. on "uly 3A, *56>. 7G Bettmann8C;RB:S9

President Lyndon B. "ohnson 7%oreground, )a k o% head9 meets with !rthur ". 0old)erg, Se retary o% State Dean Rusk, 0eorge W. Ball 7third %rom right9, National Se urity !d2isor / 0eorge Bundy, and two unidenti%ied (.S. !rmy generals. 0old)erg, Rusk, Ball, and Bundy were mem)ers o% the Coun il on #oreign Relations. 7Photo+ Lyndon B. "ohnson Presidential Li)rary9

#rom le%t to right+ #ormer (.S. !m)assador to South Vietnam /a'well &aylor, C:! Dire tor Ri hard .elms, and Se retary o% State Dean Rusk dis uss Vietnam War with President Lyndon B. "ohnson on "uly 3=, *56>. 7Photo+ <oi hi R. ;kamoto8Lyndon B. "ohnson Presidential Li)rary9

Vietnam War, Part 3+ &et ;%%ensi2e, /y Lai /assa re , LPoli e ! tionM

South Vietnams 0eneral Nguyen Ngo Loan 7le%t9, South Vietnams Chie% o% National Poli e, e'e utes Viet Cong terrorist and sus1e ted hild? killer Ca1tain Nguyen Van Lem 7right9 in Saigon during the &et ;%%ensi2e on #e)ruary *, *56>. 0eneral Loan would later mo2e to Virginia a%ter the Vietnam WarB 0eneral Loan died o% an er in Virginia in *55>. 7-ddie !dams, !sso iated Press8Wide World Photos9

-.olitical power grows out o, the barrel o, a gun(/ 0 1ao 2se3tung

Vi tims o% the /y Lai /assa re. &he /y Lai /assa re took 1la e in /y Lai, South Vietnam on /ar h *6, *56>, killing FA= Vietnamese men, women, and hildren. ! ording to !le'ander Co k)urn and "e%%rey St. Clair in their )ook Whiteout, the /y Lai /assa re was 1art o% a C:! o2ert o1eration alled ;1eration Phoeni'. 7Photo )y Ronald L. .ae)erle9

(.S. !rmy /ilitary Poli emen 7/P9 return %ire %rom inside the )esieged !meri an -m)assy in Saigon, Re1u)li o% Vietnam on "anuary 4*, *56> during the )eginning o% the &et ;%%ensi2e. &wo !meri an soldiers were killed during the sur1rise Viet Cong &et atta k on the em)assy that day. 7Wide World Photo9 7Sour e+ 0rauer, N ! Ne"s #icture oo$ o% 19&', 1. =69

! Viet Cong re)el lies dead at the !meri an -m)assy in Saigon, South Vietnam during the &et ;%%ensi2e on "anuary 4*, *56>. 7Photo+ Ray Cran)ourne8Bla k Star9 7Sour e+ The (ietna) Experience: *)a+es o% War, 1. 4@9

A ,hotogra,h of Viet 'ong terrorists that 4ere <illed during an attem,ted "rea<through of the ,erimeter at Tan Son Nhut Air 2ase in Saigon. South Vietnam during the Tet Cffensi!e on Fe"ruar #. #$%0. )Photo " : First 8ieutenant +.2. -err. Nec<ar Pictorial. A.V. Plt. %$th Sig. 2n. )A**

! S ene a%ter &et ;%%ensi2e in Saigon, South Vietnam in #e)ruary *56>. 7Photo+ William -ggleston8Bettmann8C;RB:S9

&he grounds o% the >th Di2ision 7>eme9 in the Cholon distri t o% Saigon takes a hit %rom two @FA 1ound )om)s during the *56> &et o%%ensi2e. Cholon, or Chinatown, was a market area inha)ited )y Vietnamese o% 1redominately Chinese origin. 7:mage )y G &im Page8C;RB:S9

.ouses )urn during %ier e %ighting on the north side o% Saigon, South Vietnam during the &et ;%%ensi2e on /ay 6, *56>. Cholon, SaigonHs Chinese distri t, was the s ene o% ste11ed u1 enemy terrorism on /ay >, with troo1s s urrying %rom )lo k to )lo k %iring at 1oli e stations and military 2ehi les and hoisting Viet Cong %lags u1 light 1oles. 7G Bettmann8C;RB:S9

&roo1s on %oot and in 1ersonnel arriers trek along a street in northern Saigon on /ay 6, *56>, whi h was engul%ed in smoke %rom %ier e %ighting during the &et ;%%ensi2e. 7G Bettmann8C;RB:S9

!erial View o% !rmy &anks in Cholon 7Chinese9 Distri t in Saigon, South Vietnam on /ay 5, *56>. 7Photo+ G Bettmann8C;RB:S9

South Vietnamese soldiers )arri ade the streets o% the Cholon Distri t 7the Chinese Distri t9 in Saigon, South Vietnam during the se ond &et ;%%ensi2e on /ay *A, *56>. 7:mage+ G Christian Simon1ietri8Sygma8Cor)is9

Re%ugees %lee Viet Cong terrorists in Saigon, South Vietnam on /ay @, *56>. 7Photo+ G $ent Potter8Bettmann8C;RB:S9

! tank sits amidst the ru))le and wre kage on a street in the Phu Lam distri t o% Saigon on early /ay 4*, *56> as smoke rises %rom )urning houses in the )a kground. &he tank was ad2an ing towards an area %rom whi h small arms %ire was oming. -nemy %or es hurled =A ro kets into Saigon and its su)ur)s on early "une = as small )ands o% in%iltrators doggedly held on in two small se tions o% the ity. 7:mage+ G Bettmann8C;RB:S9

7Photo+ htt1+88www.military1hotos.net8%orums8showthread.1h1N*4A=A@?Vietnamese?/ilitary?&hread?7u1dated?on?regular?)asis981age659

Besidents of 'holon. the 'hinese section of Saigon. retrie!e the remains of their household goods after their homes 4ere destro ed in fierce street fighting. )Photo: htt,:LLrom,edas."logs,ot.comL2JJ$PJMPJ#Parchi!e.html*

Vietnamese hildren run 1ast and look at the harred and dismem)ered )odies as i2ilians lie dead and a South Vietnamese soldier still sits in his Eee1 a%ter )eing shot in the head )y a team o% hit?and?run Viet ong terrorists during an am)ush in Da Nang, South Vietnam on "anuary 4A, *56>. 7:mage )y G Bettmann8C;RB:S9

&en weeks a%ter the &et ;%%ensi2e %ighting, )usiness and )la k market ontinue in the streets or )om)ed?out )uildings in .ue, South Vietnam on !1ril *=, *56>. &his sidewalk )la k market has %or sale e2erything %rom anned milk to !meri an igarettes and liCuor. 7Photo+ G $yoi hi Sawada8Bettmann8C;RB:S9

South Vietnamese military 1oli e o%%i ers o)ser2e a grou1 o% Vietnamese ladies in the streets o% .ue, South Vietnam on !1ril *=, *56>, ten weeks a%ter the &et ;%%ensi2e %ighting. 7G Bettmann8C;RB:S9

!n !meri an tank o% the 5th Di2ision a11ear among the ruins o% a street in Saigon, South Vietnam near the <?)ridge a%ter retaking the area %ollowing the /ini?&et ;%%ensi2e in *56>. 7:mage )y G &im Page8C;RB:S9

(.S. /arines rawl out o% range a%ter )eing 1inned down )y enemy %ire during house?to?house om)at in .ue, South Vietnam on #e)ruary *6, *56>. Leatherne ks in %oreground await medi al attention. 7:mage )y G Bettmann8C;RB:S9

Ca1tured Communist made ro kets and ri%les are 1iled in the %oreground as a soldier 7le%t9 )egins to Cuestion )ounded and )lind%olded Viet Cong terrorists %ollowing raid in the Cholon 7Chinese9 distri t o% Saigon on #e)ruary 5, *56>. 7:mage )y G Bettmann8C;RB:S9

Rows o% o%%ins o% 2i tims o% the *56> &et Viet Cong o%%ensi2e+ Berea2ed relati2es mourn their dead in .ue, South Vietnam on ; to)er *F, *565 during mass %uneral o% 3FA 1ersons killed )y Viet Cong terrorists during the &et ;%%ensi2e. &he %uneral was held on ; to)er *F, *565 as )odies o% 2i tims were only re ently dis o2ered. 7:mage )y G Bettmann8C;RB:S9

South Vietnamese !rmy soldiers arry a wounded woman on a stret her during the &et ;%%ensi2e in *56>. 7Photo+ &ime Li%e9

! South Vietnamese !rmy soldier e'amines an inEured Vietnamese )oy who was atta ked )y Viet Cong terrorists during the &et ;%%ensi2e in *56>. 7Photo+ &ime Li%e9

! 1hoto o% Viet ong &errorist Nguyen Van Sam 7Photo+ &ime Li%e9

! 1hoto o% Viet ong &errorist &hi !nh .uynh 7Photo+ &ime Li%e9

! 1hoto o% a1tured 1lans %or an attem1ted atta k on $orean army )illet 7)arra ks9. 7Photo+ &ime Li%e9

! 1hoto o% Viet ong &errorist Van &am Nguyen 7Photo+ &ime Li%e9

! South Vietnamese 1oli e o%%i er interrogates a Viet Cong terrorist. 7Photo+ &ime Li%e9

Sto1wat hes used in )om)s )y Viet Cong terrorists 7Photo+ &ime Li%e9

(nidenti%ied )odies near )urning house in /y Lai, Vietnam on /ar h *6, *56> 7Photo )y Ronald .ae)erle9 htt1+88rom1edas.)logs1ot. om83AA5OA@OA*Oar hi2e.html

Soldiers )urn a Vietnamese dwelling in /y Lai during the /y Lai in ident on /ar h *6, *56>. 7Photo+ Ronald L. .ae)erle9 7Sour e+ PRe1ort o% !rmy re2iew into /y Lai in identP9 htt1+88rom1edas.)logs1ot. om83AA5OA@OA*Oar hi2e.html

&wo (.S. !rmy soldier arries their omrade who shot himsel% in the %oot during the /y Lai massa re on /ar h *6, *56>. 7Sour e+ PRe1ort o% the De1artment o% !rmy re2iewP &he 1reliminary in2estigations into the /y Lai in ident. #rom the Li)rary o% Congress, /ilitary Legal Resour esB !uthor Ronald L. .ae)erle9 htt1+88rom1edas.)logs1ot. om83AA5OA@OA*Oar hi2e.html

/.S. 3arines ad!ance ,ast an 3D0 Patton tan< during the "attle for -ue in #$%0. )Photo: htt,:LLrom,edas."logs,ot.comL2JJ$PJMPJ#Parchi!e.html*

! South Vietnamese 1aratroo1er disarms a North Vietnamese soldier who emerged %rom a )unker underneath the smoldering ruins o% a %armhouse on the &hai Dong ru))er 1lantation, southwest o% &ay Ninh, on Se1tem)er *=, *56>. &he 1aratroo1ers %ought a )attalion o% North Vietnamese and Viet Cong who had in%iltrated &ay Ninh earlier in the week. 7Photo+ htt1+88www.military1hotos.net8%orums8showthread.1h1N*4A=A@?Vietnamese?/ilitary?&hread?7u1dated?on?regular?)asis981age3*9

Vietnamese sailors o% the Re1u)li o% Vietnam Na2y 1atrol the /ekong Ri2er. 7Photo+ htt1+88www.military1hotos.net8%orums8showthread.1h1N*4A=A@?Vietnamese?/ilitary?&hread?7u1dated?on?regular?)asis981age=9

!n !meri an Na2y tango )oat on the Sang .aam Luong Ri2er, also known as the Lower /ekong Ri2er, in *56>. South VietnamHs ri2ers and waterways were a 2ital 1art o% the military me hanism. &he Na2y was res1onsi)le %or kee1ing the ri2ers o1en and 1ro2ided 1atrols, re onnaissan e and es orts to many missions. 7Photo+ htt1+88www.2ietnam1i'. om8ma h=.htm9

Ca1tured Viet Cong wea1ons a Cuired )y the South Vietnamese Na2y 7Photo+ htt1+88www.military1hotos.net8%orums8showthread.1h1N*4A=A@?Vietnamese?/ilitary?&hread?7u1dated?on?regular?)asis981ageFA9

7Photo+ htt1+88www.military1hotos.net8%orums8showthread.1h1N*4A=A@?Vietnamese?/ilitary?&hread?7u1dated?on?regular?)asis981ageFA9

7Photo+ htt1+88www.military1hotos.net8%orums8showthread.1h1N*4A=A@?Vietnamese?/ilitary?&hread?7u1dated?on?regular?)asis981ageFA9

7Photo+ htt1+88www.military1hotos.net8%orums8showthread.1h1N*4A=A@?Vietnamese?/ilitary?&hread?7u1dated?on?regular?)asis981ageFA9

7Photo+ htt1+88www.military1hotos.net8%orums8showthread.1h1N*4A=A@?Vietnamese?/ilitary?&hread?7u1dated?on?regular?)asis981ageFA9

7Photo+ htt1+88www.military1hotos.net8%orums8showthread.1h1N*4A=A@?Vietnamese?/ilitary?&hread?7u1dated?on?regular?)asis981ageFA9

7Photo+ htt1+88www.military1hotos.net8%orums8showthread.1h1N*4A=A@?Vietnamese?/ilitary?&hread?7u1dated?on?regular?)asis981ageFA9

&onle Bet, Cam)odia ? South Vietnamese troo1s mar h through the almost om1letely destroyed town o% &onle Bet a%ter hel1ing Cam)odian go2ernment troo1s re a1ture it %rom the Viet Cong. htt1+88www.military1hotos.net8%orums8showthread.1h1N*454A>?South?Vietnamese?Soldiers?7!rmy?Re1u)li ?Vietnam9

South Vietnamese soldiers man their wea1ons in a sand)ag )unker )uilt in the middle o% the street in $ontum ity htt1+88www.military1hotos.net8%orums8showthread.1h1N*454A>?South?Vietnamese?Soldiers?7!rmy?Re1u)li ?Vietnam9

South Vietnamese army soldiers engage in om)at against Viet Cong guerillas during the Vietnam War. 7Photo+ htt1+88www.military1hotos.net8%orums8showthread.1h1N*4A=A@?Vietnamese?/ilitary?&hread?7u1dated?on?regular?)asis981age339

!meri an !rmy medi 1ro2ides %irst aid and intra2enous %luid to a wounded South Vietnamese army soldier.

!n unidenti%ied soldier looks %or Viet Cong terrorists while a 2illage house is set on %ire. 7Photo+ htt1+88www.military1hotos.net8%orums8showthread.1h1N*4A=A@?Vietnamese?/ilitary?&hread?7u1dated?on?regular?)asis981age33

Le%t 1hoto+ ! Viet Cong sus1e t is led %rom the 2illage o% Ben Su )y an !meri an soldier during its e2a uation. 7Photo+ htt1+88www.military1hotos.net8%orums8showthread.1h1N*4A=A@?Vietnamese?/ilitary?&hread?7u1dated?on?regular?)asis981age3@9 Right 1hoto+ ! South Vietnamese army soldier detains a Viet Cong terrorist in the ri e 1addies. 7Photo+ htt1+88www.military1hotos.net8%orums8showthread.1h1N*4A=A@?Vietnamese?/ilitary?&hread?7u1dated?on?regular?)asis981age339

!n !RVN tries to e'tri ate wounded i2ilians %rom de)ris a%ter tru k loaded with re%ugees stru k a mine %our miles south o% Kuang &ri. htt1+88www.military1hotos.net8%orums8showthread.1h1N*454A>?South?Vietnamese?Soldiers?7!rmy?Re1u)li ?Vietnam9

!n !RVN soldier di2es %or sa%ety as mortar round %ired )y ommunist guerrillas e'1lodes, )lowing u1 tru k loaded with ammunition. :n the a tion some =F miles southwest o% Saigon htt1+88www.military1hotos.net8%orums8showthread.1h1N*454A>?South?Vietnamese?Soldiers?7!rmy?Re1u)li ?Vietnam9

Wearing oni al straw hats and 1easant gar), =4 Vietnamese men and women sus1e ted o% )elonging to the Viet Cong are mar hed out o% this 2illage to )e taken in %or Cuestioning. htt1+88www.military1hotos.net8%orums8showthread.1h1N*454A>?South?Vietnamese?Soldiers?7!rmy?Re1u)li ?Vietnam9

! South Vietnamese soldier, his )andaged head and %a e )lood?stained, is Cuestioned )y another South Vietnamese troo1er. htt1+88www.military1hotos.net8%orums8showthread.1h1N*454A>?South?Vietnamese?Soldiers?7!rmy?Re1u)li ? Vietnam981age3,sQ=A=>6e>d a55)>%*A@a>4 *)5=%%=>*@

7Photo+ htt1+88www.military1hotos.net8%orums8showthread.1h1N*4A=A@?Vietnamese?/ilitary?&hread?7u1dated?on?regular?)asis981age@F9

7Photo+ htt1+88www.military1hotos.net8%orums8showthread.1h1N*4A=A@?Vietnamese?/ilitary?&hread?7u1dated?on?regular?)asis981age@F9

! Viet Cong terrorist dressed in )la k L1aEamaM uni%orm is %lanked )y two South Vietnamese !rmy /ilitary Poli e o%%i ers. 7Photo+ &ime Li%e9

So!iet Premier Ale<sei Kos gin )left* meets 4ith -o 'hi 3inh in -anoi. )Photo: ;ietnam. A =istor " Stanle Karno4*

)Photo: ;ietnam. A =istor " Stanle Karno4*

North Vietnams President -o 'hi 3inh )left* meets 4ith North Vietnams Prime 3inister Pham Van Dong in No!em"er #$%0. )Photo: 3arc Bi"oudL>he ;ietnam B1perience. %mages of Aar . ,. 0D*

A ma, of Vietnam. 'am"odia. 8aos. and Thailand during the Vietnam 7ar

Vietnamese sailors o% the Re1u)li o% Vietnam Na2y 7South Vietnam9 mar h in %ormation. 7Photo+ htt1+88www.military1hotos.net8%orums8showthread.1h1N*4A=A@?Vietnamese?/ilitary?&hread?7u1dated?on?regular?)asis981age=9

Traffic on the streets of Saigon in Fe"ruar #$%1 )Photo: Bo"ert 7. Kelle LTime 8ife*

Le%t+ ! ma1 o% the 2arious .o Chi /inh trails Right+ &wo Vietnamese ladies work on their %arm that is lo ated ne't to a South Vietnamese army wat htower. 7Photo+ htt1+88www.military1hotos.net8%orums8showthread.1h1N*4A=A@?Vietnamese?/ilitary?&hread?7u1dated?on?regular? )asis981age339

Bom)s in 1la e, the giant B?F3 )om)ers are lined u1 on a runway in 0uam on /ar h 4*, *56@ ready %or the 2oyage to South Vietnam and a )om)ing mission. :t was announ ed re ently that some o% the 0uam )ased B?F3s would )e sent to &hailand. 7Bettmann8C;RB:S9

! Vietnamese man gets into an air raid shelter while three other men in the )a kground sit on the 1a2ement looking u1 as the !meri an !ir #or e )om)ers dro1 )om)s on .anoi, North 7Communist9 Vietnam on "une F, *56@. 7.ulton?Deuts h Colle tion8C;RB:S9

Viet Cong re)els haul su11lies on )i y le on the in%ormal .o Chi /inh &rail. 7Photo+ &he !meri an 7Vietnam9 War Remnants /useum9 Sour e+ htt1+88rom1edas.)logs1ot. om83AA5OA@OA*Oar hi2e.html

Viet 'ong terrorists mo"iliIe their 4ea,ons on the -o 'hi 3inh Trail. )Source: htt,:LL,icasa4e".google.comLha,huchoanLVietNam7ar_1J$#MM210M#0MJM2$M0*

American Strategic Air 'ommand )SA'* 2512D ZStratofortress "om"er dro, a ,a load of "om"s onto Viet 'ong ,ositions during the Vietnam 7ar in 3arch #$%0. )Photo: htt,:LL444.flic<r.comL,hotosL&DJ$2#&J`NJML&#M$&JJ2$2L*

!meri an (.S. !ir #or e 1ilots and South Vietnamese air %or e 1ilots are seen working together at an air )ase in South Vietnam. 7Photo+ htt1+88www.military1hotos.net8%orums8showthread.1h1N*4A=A@?Vietnamese?/ilitary?&hread?7u1dated?on?regular?)asis981age639

A 2oeing 2512 Stratofortress "om"er ta<es off. )Photo: /nited States (o!ernment*

)Photo: ;ietnam. A =istor " Stanle Karno4*

Wearing mat hing %light suits and s ar2es, South Vietnams Premier Nguyen Cao $y strolls hand?in?hand with his wi%e as they make an ins1e tion tour o% the )attle%ield near Bong Son, South Vietnam on #e)ruary =, *566. $y 2isited the area where !meri an and South Vietnamese troo1s killed a re1orted @AA Communist guerillas in re ent )attles. 7Photo+ G Bettmann8C;RB:S9

Vietnamese 1easants in South Vietnam sus1e ted o% )eing ommunists wear a tag on their lothes in ir a *566. 7Sour e+ Li)rary o% Congress HCountry Studies SeriesHB !uthor (.S. !rmy Photogra1h9 7Photo+ htt1+88rom1edas.)logs1ot. om83AA5OA@OA*Oar hi2e.html9

The 9strategic hamlets= in South Vietnam )Source: ;ietnam. A =istor " Stanle Karno4*

/em)ers o% (.S. Na2y S-!L &eam ;ne ride in a S-!L &eam !ssault Boat 7S&!B9 on a ri2er south o% Saigon in No2em)er *56@. 7Sour e National !r hi2es 7N!R!9B !uthor ".D. Randal, ";*B De1artment o% De%ense, De1artment o% the Na2y, Na2al Photogra1hi Center9 htt1+88rom1edas.)logs1ot. om83AA5OA@OA*Oar hi2e.html

The PhoeniF ,rogram 4as a 'AA mind control and interrogation ,rogram designed to eFtract !ital information from sus,ected Viet 'ong terrorists. )Source: ;ietnam. A =istor " Stanle Karno4*

South Vietnamese soldiers, with wea1ons ready, take o2er )ehind trees in this 2illage a)out 3A miles northeast o% Saigon. htt1+88www.military1hotos.net8%orums8showthread.1h1N*454A>?South?Vietnamese?Soldiers?7!rmy?Re1u)li ?Vietnam9

!meri an and South Vietnamese s1e ial %or es unit 7Photo+ htt1+88www.military1hotos.net8%orums8showthread.1h1N*4A=A@?Vietnamese?/ilitary?&hread?7u1dated?on?regular?)asis981age6=9

American S,ecial Forces soldiers )(reen 2erets* and -mong guerilla fighters a,,ear for an informal ,ortrait.

An American (reen 2eret soldier instructs a South Vietnamese Arm soldier in #$%$ during the Vietnam 7ar. )8arr 2urro4sLTime 8ife*

The national flags of the Be,u"lic of Korea. Be,u"lic of Vietnam. and /nited States of America fl side " side at Da Nang Air 2ase. South Vietnam in #$%0.

! $orean army general o% the South $orean army walks with a grou1 o% Vietnamese hildren in South Vietnam during the $orean War. 7Photo+ htt1+88www.military1hotos.net8%orums8showthread.1h1N*4A=A@?Vietnamese?/ilitary?&hread?7u1dated?on?regular?)asis981age==9

Korean arm doctors ,ro!ide free medical treatment to South Vietnamese farmers during the Vietnam 7ar. )Photo: htt,:LL444.militar ,hotos.netLforumsLsho4thread.,h,H#&JDJM5Vietnamese53ilitar 5Thread5)u,dated5on5regular5"asis*L,ageDD*

$orean soldiers %rom the Re1u)li o% $oreaHs White .orse Di2ision 3nd Cor1s sear h %or Viet Cong guerillas during an atta k on a Catholi Chur h )uilding in South Vietnam during the Vietnam War. 7Photo+ htt1+88www.military1hotos.net8%orums8showthread.1h1N*4A=A@?Vietnamese?/ilitary?&hread?7u1dated?on?regular?)asis981age3@9

0eneral Lee Sae .o, ommander o% the $orean %or es in Vietnam, )ids %arewell to heering Vietnamese s1e tators wa2ing South Vietnamese and $orean %lags during a %arewell eremony at &an Son Nhut !ir1ort in Saigon, South Vietnam on /ar h *=, *5@4, shortly )e%ore South $orean troo1s de1arted %or home. !t right is 0eneral Cao Van Vien, Commander o% the South Vietnamese !rmy. 7Photo+ G Bettmann8C;RB:S9

South $orean army soldiers greet South Vietnamese ladies during %arewell eremonies at Phu Cat, South Vietnam 1rior to returning to South $orea on #e)ruary 4, *5@4. Lt. 0en. Lee Sae .o, ommander o% Re1u)li o% $orea %or es in Vietnam, deli2ered s1ee h at eremonies at Phu Cat Base, some 36A miles north o% Saigon. 7Photo+ G Bettmann8C;RB:S9

South Vietnamese Air Force '5DMs at Tan Son Nhut Air 2ase in Saigon. South Vietnam in #$%%.

The front gate of Tan Son Nhut Air 2ase in Saigon. South Vietnam

South Vietnamese soldiers ride in a motor scooter outside the front gate of Tan Son Nhut Air 2ase in Saigon. South Vietnam.

A /.S. Air Force air,lane flies o!er Tan Son Nhut Air 2ase in #$%$.

2ase C,erations sign at Tan Son Nhut Air 2ase in Saigon. South Vietnam in #$%M )Source: /nited States Air Force -istorical Besearch Agenc . 3aF4ell AF2. Ala"ama*

A reconnaissance ,hoto of Tan Son Nhut Air 2ase in Saigon. South Vietnam in #$%0

'holon District )'hinese District* in Saigon. Be,u"lic of Vietnam in #$M# )Photo: htt,:LL444.flic<r.comL,hotosL#&DM%D0J`NJML%D$0JD%&&#LinL,hotostream*

Saigon. Be,u"lic of Vietnam in #$MJ )Photo: htt,:LL444.flic<r.comL,hotosL#&DM%D0J`NJML%DM$02MJ#1LinL,hotostream*

The Strongmen of South Vietnam

8eft to right: (eneral Ngu en 'ao K . (eneral Ngu en Van Thieu. (eneral Duong Van 3inh. and (eneral Ngu en Khanh

(eneral Dinh s,ea<s at a ,ress conference )Source: ;ietnam. A =istor " Stanle Karno4*

0eneral Cao Van Vien 7with sunglass9 wat hes 0eneral Nguyen Van &hieu 7le%t9 e'amine a ma hine gun. htt1+88www.military1hotos.net8%orums8showthread.1h1N*4A=A@?Vietnamese?/ilitary?&hread?7u1dated?on?regular?)asis981age64

Nguyen Van &hieu, the President o% South Vietnam, stand in %ront o% a world ma1 while meeting with President Lyndon B. "ohnson in .onolulu, .awaii, (.S.!. on "uly *5, *56>. Photo+ <oi hi R. ;kamoto8Lyndon Baines "ohnson Li)rary and /useum9

0eneral Nguyen Cao $y 7se ond %rom le%t9 and South Vietnams President Nguyen Van &hieu 7se ond %rom right9 salute to their soldiers during a military 1arade held in South Vietnam. 7Photo+ htt1+88www.military1hotos.net8%orums8showthread.1h1N*4A=A@?Vietnamese?/ilitary?&hread?7u1dated?on?regular?)asis981age339

Vietnam War, Part 4+ Ri hard Ni'on, VietnaminiIation , Withdrawal

Ri hard Ni'on 7le%t9 2isits /aEor 0eneral Nguyen Du &hang 7 enter9, South Vietnams /inister %or Pa i%i ation, and C:! agent and retired (.S. !ir #or e /aEor 0eneral -dward Lansdale 7right9 in Saigon, South Vietnam. Ri hard Ni'on and -dward Lansdale were mem)ers o% the Coun il on #oreign Relations. 7Sour e+ Ed"ard ,ansda-e: The Un.uiet /)erican )y Ce il B. Currey9

South Vietnams President Nguyen Van &hieu 2isits Re1u)li o% Chinas President 0eneralissimo Chiang $ai?shek in &ai1ei, Re1u)li o% China 7&aiwan9 in *565.

Surrounded )y %lag?wa2ing rowd, President Ri hard Ni'on 7L9 and Phili11ines President #erdinand -. /ar os wa2e %rom ar during motor ade to /ala anang Pala e in /anila, Phili11ines on "uly 36, *565 %ollowing Ni'onHs arri2al. &he Phili11ines was the %irst sto1 on a nine? day tri1 that will take Ni'on and his wi%e, Pat, to :ndonesia, &hailand, :ndia, Pakistan, Romania, and Britain. 7Bettmann8C;RB:S9

President Ri hard Ni'on makes s1ee h in %ront o% a 1ala e in Saigon, South Vietnam u1on his arri2al on "uly 4A, *565. Ba k o% him are 7le%t to right9+ .enry !. $issinger, National Se urity !d2isor 7hal% hidden, glasses9B South Vietnamese Vi e 1resident Cao $<B and (.S !m)assador to S. Vietnamese -llsworth Bunker. 7Bettmann8C;RB:S9

American President Bichard NiFon )center right* and South Vietnams President Ngu en Van Thieu )center left* re!ie4 South Vietnamese Na! ,ersonnel during NiFons !isit to South Vietnam in #$%$. )Photo: Arthur SchatILTime 8ife*

Standing )ehind the )ar a)oard !ir #or e ;ne, President Ri hard Ni'on s1eaks with military and i2ilian leaders in *565 while %lying %rom Bangkok to Saigon %or a short 2isit with ommanders and troo1s stationed in Vietnam. -llsworth Bunker, (.S. !m)assador to South Vietnam, is seated on the %ar le%t, and .enry $issinger is seated se ond %rom right. 7Wally / Namee8C;RB:S9

President Nguyen Van &hieu s1eaks at a 1ress on%eren e in Saigon in *5@*. 7Photo+ &ime Li%e9

Pi ture dated !1ril 4A, *5@A shows President Ri hard Ni'on gesturing during a 1ress on%eren e announ ing the entry o% !meri an soldiers in Cam)odia. Des1ite 1ledges to 1rote t South Vietnam, %ormer (.S. President Ri hard Ni'on 1ri2ately 2owed to L ut o%% the headM o% its leader unless he )a ked 1ea e with the ommunist North, ta1es released on "une 34, 3AA5 showed. 70etty :mages9

President Ni'on on%ers at the Western White .ouse in San Clemente, Cali%ornia on /ay 4*, *5@A. &he President re ei2ed a )rie%ing on Southeast !sia %rom 7le%t to right, lo kwise9+ !dm. &homas .. /oorer, in oming hairman, "oint Chie%s o% Sta%%B De1uty Se retary o% De%ense Da2id Pa kardB 0eneral Creighton W. !)rams, (.S. Commander in VietnamB Dr. .enry $issinger, !sst to the President %or National Se urity !%%airsB !dm. "ohn .. / Cain, "r., ommander o% (.S. %or es in the Pa i%i B Se retary o% De%ense /el2in LairdB President Ni'onB and 0eneral -arle Wheeler, retiring hairman, "oint Chie%s o% Sta%%. 7Bettmann8C;RB:S9

President Ri hard Ni'on meets at the White .ouse with Se retary o% De%ense /el2in Laird, De1uty Se retary o% De%ense Da2id Pa kard, and mem)ers o% the "oint Chie%s o% Sta%% on !ugust *>, *5@A to dis uss military )udget matters. Le%t to right are+ /arine Cor1s Commandant 0en. Leonard #. Cha1manB !dm. -lmo R. Jumwalt, Chie% o% Na2al ;1erationsB 0en. "ohn Ryan, !ir #or e Chie% o% Sta%%B LairdB Ni'onB !dm. &homas /oorer, Chairman o% the "oint Chie%s o% Sta%%B 0en. William Westmoreland, !rmy Chie% o% Sta%%B and Pa kard. 7Bettmann8C;RB:S9

President Ri hard Ni'on meets with Nguyen Phu Du , South Vietnamese President Nguyen Van &hieuH s1e ial emissary, at the White .ouse on No2em)er 35, *5@3 to 1ut his seal o% a11ro2al on the Vietnam ease?%ire agreement .enry $issinger has negotiated des1ite riti ism %rom Saigon. Nguyen Phu Du , le%t, who is &hieuHs hie% %oreign 1oli y ad2isor, )rought Ni'on a 1ersonal letter %rom &hieu. !t right is $issinger. 7Bettmann8C;RB:S9

Coun il on #oreign Relations , South Vietnam under Nguyen Van &hieu

Coun il on #oreign Relations mem)ers National Se urity !d2isor .enry $issinger 7le%t9 and (.S. !m)assador to South Vietnam -llsworth Bunker 7right9 2isit South Vietnams Vi e Premier Nguyen Cao $y in Saigon some time in *565. 7Photo+ (ni2ersity o% Cali%ornia at Los !ngeles Li)rary, De1artment o% S1e ial Colle tions9

South Vietnams President Nguyen Van &hieu 7le%t9 and Ni'on s1eak to the 1ress at /idway :sland on "une >, *565. Ri hard Ni'on was a mem)er o% the Coun il on #oreign Relations %rom *56* to *56=. 7Ni'on Presidential Li)rary9

President Lyndon B. "ohnson and his Ca)inet se retaries meet with South Vietnamese go2ernment o%%i ials at a summit in .onolulu. Seated at the ta)le on the )a k side %rom le%t to right+ unknown, unknown, .enry Ca)ot Lodge "r., unknown, Cyrus Van e, Dean Rusk, Lyndon B. "ohnson, Ro)ert / Namara, unknown, unknown, / 0eorge Bundy, unknown. Nguyen Van &hieu and Nguyen Cao $y are seated on the o11osite side o% President "ohnson. 7Photo+ Lyndon B. "ohnson Presidential Li)rary9

Le%t to right+ (.S. !m)assador to South Vietnam?designate .enry Ca)ot Lodge "r., Se retary o% De%ense Ro)ert / Namara, Nguyen Van &hieu, the South Vietnamese Chie% o% State, and South Vietnams Premier Nguyen Cao $y meet in Saigon, South Vietnam on "uly *6, *56F. 7Bettmann8C;RB:S9

.enry Ca)ot Lodge 7le%t9, (.S. !m)assador to South Vietnam, greets South Vietnams Prime /inister, !ir Vi e /arshal Nguyen Cao $y. Lodge was on a %a t %inding tri1 %or President "ohnson in "uly *56F. 7Bettmann8C;RB:S9

.enry Ca)ot Lodge, (.S. !m)assador?Designate to South Vietnam 7le%t9, greeted )y /aEor 0eneral Nguyen Van &hieu, Chairman o% Vietnamese Dire tory, in Saigon in *56F. Lodge was on a %a t %inding tri1, sur2eying e onomi , 1oliti al, and military situations. 7Bettmann8C;RB:S9

-llsworth Bunker, (.S. !m)assador to South Vietnam, tours the ountry with South Vietnams President Nguyen Van &hieu 71ointing9 and South Vietnamese 0eneral Nguyen Cao $y 7wearing a 1ur1le s ar%9 during the Vietnam War in *565. 7Photo+ Larry Burrows8&ime Li%e9

(.S. !m)assador to South Vietnam .enry Ca)ot Lodge "r. 7le%t9 and !ssistant Se retary o% State William P. Bundy 7right9 meet with South Vietnams Premier 0en. Nguyen Cao $y in Saigon, South Vietnam in /ar h *56@.

President Ri hard /. Ni'on, South Vietnams President Nguyen Van &hieu, and 0eneral Nguyen Cao $y along with other dignitaries in luding National Se urity !d2isor .enry $issinger and (.S. !m)assador to South Vietnam -llsworth Bunker standing at mi ro1hones during 2isit to South Vietnam in *565. Nguyen Van &hieu resigned as President o% South Vietnam and %lew to the Re1u)li o% China on &aiwan on !1ril 3F, *5@FB Nguyen Van &hieu li2ed in -ngland in e'ile %or se2eral years and later in Boston. Nguyen Van &hieu was )orn on !1ril F, *534B Nguyen Van &hieu died in Boston on Se1tem)er 35, 3AA*. 7Photo+ !rthur S hatI 8&ime Li%e9

(.S. Vi e President .u)ert .um1hrey 7L9 a11ears with South Vietnams Prime /inister 0en. Nguyen Cao $y 7R9 in Saigon, South Vietnam in *566. .u)ert .um1hrey was a mem)er o% the Coun il on #oreign Relations. 7Photo+ Larry Burrows8&ime Li%e9

National Se urity !d2isor .enry $issinger shakes hands with South Vietnams President Nguyen Van &hieu in Saigon on !ugust *@, *5@3. &he (.S. !m)assador to South Vietnam -llsworth Bunker is standing )ehind.

South Vietnam Arm 8ieutenant (eneral -oang @ubn 8cm )left. A 'or,s commander*. (eneral 'ao VSn Vidn )second from left. ABVN general staff*. and 3a6or (eneral Ngo ^uang Truong )right. 8ams re,lacement* a,,ear 4ith /.S. Arm 8ieutenant (eneral Bichard (. Stil4ell. Stil4ell 4as a mem"er of the 'ouncil on Foreign Belations. )Photo: htt,:LLen.4i<i,edia.orgL4i<iLFile:AB-^.6,g*

Paris Pea e Con%eren e 7*56>?*5@49

(S !m)assador?at large !2erell .arriman 7l9 and Cyrus Van e arri2ing to the :nternational Con%eren e Center o% the !2enue $le)er here to attend the o1ening o% o%%i ial %irst on%eren e on Vietnam in Paris, #ran e on /ay *4, *56>. 7Bettmann8C;RB:S9

!meri an L1ea eM delegates 0en. !ndrew 0ood1aster 7le%t9, !2erell .arriman 7 enter9 and Cyrus R. Van e 7se ond %rom right9 attend the (.S.?North Vietnamese 1ea e talks in Paris, #ran e in *56>. 7Photo+ &eren e S1en er8&ime Li%e9

South Vietnamese Am"assador Pham Dang 8am )center* 4atches American en!o A!erell -arriman sha<e hands 4ith an unidentified guest at the Paris Peace 'onference in Paris. France in #$%0. )Time 8ife ,hoto*

President 8 ndon 2aines Johnson )center* meets 4ith /nited States Am"assador to South Vietnam +lls4orth 2un<er )left* and Am"assador5at58arge A!erell -arriman at 'am, Da!id. 3ar land on A,ril #J. #$%0. )/PA Photo*

Am"assador5at58arge A!erell -arriman )right*. the chief Vietnam 7ar negotiator in Paris. a,,ears 4ith /.S. Arm 8t. (en. Andre4 (ood,aster outside the /.S. +m"ass in Paris. France on 3a #J. #$%0. )AP 7ire,hoto*

Am"assador5at58arge A!erell -arriman )left* meets 4ith South Vietnamese Am"assador to the /nited States 2ui Diem at the American +m"ass in Paris. France on 3a #J. #$%0. )/PA Photo*

Vietnam 7ar negotiators ' rus Vance and A!erell -arriman ,re,are for a meeting 4ith North Vietnamese di,lomats in Paris. France on 3a #&. #$%0. )/PA Photo*

American en!o s for Vietnam 7ar ,eace tal<s meet 4ith North Vietnamese di,lomats at the Paris Peace 'onference held at the 3a6estic -otel in Paris. France on 3a #&. #$%0. From left to right: 7illiam J. Jorden. 8t. (en. Andre4 (ood,aster. A!erell -arriman. ' rus Vance. Phili, -a"i". -arold Ka,lan. and John Negro,onte. All se!en men seated at the ta"le are )or 4ere* mem"ers of the 'ouncil on Foreign Belations. )/PA Photo*

Am"assador5at58arge A!erell -arriman )second from left* and ' rus Vance )second from right* a,,ear 4ith South Vietnamese and Fili,ino en!o s in Paris. France on 3a #M. #$%0. )AP 7ire,hoto*

American Vietnam 7ar negotiators ' rus Vance )left* and A!erell -arriman )right* meet 4ith South Vietnamese en!o Pham Dang 8am at the American +m"ass in Paris. France on Ccto"er #M. #$%0. )AP 7ire,hoto*

.eads o% the !meri an delegation !2erell .arriman 7 enter9, Cyrus R. Van e 7le%t9 and others lea2e the Vietnam 1ea e talks in Paris on ; to)er 3=, *56>. 7Photo+ Pierre Boulat8&ime Li%e9

Am"assador5at58arge A!erell -arriman cele"rates his MM th "irthda in Paris. France on No!em"er #1. #$%0 during the ongoing Paris ,eace tal<s 4ith North Vietnamese di,lomats. From left to right: A!erell -arriman. /.S. Am"assador to France Sargent Shri!er. ' rus Vance. and 7illiam J. Jorden. -arriman. Shri!er. Vance. and Jorden 4ere ?ale graduates. and all four men 4ere mem"ers of the 'ouncil on Foreign Belations. )AP 7ire,hoto*

/.S. Am"assador5at58arge A!erell -arriman )left* meets 4ith /.S. Secretar of State Dean Bus< )right* and Premier of South Vietnam (en. Nug en 'ao K )center* in Saigon. Be,u"lic of Vietnam on Januar #1. #$%%. )AP 7ire,hoto*

Am"assador5at58arge and Vietnam 7ar negotiator A!erell -arriman )left* greets South Vietnams Vice President (en. Ngu en 'ao K in Paris. France on Decem"er 0. #$%0. A!erell -arriman 4as a mem"er of S<ull e 2ones. a secret societ at ?ale /ni!ersit . and a longtime mem"er of the 'ouncil on Foreign Belations. )AP 7ire,hoto*

9Peo,le as< me 4ho m heroes are. A ha!e onl one > -itler. < admire Citler because he has pulled his countr& together when it was in a terrible state in the earl& thirties( 2ut the situation here is so des,erate no4 that one man 4ould not "e enough. +e need ,our or ,ive Citlers in ?ietnam(= > (eneral Ngu en 'ao K . Prime 3inister of the Be,u"lic of Vietnam. in an inter!ie4 4ith the -ondon Sunda !irror. Jul #&. #$%1

American Vietnam 7ar negotiators A!erell -arriman )left*. and ' rus Vance )center* and South Vietnams Vice President (en. Ngu en 'ao K s,ea< to 6ournalists follo4ing another Vietnam 7ar conference in Paris. France on Decem"er #2. #$%0. )/PA Photo*

!meri an delegation 1arti i1ates at the Vietnam Pea e talks in Paris on "anuary 3F, *565 as the %irst 1lenary session o1ens. !t le%t is .enry Ca)ot Lodge and seated ne't to him is Cyrus Van e. 7Bettmann8C;RB:S9

Presidential !d2iser .enry $issinger 7R9 and .anoiHs Le Du &ho are all smiles as they shake hands %or the 1ress u1on lea2ing the :nternational Con%eren es Center in Paris on "anuary 34, *5@4 a%ter a three hour and %orty?%i2e minute meeting on Vietnam 1ea e agreement. &hey are %lanked )y /inister Ruan &huy, hie% o% DRV delegation. 7Bettmann8C;RB:S9

!n inter1reter stands )etween !meri as 0erman?)orn National Se urity !d2isor .enry $issinger 7le%t9 and North Vietnams senior re1resentati2e Le Du &ho 7right9 as they on2erse in the garden o% a 2illa in 0i%?Sur?<2ette, #ran e on No2em)er 34, *5@3. 7Photo+ G Bettmann8C;RB:S9

National Se urity !d2isor .enry $issinger greets Red Vietnams negotiator Le Du &ho in Paris in *5@3.

Negotiations )etween .enry $issinger and Le Du &ho at a home on the 0ol% o% Saint Nom la Brete he near Paris in "anuary *5@4. !t %arthest le%t are De1uty !ssistant Se retary o% State William .. Sulli2an, $issinger, and Winston Lord o% National Se urity Coun il sta%%. !t right is Le 7glasses on ta)le in %ront o% him9, %lanked )y /inister Ruan &huy, hie% o% the DRV delegation to the Paris talks, and Nguyen Co &ha h, 2i e minister %or %oreign a%%airs. 7Bettmann8C;RB:S9

)Photo: ;ietnam. A =istor " Stanle Karno4*

Se retary o% State .enry $issinger 7)a kground, enter9 initials the ease %ire agreement on Paris "anuary 34, *5@4. :n the %oreground, Le Du &ho a%%i'es his signature. ;n $issingerHs right is !m)assador William .. Sulli2an. 7Bettmann8C;RB:S9

!m)assador William .. Sulli2an 7lower right9 and Ruan &huy 7u11er right9 wat h as Dr. .enry $issinger 7lower enter9 and Le Du &ho 7se ond %rom u11er right9 initial the Paris Pea e ! ords in Paris on "anuary 34, *5@4. 7Bettmann8C;RB:S9

Se retary o% State .enry $issinger signs the Paris L1ea eM agreement that allowed the Vietnamese Communists in .anoi to in2ade and o u1y South Vietnam. #rom le%t to right+ .eyward :sham, William .. Sulli2an, .enry $issinger, 0eorge !ldri h, and Winston Lord. -2eryone e' e1t %or :sham is or was a mem)er o% the Coun il on #oreign Relations.

.enry $issinger 7right9, !meri as Se retary o% State and National Se urity !d2isor, shakes hands with Pham Van Dong 7le%t9 in .anoi, Red Vietnam in #e)ruary *5@4. Le Du &ho is in the middle.

&he White .ouse released this 1hoto taken during .enry $issingerHs tri1 to .anoi, North Vietnam on #e)ruary *A, *5@4. Shown here, $issinger 7third %rom le%t9, and Pham Van Dong, North Vietnamese 1rime minister 7se ond %rom right9. View looking down the ta)le with the delegations on either side. 7Bettmann8C;RB:S9

&he White .ouse released this 1hoto on #e)ruary *F, *5@4 taken during .enry $issingerHs tri1 to .anoi, North Vietnam on #e)ruary *A, *5@4. Shown here %rom le%t to right+ $issingerB Pham Van Dong, North Vietnam 1rime ministerB and Nguyen Dinh Phuong, inter1reter. 7Bettmann8C;RB:S9

Re1resentati2es %rom the %our %a tions o% the Vietnam War meet in Paris to sign a 1ea e agreement on "une *4, *5@4. ;n the le%t are re1resentati2es %rom South Vietnam led )y De1uty Prime /inister Nguyen Luu Vien. ;n the right are re1resentati2es %rom the Viet ong led )y 0eneral Nguyen Van .ieu. :n the %oreground are re1resentati2es %rom North Vietnam led )y Le Du &ho. :n the )a kground are re1resentati2es %rom the (nited States led )y Se retary o% State .enry $issinger. 7Bettmann8C;RB:S9

.enry $issinger, the (S Se retary o% State and National Se urity !%%airs assistant to President Ri hard Ni'on, lea2es a 2illa in 0i%?sur?<2ette, #ran e on "une *A, *5@4 a%ter another round o% talks with Le Du &ho 7Demo rati Re1u)li o% Vietnam9, Nguyen Co &ha h, North Vietnamese De1uty #oreign /inister 7R9 and (.S. De1uty !ssistant Se retary o% State William Sulli2an 7)a k 2iew9 to dis uss Vietnamese 1ea e negotiations. 7"ames !ndanson8Sygma8Cor)is9

8etter from President NiFon to President Ngu en Van Thieu of the Be,u"lic of Vietnam
)Beleased A,r. &J. #$M1* Januar 1. #$M& Dear 3r. President: This 4ill ac<no4ledge our letter of Decem"er 2J. #$M2. There is nothing su"stantial that A can add to m man ,re!ious messages. including m Decem"er #M letter. 4hich clearl stated m o,inions and intentions. 7ith res,ect to the Guestion of North Vietnamese troo,s. 4e 4ill again ,resent our !ie4s to the 'ommunists as 4e ha!e done !igorousl at e!er ether o,,ortunit in the negotiations. The result is certain to "e once more the re6ection of our ,osition. 7e ha!e eF,lained to ou re,eatedl 4h 4e "elie!e the ,ro"lem of North Vietnamese troo,s is managea"le under the agreement. and A see no reason to re,eat all the arguments. 7e 4ill ,roceed neFt 4ee< in Paris along the lines that (eneral -aig eF,lained to ou. Accordingl . if the North Vietnamese meet our concerns on the t4o outstanding su"stanti!e issues in the agreement. concerning the D3f and t ,e method of signing and if 4e can arrange acce,ta"le su,er!isor machiner . 4e 4ill ,roceed to conclude the settlement. The gra!est conseGuence 4ould then ensue if our go!ernment chose to re6ect the agreement and s,lit off from the /nited States. As A said in m Decem"er #M letter. OA am con!inced that our refusal to 6oin us 4ould "e an in!itation to disaster5to the loss of all that 4e together ha!e fought for o!er the ,ast decade. At 4ould "e ineFcusa"le a"o!e all "ecause 4e 4ill ha!e lost a 6ust and honora"le alternati!e.O As 4e enter this ne4 round of tal<s. A ho,e that our countries 4ill no4 sho4 a united front. At is im,erati!e for our common o"6ecti!es that our go!ernment ta<e no further actions that com,licate our tas< and 4ould ma<e more difficult the acce,tance of the settlement " all ,arties. 7e 4ill <ee, ou informed of the negotiations in Paris through dail "riefings of Am"assador :Pham Dang; 8am. A can onl re,eat 4hat A ha!e so often said: The "est guarantee for the sur!i!al of South Vietnam is the unit of our t4o countries 4hich 4ould "e gra!el 6eo,ardiIed if ou ,ersist in our ,resent course. The actions of our 'ongress since its return ha!e clearl "orne out the man 4arnings 4e ha!e made. Should ou decide. as A trust ou 4ill. to go 4ith us. ou ha!e m assurance of continued assistance in the ,ost5 settlement ,eriod and that 4e 4ill res,ond 4ith full force should the settlement "e !iolated " North Vietnam. So once more A conclude 4ith an a,,eal to ou to close ran<s 4ith us. Sincerel . BA'-ABD NA@CN Source: htt,:LLngothelinh.#1Jm.comLletterPfromPniFonPtoPthieu.html

L45 Librar& Oral Cistor& Come .age

The follo4ing Cral -istories ha!e "een ,laced on the 82J 7e" Ser!er and are a!aila"le for do4nloading. The are a!aila"le at the 82J 8i"rar 4e"site: htt,:LL444.l"6li".uteFas.eduL6ohnsonLarchi!es.hom 7A88AA3 +. 'C82? CBA8 -ASTCB? ANT+BVA+7 A )PB+F+BB+D 'ATATACN* Transcri,t. 7illiam +. 'ol" Cral -istor Anter!ie4 A. %L2L0#. " Ted (ittinger. Anternet 'o, . 82J 8i"rar . ANT+BVA+7 A DAT+: June 2. #$0# ANT+BVA+7++: 7A88AA3 +. 'C82? ANT+BVA+7+B: Ted (ittinger P8A'+: 3r. 'ol" Es office. 7ashington. D.'.

(: 3r. 'ol" . 4hen ou arri!ed in Saigon in #$1$. ho4 efficient 4ere our intelligence5gathering efforts concerning the insurgenc H ': Not !er . A 4ould sa . 7e ,rimaril de,ended u,on the Vietnamese authorities and 4or<ed 4ith them in collecting information a"out the insurgenc . There 4asnEt !er much insurgenc at that ,articular stage. The #$1D colla,se of the French had "een follo4ed " a ,eriod of internal turmoil 4herein :Ngo Dinh; Diem finall too< o!er. -e consolidated his ,osition " a"out #$1% and 4as engaged in a !er !igorous economic and social de!elo,ment ,rogram at that ,oint. 4hich 4as ,ro!ing Guite successful. The communists "asicall had gone into a holding ,attern in #$1D. "elie!ing that Diem 4as going to colla,se. So did most of the rest of the 4orld. The communists had 4ithdra4n some fift thousand of their ,eo,le "ac< to the north. The had ,ut their net4or<s into a state of sta 5"ehind55sus,ension55and there reall 4asnEt much ,ro"lem. The go!ernment had "ecome a little hea! 5handed in some of its ,olitical acti!ities. AE!e forgotten 4hat the called the Democratic Front or something that the had. the National Be!olutionar 3o!ement. (: Denunciation of communism or communist forcesH ': That 4as a"out #$1%. #$1M reall . and that had <ind of dro,,ed do4n " the time A got there and there 4asnEt much e!idence of it. At 4as more a ,ro,agandistic effort. not so much in deli"erate intelligence targeting. So Guite fran<l our intelligence effort at the time 4as focused on an a,,reciation of the ,olitical situation in Vietnam and the relationshi, of Diem to the !arious o,,osition ,olitical elements. a limited interest in the old sect ,ro"lem. and all this 4as unilateral American attention. For an co!erage of the communists 4e "asicall 4or<ed 4ith the Vietnamese authorities. 4ho reall hadnEt de!elo,ed much ca,a"ilit " that time. An the summer of #$1$ there 4as an attac< on an American installation in 2ien -oa. in 4hich A thin< one American 4as <illed. This "rought attention to the fact that there still 4as an insurgenc . At came as a "olt out of the "lue. At 4as hard to identif too clearl 4here it came from and 4ho started it. 2ut this alerted things and "egan to stir things u,. Then the reall critical thing 4as that in the fall of #$1$ and during #$%J there 4as a clear increase in communist acti!it . mar<ed " a series of terrorist e!ents. " the "eginnings of infiltration. ,rimaril of southerners "ac< from North Vietnam. not northern forces or an thing li<e that. And :there 4as; a gradual increase of the insurgenc le!el. 4hich culminated in No!em"er or Decem"er. #$%J 4ith the announcement of the esta"lishment of the National 8i"eration Front and 4hat amounted to a declaration of 4ar " the North against the Diem regime or the American Diemists. as the called it. tr ing to identif their cause 4ith the cause of nationalism. and tr ing to stress a continuit "et4een that effort and the ,re!ious effort against the French. This then led to an increase in our attention to the insurgenc ,ro"lem. ,rimaril reflected in an attem,t to increase the effecti!eness of the South Vietnamese intelligence ser!ices: training ,rograms. assistance to them in their o,erational acti!ities. liaison 4ith them. some financial assistance to some ,articular ,ro6ects. things of that nature. de!elo,ment of the central intelligence organiIation to centraliIe the information of the !ariet of Vietnamese ,olice and militar and other intelligence ser!ices. (: 7as our relationshi, more or less harmoniousH ': Ch. es. 7e had good relationshi,s 4ith the Vietnamese. The 4ere a4are of our fooling around on our o4n. AEm sure.

(: As this 4hat ou 4ould call the unilateral55H ': ?es. The 4ere reasona"l understanding of the fact that 4e 4ere going to do it. 2ut the dealt 4ith us on the su"6ect of o,erations against the communist ,ro"lem and the "eginnings of attention to the North and to tr to get some assets in that area. The 4or<ed 4ith us !er straightfor4ard. !er decentl . and the then did some things on their o4n. of course. 4hich is not to "e uneF,ected. The go!ernment intelligence ser!ices 4ere interested in the o,,osition mo!ements and 4hat their acti!ities 4ere and so forth. and the ,enetrated them and to some eFtent controlled them at some times. (: 7as :Ngo Dinh; Nhu hea!il in!ol!ed in these acti!itiesH ': Ch. es. -e 4as the PresidentEs counselor. " name. "ut 4ith a <ind of a general charter in the ,olitical area. -e had "een interested in the so5called 'an 8ao ,art . -e 4as im,ressed 4ith the conce,t of a secret control ,art . an a,,lication of the 8eninist doctrine of the role of the ,art 4ithin the structure of the state. as a centraliIed feature. -e re6ected the communist a,,roach in the sense of the totalitarian. "ut he 4as interested in the French 'atholic ,hiloso,h of ,ersonalism as an attem,t to find a rall ing ideolog for South Vietnam to contrast 4ith the ideological a,,eal of the communists and their call for re!olution. -e 4anted to re!olutioniIe Vietnamese societ . 4hich he considered as a corru,t inheritance from the French. -e 4anted to esta"lish an authentic Vietnamese ideological "ase for a ne4 societ and the re6ection of the old. ,rimaril 'atholic elite. re,lacing it 4ith this ne4 dedication. -is line of thin<ing changed 4hile A 4as there. A donEt <no4. A might ha!e had something to do 4ith it in the last cou,le of ears. 2ecause he had ,rimaril thought of this 'an 8ao ,art as this control element and it "eing 4hat 8enin 4ould call the !anguard of the re!olution. 4ith the ideological fer!or and control of the machiner . 2 the time he got 4ell into the strategic hamlet ,rogram he had ,rett 4ell a"andoned that a,,roach in fa!or of the more theoretical elements of the strategic hamlet ,rogram. 4hich 4as an attem,t to re5 esta"lish a Vietnamese communit from the smallest ,o,ulation grou,ing. the hamlet. and de!elo, the leadershi, and the sense of cohesion in that communit and then "uild the rest of it u, from there. No4 ou see that is different from the 'an 8ao conce,t. (: Are ou sa ing then that instead of creating a ,olitical elite from the to, do4n. he 4as "uilding from the hamlet u,H ': -e changed. es. and 4as thin<ing in those terms. No4 of course he couldnEt eF,lain it all that 4ell. A lot of the old ,eo,le55he railed against the old "ureaucrats all the time and com,lained a"out them "ecause the reall had "een indoctrinated in the French techniGue of the elite running the ,lace in a <ind of a colonial 4a . Tr ing to get across to them that the should stimulate the gro4th of a force 4hich 4ould re,lace them 4as s4imming u,stream. o"!iousl . The could ado,t the ,hiloso,h of ,ersonalism. the earlier a,,roach. a lot easier than the could the conce,t of "uilding a 4hole ne4 elite from the "ottom. from the rural masses ,articularl . 4hom the reall re6ected as unlettered ,easantr . 4hich a great deal of them 4ere. 2ut Nhu sa4 that the had to esta"lish this as a real "asis for a ne4 Vietnamese societ and that 4as 4hat ,reoccu,ied him. -is eFhortations 4ent o!er the heads of most of the colonels and generals and ci!il ser!ants that he tal<ed to. "ut he 4as con!inced if he 6ust <e,t ,ounding at it he 4ould "e a"le to get this thing mo!ing and it 4ould de!elo, a momentum of its o4n. -e secured DiemEs su,,ort and interest in the idea. Diem 4as al4a s a much more ,ragmatic fello455he had great faith in road5"uilding and ,ractical ,h sical things as "ringing a"out change. Schools. aid stations. ,ro!incial hos,itals. things of that nature. industrialiIation. a change of some of the agricultural ,atterns. this is 4hat Diem thought 4as the "asis for the moderniIation of Vietnam. So there 4as a dichotom "et4een the t4o "rothers. Diem "eing the ,ragmatist and Nhu "eing the theoretical fello4. A thought "oth of them had something to offer. fran<l . 4ithout ha!ing to choose one or the other. (: 8et me as< ou a"out another ,ersonalit 4ho is a little shado4 . "ut he cro,s u, in im,ortant ,laces sometimes. -e is. if A ha!e the ,ronunciation right. 3ai -uu @uan. Did ou ha!e an dealing 4ith himH ': A "it. es. 3ai -uu @uan 4as a general as A remem"er and too< o!er as head of the ,olice at sometime during that ,eriod. A canEt name eFactl 4hen. A donEt ha!e a !er strong ,icture of him. A 4as not all that enthusiastic a"out him. A had the im,ression that he 4as ,la ing a dou"le or so game. Not 4ith the communists. "ut sort of a ,ersonal interest. aggrandiIement financiall and other4ise. An that 4a he 4as reall out of tune 4ith 4hat 4as "eing 4or<ed on. (: A ha!e heard it asserted that once 4hen @uan 4as recommended to Diem " an American ad!iser for some ,ost or other. Diem said he didnEt trust @uan "ecause @uan had once "een in the Sgreth. and he said once in the Sgreth al4a s in the Sgreth. -a!e ou heard an thing :a"out that;H ': A donEt <no4. 2oth Diem and ,articularl Nhu 4ere !er h ,ersensiti!e to French influence. After all. the had fought their 4a to ,osition against the French. 4hen the French thought that the could dismiss them and get rid of them. So the <e,t seeing French influences here and there. ou <no4. some one is a French agent. this sort of thing ouEd hear all the time. AEm sure some of it ma ha!e "een true and AEm sure some of it 4as a <ind of eFaggerated 3c'arth ism. finding the cons,iratorial hand of the French in 4hat other4ise 4as eF,laina"le " self interest " indi!iduals. " inde,endent action " French ,lanters and things of this nature. "usinessmen. 4ithout an great guiding hand of the French go!ernment in that sense. The French as a cultural ,henomenon in Vietnam. es. that 4as 4hat the 4ere concerned a"out. The 4ould refer to it as the French. and the 4ere al4a s !er sus,icious of that in!ol!ement. (: Did 4e ha!e an notion or an e!idence that there 4ere an sort of French intelligence acti!ities to s,ea< ofH ': There 4ere French intelligence acti!ities. "ut A donEt thin< the 4ere an more com,leF than our o4n. A mean a fe4 contacts 4ith !arious friends that 4ould gi!e ou an inde,endent reading of 4hatEs going on. that sort of thing. 2ut as the French stage5managing the de!elo,ment of Vietnam. no. A didnEt ha!e that sense at all. Actuall . of course. the <e to Vietnam 4as that the French had reall

su,,orted o,,onents of Diem during the struggle for ,o4er in the mid5fifties. And he defeated them. The first su,,orted the chief of the arm . and one of DiemEs first mo!es 4as to fire him. and that caused Guite a tremor at the time. 2ut once he got a hold of the arm and his o4n men in charge of the arm . then he mo!ed against the ,olice. 4hich 4as the corru,t 2inh @u en. 7hen he got those under control. he mo!ed against the !arious sects. and the French had connections 4ith all of these. of course. for ears. Their techniGue of running the colon of Vietnam. 4hich it 4as. 4as the usual <ind of relationshi, 4ith all the different forces in the game. and not ha!ing it unif as a Vietnamese nation "ecause that 4ould get out of their control. So Diem 4as correct in "eing sus,icious of the French. A thin< he found their hand in ,laces it ,ro"a"l didnEt eFist. Nonetheless. his ,ro"lem 4as right. -e had to esta"lish a Vietnamese nation. The reall <e element of the Diem role 4as his feeling that he had to esta"lish a Vietnamese nation. Cther4ise he 4as al4a s su"ordinate to -o 'hi 3inh. "ecause -o 'hi 3inh had ca,tured nationalism in the struggle against the French. Then the had "een so im,ossi"le to their non5communist allies. including <illing some at !arious times. that Diem said that there is a role for the non5communist nationalist. -e then 4anted to re,resent non5communist Vietnamese nationalism. This 4as freGuentl the ,ro"lem of dealing 4ith Diem. "ecause sometimes he had to assert his inde,endence e!en to con!ince himself that he 4as inde,endent. Not so much to con!ince an "od else sometimes. "ut to sho4 that he. " goll . 4as the leader of an inde,endent Vietnam. de,endent u,on American su,,ort. a,,reciati!e of American su,,ort. all that sort of thing. "ut not su"6ect to ,u,,etr . Cf course the communists. the Vietnamese 4ords the used al4a s 4ere that the 4ere struggling against the 3 Diemists. the American Diemists. 4hich to them 4as all one 4ord. The 4ere tr ing to assert that this 4as 6ust ,u,,etr and that the reall did re,resent nationalism. This 4as 4hat the ma6or struggle 4as a"out "et4een those t4o grou,s. (: A 4ant to come "ac< to that issue of DiemEs asserting his inde,endence. "ecause A thin< it enters the ,icture a little "it later on in this series of Guestions A ha!e here. A thin< ou ma ha!e ans4ered almost directl a Guestion A ha!e a"out the nature of the insurgenc 4hen it "ecame a,,arent that there 4as something more than isolated terrorism going on. There is an issue in!ol!ed concerning the origins of insurgenc . Cne school of thought has it that -anoi is ,rimaril the engine "ehind this. Another school sa s no. itEs southern5ins,ired. southern5directed. and -anoi5su,,orted. As it necessar to ta<e a ,osition on theseH ': A 4ould sa all of the a"o!e Guite fran<l . The ,oint is that o"!iousl there 4as a feeling of resistance. of insurgenc . re"ellion in the countr side against the French elite 4ho held ,o4er in the countr . the French5trained. French5de!elo,ed. French5culturall attached elite. There 4as a resistance against them. and there 4ere a"uses " them. There 4as corru,tion and things of that nature " them. So that ou sa . 4ell. there 4as a "ase of re"ellion. es. 7ould it ha!e gone an 4here 4ithout North Vietnamese assistanceH No. At reall 4ould ha!e stuc< 4here it 4as. as a lo4 le!el of ,ro"lems here and there. localiIed ,ro"lems and so forth. At reall 4ould not ha!e gotten an 4here. The <e de!elo,ment 4as the #$%J determination to infiltrate the ,eo,le 4ho had "een ta<en to the north. ?ou see. in #$1D a ,ro!ision of the (ene!a Agreement said that ou had three months in 4hich a Vietnamese could choose 4hether he 4anted to go to the North or the South. Some nine hundred thousand came from North Vietnam to the South. ,rimaril "ut not eFclusi!el 'atholics. Ver little noticed at the time. some fift thousand. roughl . 4ent to the North. ,rimaril oung men. ta<en out of the !arious net4or<s that had struggled against the French. The 4ent to North Vietnam. The remained in training cam,s ,re,aring for the da to go "ac< to li"erate the rest of the countr from the 3 Diemists no4. or the French toadies and ,u,,ets. to continue the 4ar. (: 7as this in the nature of a contingenc ,lan. "ecause didnEt the North eF,ect the South to fall li<e a rotten a,,leH ': ?es. and then these ,eo,le 4ould ha!e mo!ed "ac< to assume the ,ositions of authorit and administration for the countr . The 4ould ha!e "een southerners 4ho could relate to the southerners and mo!e "ac< in as the leadershi, element of the effort. of the com"ined nation. of the unified nation. (: 8et me ,ro,ose a thesis to ou. DiemEs anti5communist ,rograms "et4een. sa . #$1D and #$10. 4ere so effecti!e. it has "een said. that the southern sta 5"ehind communists 4ent to the North and said. OAf ou donEt su,,ort an armed insurgenc . 4eEre dead. and 4eEre going to do it 4hether ouEre going to su,,ort us or not. "ecause 4e donEt ha!e an choice an more if 4e 4ant to sur!i!e. AtEs that sim,le.O Does that sound at all ,lausi"le to ouH ': At could ha!e ha,,ened. AEm not sure that the ,rogram of the go!ernment 4as all that efficient. "ut certainl the communists 4erenEt going an 4here. The ma ha!e gone u, to the North and said. OAf ou donEt do something. 4e are dead.O 2ecause 4hat 4as reall ha,,ening 4as the total social and economic regeneration of South Vietnam. ThatEs 4hat ha,,ened "et4een #$1% and #$1$. A 4ent to little schools out in the countr "eing dedicated do4n in the s4am,s of 'a 3au. This one. A remem"er going to it. it 4as 4a out along the canal and the 4ere dedicating this ne4 school and it 4as one of those ceremonies that there are too man of. AE!e "een through them fore!er. 2ut the interesting thing a"out it 4as A as<ed a"out this little !illage 4here the school 4as. 7ell. the !illage had "een e!acuated during the ,eriod of the 4ar and in a"out #$12 or #$1& had "een 6ust e!acuated and e!er "od gone. A"out #$1M or #$10 the had re5esta"lished the !illage and ,eo,le had mo!ed "ac< to it. Then 4ith the go!ernment ,rogram of assistance to schools and training of teachers. the 4ere re5esta"lishing this school in this little !illage. At 4as 4a out. ten miles. fifteen miles something. from the ,ro!incial ca,ital. A 4ent to the ,ro!incial ca,ital. to the office of education there. after ha!ing "een there and loo<ed at their ma,. ?ou <no4. the had a com,arati!e ma, of the num"er of schools the had in #$1D. 4hich 4as a"out t4o or three. all in the ca,ital or the district ca,itals. and the num"er of schools the had in #$1$55this 4as in the s,ring of #$1$554hich 4as in the order of thirt or fort in the ,ro!ince. No4. that had ha,,ened. (: Did ou !erif thatH ': ?es. ThereEs no Guestion a"out it. that that had ha,,ened. An other 4ords. there 4as a re!i!al of the economic life. ?ou sa4 it in the

rice ,roduction. for instance. totals. the increase of rice "eing sold and so forth. A !ariet of things of that nature 4ere going on. The land reform thatEs "een criticiIed. the land reform did ta<e the land a4a from the French o4ners. and !er su"stantial Guantities of it. The ,rogram of industrialiIation. "uilding u, a little industrial Ione around Saigon. the ,rogram of mo!ing some of the refugees from the North u, into the -ighlands and gi!ing them areas to de!elo, and so forth. A thin< se!eral hundred thousand actuall mo!ed. 4hich had its dou"le effect "ecause some of the 3ontagnards didnEt li<e their mo!ing in and that sort of thing. 2ut nonetheless. the countr had an enormous amount of momentum. A thought that one of the critical things 4as the election 4hich occurred in A thin< a"out August of #$1$ for the National Assem"l . This 4as the second election. And the Guestion 4as. 4hat 4ould this election re,resentH 7ould it re,resent a ste, to4ard ,artici,ation. or 4ould it "e a facade o,eration. 6ust " rote. At 4asnEt going to "e an American election no matter 4hat. A mean thereEs no Guestion a"out that. ?ou didnEt ha!e t4o ,arties. couldnEt ha!e the and so forth. 2ut the rather interesting554e got a re,ort one time55A donEt <no4 4here 4e got it. ha!enEt an idea55that the communists 4ere ,utting out the line that there are !arious candidates for these electoral ,osts. No4 letEs select the more li"eral of the candidates and thro4 our su,,ort "ehind him or her as a ste, to4ard getting some influence in the electoral "odies. Not that the 4ould ,ut their o4n candidates u, under their o4n names. The 4ouldnEt ha!e "een allo4ed to. Guite fran<l . 2ut the Guestion reall 4as 4hether the communists 4ere thin<ing that the had an alternati!e to mo!e to4ard an influence on the ,olitical decision5ma<ing. 7ell. the result of the election 4as that the go!ernment ,art 4on #JJ ,er cent of the seats or $$.$ or 4hate!er it 4as. and it 4as 6ust the 4orst form of mani,ulated facade. No4. Diem 4ould ha!e 4on the election " at least 0J ,er cent. ThereEs no Guestion a"out it in m mind at that time. 2ut ,articularl his minions all 4anted to sho4 that their ,ro!ince turned in the highest ,ossi"le ,ercentage. and so the 6ust 4ent out and 4ent through the motions and so forth. And of course the communistsE conclusion out of this 4as. no chance. No chance of ,la ing a role. and 4eEre "eing crushed " the momentum of the go!ernment. " this ,ositi!e momentum of the economic and social de!elo,ment that 4as in the ,rocess. And A thin< that led them to the decision. 4eE!e got to go "ac< to the 4ar. Cther4ise 4eE!e lost it. and 4eE!e not onl lost it in South Vietnam. 4e ma lose it in North Vietnam as 4ell. 2ecause it 4as going through its terri"le ,ro"lems of land reform and not getting an 4here and stagnation and all the rest of it. A thin< thatEs reall 55no4. some ,eo,le sa the 4ere com,elled to underta<e the fight. 7ell. the 4ere com,elled if the 4anted to ta<e South Vietnam. and that the had no ho,e of ta<ing South Vietnam if the let the natural ,rocesses go. (: -o4 4ere relations "et4een Diem and the American 3ission at the time ou arri!edH ': 7ell. moderate. A go "ac< to m ,oint a"out his nationalism. -e felt that he had to "e the ,resident. -e felt that he had to resist the American tendenc to dot e!er i and cross e!er t. and that he had to ma<e decisions himself. -is go!ernment as a 4hole 4as not !er efficient. "ecause it 4as full of the "ureaucrats. Nhu 4as a"solutel right on that. There 4ere some ,rett im,ossi"le ,eo,le there. 2ut nonetheless. it 4as a t ,ical underde!elo,ed countr tr ing to get itself going and tr ing to de!elo, a ne4 generation of leaders for the future. and so forth. The Americans are ,rett o!er,o4ering 4hen the get there in large num"ers and ha!e a ma6or role. A thin< there 4as a feeling of the Vietnamese that the had to someho4 distance themsel!es from the Americans. (: -o4 man Americans 4ere in countr a"out that time 4ould ou sa H -a!e ou got an estimateH ': AEd sa there 4ere554ell. the 4ere mostl in Saigon. 8etEs see. there 4ere a"out three or four hundred militar . something of that nature. A 4ould sa there 4ere a good t4o or three hundred in the em"ass and ,ro"a"l another fi!e hundred or more in the AAD. So AEd sa a good thousand or more. all at a reasona"l high economic le!el. and occu, ing essentiall the role of the French go!ernor general and his staff in the earlier da s. An other 4ords. to a Vietnamese the transition 4as "et4een French and American to some eFtent. de,ending on ho4 4e "eha!ed and 4hat our role 4as. A thin< this led the go!ernment sometimes to resist us. ou <no4. and struggle against too much dictation. And of course the American idea 4ould "e the onl 4a to sol!e a ,ro"lem. and 4hen the Vietnamese 4erenEt smart enough to do it our 4a . 4h there 4as something either !enal or stu,id a"out the Vietnamese. rather than searching into 4h the ta<e the ,osition and hel,ing them to come around to the right decision. 4h donEt ou 6ust see that this is the smart 4a to do itH (: A sort of a <nac< or techniGue of dealing 4ith ,eo,le. 4hich is 4hatEs in!ol!edH ': ?es. 4ell. ou <no4. it 4as 4ritten u, as the ugl American s ndrome. AtEs a misnomer of the no!el. "ut nonetheless. itEs 4hat itEs all a"out. (: 7as there a difference "et4een DiemEs relationshi, 4ith. letEs sa . the am"assador on one hand. and the chief of 3AA( :3ilitar Assistance Ad!isor (rou,; on the otherH ': 7ell. no4 ou get into ,ersonalities. The 3AA( ,eo,le normall are Guite su,,orti!e of authorit and ta<e their orders !er straight. 3ilitar doN thatEs their tradition. And their effort 4as to strengthen the arm . 4hich 4as necessar to DiemEs sur!i!al. and he 4as !er s m,athetic. -e also sa4 the !alue of ha!ing a !er su,,orti!e American militar in their influence in 7ashington. and therefore he made ,articular gestures to the militar . The 4a 4e set u, our go!ernmental machiner . the 'AN'PA' command line 4as inde,endent of the State De,artment command line through the am"assador. A ha,,ened to disagree 4ith this. "ut itEs a fact of life. The /nited States militar had a some4hat autonomous ,osition !is5a5!is go!ernment ,olic and go!ernment authorit . This is 4hat changed 4hen +lls4orth 2un<er got there later. -e made it !er clear that there 4as onl one line of command. and so did :'reighton; A"rams. and so did :7illiam; 7estmoreland. There 4as no dou"t a"out it in their minds. 2ut in the earlier da s this conce,t of the se,arate chain of command did eFist and it created ,ro"lems. At allo4ed the Vietnamese to ,la one off against the other a "it. Secondl . the ci!ilian a,,roach 4as focused on economic im,ro!ement. the militar on the militar . and !er fe4 ,eo,le :4ere; interested in the ,olitical de!elo,ment. The am"assadorEs role 4as to react to the ,ressures he got from 7ashington to tr to generate

more li"eral go!ernmental ,rocedures. The ,ress "egan to tal< a"out the corru,tion and the a"uses and so forth. and the am"assadorEs role 4ould ha!e to "e to tr to mo!e the go!ernment to4ards "etter imager in that res,ect. This then ,ut him in conflict freGuentl 4ith DiemEs conce,t that ouE!e got to hold a strong line of authorit here. or our 4hole thing 4ill come a,art. And es. 4eEre "uilding a ne4 structure and "ase for our go!ernment. "ut 4eEre not going to do it neFt 4ee<. and 4eEre not going to do it " gi!ing it a4a to some of these li"eral o,,osition grou,s in the Saigon area 4ho ha!e no "ase in the countr side. none. and 4ho are 6ust a ,ain in the nec< and ha!e no real ,olitical force and reall donEt understand 4hat 4eEre tr ing to do in this countr in terms of "uilding it and strengthening it. The Ere tal<ing a"out loosening 4hen it needs to "e tightened and aimed to4ard a !er significant o"6ecti!e. This 4as the ,hiloso,hical difference "et4een ,articularl our ,olitical and State De,artment a,,roach and the Diem and Nhu conce,ts. (: 7ith the "enefit of hindsight. 4ould ou sa that one of the ,ro"lems that Diem created for himself in this conteFt 4as the failure for some <ind of lo al o,,osition to achie!e !ia"ilit . to sort of defuse dissentH ': Not reall . A thin< the real ,ro"lem 4as that he allo4ed the negati!e images to gro4 4ithout adeGuatel ,resenting 4hat his ,hiloso,hical effort 4as and 4hat he 4as actuall accom,lishing in the countr . 2ecause a more !igorous ,rogram of telling the 4orld. telling lots of the 4orld. 4hat that 4as a"out. he didnEt do !er 4ell. fran<l . At 4asnEt our role to do for him unfortunatel "ecause then 4e get in the ,osition of tr ing to influence our o4n o,inion. That 4as not our function and 4e canEt do it and shouldnEt do it. "ut it certainl 4as a function that he failed to do !er 4ell. Therefore he let the issue gro4 as to 4hether Vietnam 4as democratic enough. rather than the issue gro4 as to 4hether Vietnam 4as ,rogressing. 2ecause if the latter had "ecome the main issue. then A thin< he 4ould ha!e had su,,ort. 2ut there 4as no 4a . no 4a in the 4orld in 4hich he could retain the necessar authorit and go through the li"eraliIation techniGue. There are a num"er of interesting ,arallels "et4een the fall of Diem and the fall of the Shah. An "oth cases the reall critical thing is not the a"sence of an o,,osition 4ithin the countr . itEs letting the issue "ecome one of 4hether there should "e a democratic societ there or 4hether it is ma<ing ma6or ,rogress at the cost of a democratic societ . No4 this ear is the hundredth anni!ersar of the "irth of Atatur<. Atatur< is generall concei!ed of :as; ha!ing had a !er ,ositi!e im,act on the histor of Tur<e and the Tur<s themsel!es. -e moderniIed the schools. he too< the !eils off the 4omen. he too< the feIes off the men. made them 4ear 4estern clothes. tried to force them. +Factl 4hat the Ja,anese did in the 3ei6i restoration. a total moderniIation. forced draft. 4ith some roughness around the edges. 7ell. thatEs eFactl 4hat the Shah 4as doing and did. An fact. the ShahEs ,ositi!e accom,lishments in this field ,ro"a"l out4eigh those of Atatur<. in terms of education and social change. moderniIation. technological in!estment and all that sort of thing. And Diem 4as engaged in the same ,rogram of moderniIation. in that sense. ?ou reall ha!e the three models. 7hether ou do it 4ith that <ind of semi5authoritarianism. 4hich 4as the Shah. Diem. Atatur<. 3ei6i. Another one is 'hiang Kai5she< and his son 'hiang 'hing5Kuo in Tai4an. successfull . The South Koreans. the Ja,anese. so forth. The second model is the conce,t of totall ,rogrammed disci,lined de!elo,ment. 'hina. North Vietnam. North Korea and so forth. a little "it 2urma. things of that nature. A total disaster. An the range of histor it hadnEt 4or<ed. And the third is the Andian model of as much democratic relationshi, as ,ossi"le. 4ith the retention of some <ind of a de!elo,ment ,rogram. rather dramatiIed and so forth. The ha!e succeeded in it. and the Ere one of the fe4 that has. fran<l . (: 7hat do ou ascri"e that toH ': An AndiaH (: ?es. ': 2ritish "ac<ground. (: ThatEs interesting. ': The 2ritish heritage. The heritage of each of the +uro,ean and 7estern nations in Asia is fascinating. An the 2ritish colonies ou find a good ,olice force. a conce,t of la4 and order. and a conce,t of55and A mean la4 as 4ell as order55and a conce,t of de!elo,ment in neatness and so forth. a degree of momentum. and an acce,tance of some sharing of ,o4er. An the American colon . eF5colon . the Phili,,ines. ou find an enormous success of mass education. a total focus on a chaotic ,olitical structure554hich almost "rought the countr do4n "efore :Ferdinand; 3arcos too< it o!erN no4 the agon of ho4 the Ere going to go is !er much u,on them55and the <ind of ,olitic that 4e ha!e. the ,olitics of the 4estern states ou might sa in the #00Js. 4hich are <ind of nois and thereEs corru,tion and !iolence and all the rest of it. 4hich characteriIed the Phili,,ines. And :there is; some good engineering and ,ri!ate in!estment and so forth. The Dutch left almost nothing. The too< e!er thing the had. The 2elgians in the 'ongo left three nati!e doctors 4hen the mo!ed out of that huge countr . And the French left some good engineering. a terri"le "ureaucrac and good coo<s. )8aughter* (: 7hat a"out the education s stem the French left "ehindH ': Not much. At 4as mainl elite5oriented. 4hich is the 4a French education is in France. AtEs hea!il elitist5oriented. Af ou ma<e it. fine. "ut if ou donEt ouEre do4n there in the "lue collars. And the French educational s stem 4as hea!il carried " the 'atholic church. and that had its o4n im,lication. "ecause after fift ears of that it 4as o"!ious that a high ,ro,ortion of the educated elite 4ere 'atholic. +!en though the 'atholics hadnEt insisted that ou "ecome a 'atholic in order to "e trained. there 4as a natural effect in that direction. )Anterru,tion* (: 7eE!e discussed DiemEs reform. ,rogress5minded acti!ities. -o4 good 4ere our estimates on such reforms as land reform. the agro!illes and so onH

': 7ell. the land reform 4or<ed according to the 4a most of the successful land reform ,rograms had 4or<ed in the ,ast55the one in Ja,an. the one in Tai4an. !arious others55in 4hich the go!ernment too< the land from the larger lando4ners. and ,articularl the French. and then loaned the ,easant the mone . 4hich he then re,aid o!er the neFt fe4 ears. No4 the communists !er intelligentl focused on that as 6ust a 4a of insisting on further ,a ment of taFes. 2ecause during the inter!ening ears. the ears of the 4ar. there 4ere no taFes collected "ecause the "ac< countr 4as in a turmoil and in an u,roar. and so the ,easants 4erenEt ,a ing an taFes. So that the inter,retation successfull ,ut for4ard " the communists. 4hich 4as in a sense accurate. 4as that this legal mum"o 6um"o meant that the ,easants 4ould "e reGuired to ,a taFes toda that the hadnEt "een reGuired to ,a "efore. No4. 4e hadnEt come through the thought ,rocess that led to the later land reform ,rogram under :Ngu en Van; Thieu. in 4hich the indi!idual 4as gi!en the land 4ithout a reGuirement to re,a . An other 4ords. 4e 4ere still thin<ing in terms of the Tai4an. the Ja,anese. and some other models. 4hich had "een successful and certainl 4ere successful in those areas. "ut hadnEt had a local com,etition the 4a the Vietnamese one had. (: 7erenEt there charges55,erha,s not at the time "ut later55that the land reform 4as reall too much of a facadeH That landlordism 4as still !er ,re!alentH ': The ,oint there is that 4hate!er the maFimum siIe of holding 4as set at55A donEt <no4. letEs sa a hundred hectares or something li<e that. A thin< thatEs 4hat it 4as. 4hich is t4o hundred and fift acres. 4hich is Guite a lot55too large. And 4e 4ent to Diem at one ,oint sa ing. O7ell. ou <no4. ouE!e reall got to cut this do4n and ma<e it smaller. "ecause there 4ere still landlords and ou still had landlordism.O -is res,onse 4as !er interesting. as again. the ,olitics is the art of the ,ossi"le. -e said. O?ou donEt understand. A cannot eliminate m middle class.O 7hen ou thin< of his ,osition at that ,articular time. 4hat he 4as sa ing 4as the same decision he made in #$1D to #$1%: AEm going to use the a,,aratus of social order that eFists in order to conduct this longer5term transition. And AEm not going to dis,ense 4ith it and tr to create a ne4 one in a hurr . No4 the interesting com,arison is 4ith -o 'hi 3inh. 4ho mo!ed into -anoi in #$1D and eliminated e!er other a,,aratus of ,o4er: the land reform ,rogram. 4hich <illed a certain num"er of the landlordsN the "ureaucratic a,,aratus he thre4 out and sent do4n to the South and so forth. "ut at least he started 4ith something ne4. No4 he 4asnEt under attac< for the neFt fe4 ears so he had the ,eriod of res,ite in order to "uild this ne4 structure of control. ,art control. Diem at the time 4as controlling the ,recincts of his ,alace and not much more 4hen he first started. -is ,ro"lem 4as ho4 can A get control of some of these forces that are anarchic and going in all directionsH -e needed allies to do it. and he ,ic<ed u, the allies as he 4ent along. including the "ureaucrac and the arm and !arious other things. and ,ut them under his control. No4 " ,utting them under his control55Nhu eF,lained this !er clearl . he <ne4 eFactl 4hat ha,,ened55he "ecame a ca,ti!e of it. Then his ,olicies then had to "e transmitted through these mechanisms. 4hich 4ere not !er good. ThatEs 4h Nhu used to al4a s "e railing a"out them. "ut A donEt thin< e!en Nhu thought that there 4as a real alternati!e. -e didnEt ha!e the o,,ortunit to create a ne4 structure a" initio under ,ressure. No4 4hether he should ha!e done more of it in the ,eriod of #$1% to #$1$. something of that nature. es. A thin< ,ro"a"l the should ha!e. -e had his heart set on the National Anstitute of Administration. the idea of "uilding554hich 4as ad!ised " our 3ichigan ,eo,le and so forth55a ne4 cadre. an AmericaniIed cadre of go!ernmental "ureaucratic ci!il ser!ant categor . as the French did after 7orld 7ar AA 4hen ,eo,le li<e :Valer ; (iscard DE+staing 4ent to the Anstitute there to "ecome ins,ectors of finance. and graduall 4or<ed their 4a u,. ThatEs 4hat Diem 4as in the ,rocess of doing and it 6ust 4as too slo4 for the ,ressures that came on him. So the ans4er :is;. es. he should ha!e had a different "ase of ,o4er. (: 2ut 4hat 4as thereH ': ThatEs the ,oint. 7hat 4as thereH There 4asnEt an at that time. -e didnEt reall ha!e that much alternati!e. "ecause if he had not reached for those allies he 4ould ha!e gone do4n. thereEs no Guestion a"out it. (: No4 the communists in the North and in the South al4a s claimed that their "ase of ,o4er 4as the ,easantr . ,articularl the landless ,easantr . and A thin< 4ith a good deal of truth. -o4 did DiemEs agro!ille ,rogram affect the attitude of the ,easantr H ': 7ell. the agro!ille55AEm glad ou se,arate the agro!ille from the strategic hamlet. "ecause the Ere t4o different things. The agro!ille ,rogram 4as one of these theoretical ,rograms 4hich might ha!e 4or<ed in a different circumstance. At came a"out "ecause of the nature of South Vietnam and the Delta area. 4hich is a 4hole series of canals and the ,eo,le li!e sort of one5" 5one along the canals and stretch out for miles. An #$10 and #$1$ 4hen Diem 4as in this ,rogram of de!elo,ing schools. aid and mar<et,laces. 6ust the general social and economic structure for the countr . it 4as o"!ious that this 4as reall a tough thing to handle. -o4 do ou handle a school. and ,articularl a high school. if ,eo,le are scattered all o!er the ,laceH So he had a thought that if he could mo!e ,eo,le closer together to ma<e them into agro!illes. still agriculturall "ased "ut in a <ind of a cit rather than a !illage or hamlet structure. that that 4ould gi!e ,o,ulation "ase for a hos,ital. a decent administration. a school s stem. not onl ,rimar "ut high school s stem and so forth. And this loo<ed fine. 3o!e the ,eo,le together and then gi!e them these amenities. these ste,s to4ard moderniIation and organiIing and so forth. No4 of course ou couldnEt se,arate55the de,ended mainl on their rice gro4ing for their li!elihood. That the could go out to. no great ,ro"lem. AtEs onl a cou,le of miles. no great concern. 2ut the needed something as a ,lot for !egeta"les. things local. a ,ig or something li<e that. something the could ha!e for their famil de!elo,ment. aside from the main cash cro, out here. So. the conseGuent design 4as55AE!e forgotten ho4 much. "ut letEs sa a hundred sGuare meters or something li<e that. 4hich the house 4as this much and the rest 4as this garden ,atch that the could use. 7ell. that meant. in other 4ords. that :there 4ere; ten families a <ilometer sGuare. At s,reads <ind of far. There is still accumulated enough so that the can su,,ort these !arious economic things. And in a 4orld in 4hich no o,,osition had occurred. this 4ould ha!e 4or<ed. at least it might ha!e 4or<ed. 8etEs gi!e it a half and half. AtEs 4orth the eF,eriment and certainl might ha!e "rought a"out these things. The ,ro"lem 4as that this launched in a"out mid5#$1$. 6ust a"out the time the communists 4ere deciding it 4as time to resume the re"ellion. 7ell. 4hen ou

s,read this ten families ,er <ilometer ou o"!iousl donEt ha!e a defensi"le center and so an enem ,atrol can 4al< right through the 4hole thing and thereEs no 4a to ,ut u, a ,erimeter that 4ill defend that entire area. This 4as the Achilles heel of the ,rogram. that it came in. 4ould ha!e gotten going a"out #$%J at eFactl the time that the insurgenc 4as arising and ma<ing it fruitless. All this stuff a"out mo!ing gra!es and all the rest of it. sure. thatEs a ,art of the ,ro"lem. "ut if it had de!elo,ed some economic momentum. A sus,ect it 4ould ha!e o!ercome that. 2ut 4hat it couldnEt o!ercome 4as the deli"erate effort to destro it " the enem and the ina"ilit to defend it. (: 7as it ,articularl !ulnera"le to enem ,ro,aganda as 4ell as attac<H ': Ch sure. A mean. "eing mo!ed and so forth. 2ut that sort of thing A thin< is something ou ta<e as the first stages. and then ou demonstrate that thereEs something there and ou can turn them around. An a later ,eriod 4e 4ent through the same ,ro"lem. 2ut " stic<ing to our ,rogram and ma<ing it a,,ear that itEs 4or<ing. ,eo,le do loo< and sa . O?es. it does ma<e sense.O (: AEm antici,ating here. "ut it seems to me that are ou sa ing in fact that ou too< "asicall the same idea later in 'CBDS :'i!ilian C,erations Be!olutionar De!elo,ment Staff; and made it 4or<H ': Not the agro!ille. no. no. 2ecause the agro!ille thing 4as indefensi"le. At 4as a little too much the ,olitical scientist at 4or<. 4ith a single idea. ThatEs 4h A canEt sa that it 4ould ha!e 4or<ed. and A canEt sa that it 4ould not ha!e. A 6ust donEt <no4. 7hat the changes 4ere A ha!e no idea. 2ut the fact is o"!iousl it didnEt 4or< and the reason it didnEt 4as its !ulnera"ilit . Not "ecause the other things failed. it 4as "ecause it 4as 6ust too !ulnera"le at a time 4hen the insurgenc "egan to rise. A donEt thin< it contri"uted in an ma6or degree to the rise of the insurgenc . A thin< it had other "ases and other reasons and that it might ha!e 4or<ed if it had had a chance. 7hat A am sa ing is that 4e essentiall too< on the strategic hamlet ,rogram later and made it 4or<. and of course itEs m contention that the strategic hamlet ,rogram "asicall 4or<ed the first time. And A <no4 AEm a little contentious a"out this. and A <no4 the stories a"out the fa<e "ar"ed 4ire and all that sort of thing. and sure. so did Diem. 7e had some internal re,orts gi!en to him " some ins,ectors that he sent out. 4hich 4ere re,orting to him the fact that some ,ro!inces 4ere cheating on the figures and that there 4as a"use of the ,easantr and all the rest of it. This 4asnEt a sur,rise to him. that his machiner 4as <ee,ing secrets from him. "ecause he had those re,orts. 4e <no4 of it. Those are the ,ro"lems ou ha!e 4hen ou ta<e on a ma6or ,rogram and tr to ma<e it 4or<. An some ,laces it doesnEt 4or< and ou go out and tin<er 4ith it and fiF it. ThatEs the ,ur,ose of ha!ing that <ind of inde,endent ins,ection and re,orting and so forth a"out the !ulnera"ilities and the a"uses and the 4rong things that ha,,ened. so that ou can correct them. ThatEs the 4hole idea of the thing. And the fact that ou get these re,orts doesnEt mean that the ,rogram is no good. Af ou 6ust let it go. es. then the ,rogram is no good. 2ut if ou then fiF it. and fire some"od or change the ,rogram in some area to match the ,ro"lem or 4hate!er. 4hich he 4as graduall doing. (: 7ere 4e getting those same inde,endent re,ortsH ': Sure. ?es. (: 7ell. 4h 4ere 4e accused later of s4allo4ing a lot of Vietnamese false statistics on such ,rogramsH ': 7ell. "ecause 4e lo!e statistics. ?ou <no4. if 4e 4ant statistics. the Ell gi!e us statistics. Af thatEs 4hat ou 4ant. fine. 4eEll gi!e them to ou. Nhu 4as ne!er !er much interested in the statistics. -e 4as all lost in the theor u, here. and A thought he made a certain amount of sense in that. in tr ing to ,ut the thrust on that. -e 4ould ha!e an all5da meeting of all the ,ro!ince chiefs. A remem"er "eing there one time. dragging them in from all o!er Vietnam and gi!ing them a long tal< for three or four hours. And a lot of them came out <ind of m stified as to 4hat it 4as all a"out. 4hich A thin< had less to do 4ith his not ha!ing a clear idea of 4hat he 4as doing than their ina"ilit to translate it into the <ind of staccato. one. t4o. three. A ,ut ten strands of "ar"ed 4ire and itEs all rightN if A onl ,ut eight itEs no good. 2ecause he 4as stressing that 4hat ou 4ere interested in here 4as a ,olitical mo!ement. a ,olitical action to generate a sense of communit on the ,art of these ,eo,le. not to 4ra, "ar"ed 4ire around them. "ut to get them to ta<e a role and a ,ride in 4hat the Ere doing and in ,artici,ating. A thin< he 4as right. and it 4as essentiall that ,hiloso,h that 4e returned to later. thereEs no Guestion a"out it. 7e translated from the hamlet to the !illage. A thin< that 4as a mista<e in the Diem5Nhu time. of stressing the hamlet. 2ecause the hamlet 4as not a traditional organ of administration. Nhu had that as ,art of the ,hiloso,h . -e didnEt 4ant the traditional ,o4er a,,aratus of the !illage to "e running it. -e 4as forming this ne4 "ase of ,o4er for the 4hole nation. (: Do ou thin< that 4as a mista<eH ': Pro"a"l . that he too< on more than he needed to at that ,oint. An other 4ords. he could ha!e left the a,,aratus of ,o4er in the !illage ,rett much alone so long as he ga!e it some ,o4er. "ecause it has the a"ilit to change and to refresh itself in a !ariet of 4a s. 2ut once ou get u, to the national le!el itEs !er difficult to do. (: A lot of critics. AEm sure ouEre a4are. find !er great fault 4ith Diem for remo!ing the local elected !illage chief. ': ?es. And A thin< there55thatEs 4h A do thin< the ,ro"a"l did ma<e a mista<e in that res,ect. (: A thin< +d4ard 8ansdale in his "oo< sa s that it 4as done 4hile he 4as in countr and for one reason or another he 4as ne!er told or ne!er found out and sa s that O ouEre going to find that incredi"le and hard to "elie!e. "ut itEs the sim,le truth.O ':?es. 4ell. A 4ouldnEt "e sur,rised. A mean Nhu felt no o"ligation to get 8ansdaleEs a,,ro!al on an thing. A mean. sure. he tal<ed to

him and so forth. "ut heEd ma<e his o4n decision on a thing li<e that. As A sa . itEs this ,hiloso,hical reason A thin< to change the old elite and generate a ne4 leadershi,. There 4as a theoretical idea. At ma ha!e "een 6ust a little more than the traffic "ore at the time. (: This is 6um,ing ahead a little "it "ut it A thin< is a good follo45u, to that. ?ou mentioned Atatur< and se!eral other models. Cther commentators55A thin< 7alt Bosto4 is one 4ho sa s this is a !er t ,ical ,attern. 4here ou get an old traditional st le of leader in the first generation of a re!olutionar mo!ement. and then the oung technocrats ta<e o!er in one 4a or another. Atatur< "eing the oung technocrat. Af 4hat Nhu and Diem 4ere tr ing to do 4as create a ne4 elite. is it fair to sa that the elite the 4ere tr ing to create then turned on them in the form of the arm H ': 7ell. the arm e!entuall turned on them. "ut thatEs another feature. A mean. 4e caused that. letEs face it. No. A thin< the 4ea<ness 4as that Diem first started thin<ing in terms of creating a ne4 trained elite out of the National Anstitute of Administration and so forth. Nhu later turned to this ne4 idea of a ne4 ,o,ular elite coming out of the !illages. ThereEs a contradiction "et4een the t4o o"!iousl . The "eneficiaries of DiemEs effort 4ere the elites in the cities 4ho 4ere a"le to still "e there and not "e eliminated as the 4ere in the North. The certainl turned on Diem. and the turned on him "ecause of an idealistic feeling that he hadnEt made things good enough and that certainl he had changed the old s stems to their detriment. and et had not sol!ed the ,ro"lems " his changes. Then the got intoFicated. some of them. " the idea that if 4e 6ust ha!e more democrac e!er thing 4ill "e all right. A 6ust donEt thin< that 4ould ha!e "een the case an more than it 4as in 'hang 3 onEs Korea in #$%J 4hen the countr started to come a,art after S ngman Bhee. At 4as onl rescued " Pa< 'hung -ee ,utting it together. A thin< the same come5a,art ,henomenon 4ould ha!e occurred if Diem had "een assassinated in #$%J. An fact. he had that re!olt against him. ,arachute attac<. and he ,ut it do4n. -e had enough lo al troo,s to ,ut it do4n. At 4asnEt the arm that turned on himN those 4ere a fe4 eFcited ,aratroo,ers and a fe4 local ,oliticians. A thin< that he could control that ,ro"lem. 7hat he couldnEt control later 4ere t4o things: one. the forerunner of the A atollah Khomeini. the 2uddhist "onIes that "urned themsel!es. 2ecause A thin< thatEs an eFact forerunner. total re6ection of the changes going on. moderniIation. an idealistic return to some religious "ase 4hich. if ou e!er tal< to an of these ,eo,le ou reall see that itEs all 4ords and no content. A mean. !er . !er strange. Then the effect. ho4e!er. of the 2uddhist thing55again. AEm a little contentious a"out this "ecause A "elie!e that the 2uddhist re!olt. 4hich "le4 u, in June of #$%&. had its ma6or im,act not in Vietnam "ut in the /nited States. 7hen that ,icture of the "urning "onIe a,,eared on 8ife magaIine. the ,art 4as almost o!er in terms of the imager that 4as affecting the American o,inion. That ,ut enormous ,ressure on President Kenned . O-o4 can ou ,ossi"l su,,ort a go!ernment that has ,eo,le doing this against itHO :At; led to his !acillation. 4hich is 4hat A ha!e to sa it 4as in terms of 4hat 4e should do a"out this ,ro"lem. and then led to DiemEs forceful su,,ression of the 2uddhist re!olt in the August raids. Fran<l . A thin< he su,,ressed them in the same 4a that he su,,ressed the sects in #$11. No4. the ,ro"lem he couldnEt control 4as the /nited States reaction. 2ut the 2uddhists 4ere not a factor in Se,tem"er and Ccto"er. The factor 4as the difference "et4een the Americans and the go!ernment. At 4asnEt a matter of the 2uddhists "eing a ma6or ,ro"lem in the countr side. The 4ere not a ma6or ,ro"lem. and he had not lost the authorit of his state. Sure. there 4ere unha,, ,eo,le. "ut he hadnEt lost authorit and he had "een through tough challenges li<e that "efore. The thing that reall led to the re!olt. of course. 4as the American signal. gi!en " President Kenned . that ne4 ,ersonalities 4ould "e necessar . Cur fight 4ith them :4as 4hether; to send Nhu and 3adame Nhu554ho didnEt hel, at all o!er here. thatEs for sure. she had a terri"le im,act on American o,inion55out of the countr and DiemEs refusal to <nuc<le under. as he 4ould ha!e said it. to American domination on that issue. and to demonstrate in ,art his inde,endence and his "elief that the Americans 4ere 4rong. :Diem had; the genuine feeling that the Americans 4ere ma<ing a mista<e and it 4as u, to him to struggle hard enough against them to ,re!ent them from doing so. Then that led to the "ig fight in 7ashington that occurred all that summer as to 4hether 4eEd go 4ith President Diem or thin< of re,lacing him55 ou <no4 as much a"out that as A do55and e!entuall ended u, 4ith a fe4 signals " the administration. a statement " President Kenned . sus,ension of our commercial im,ort ,rogram. the assurances to the generals that 4e 4ould "e ,re,ared to resume it if the mo!ed against the go!ernment. (: 7hat 4as the generalsE original com,laint against DiemH ': That he 4as creating such confusion in his ,rograms and in his ,olicies that he 4as ris<ing American su,,ort of Vietnam against the communists. That 4as their fundamental feeling. that he 4as going to lose the 4ar "ecause the Americans 4ere going to "ac< a4a . (: A see. AtEs "een contended that the 4ere sa ing he 4as "otching the effort against the communists. rather than alienating the Americans. ': Bight. Those are the t4o arguments. A mean. ou can ,a our mone and ta<e our choice. 2ut the one argument 4as that his ,olicies. ,articularl !is5a5!is the 2uddhists and the authoritarian nature of the regime. 4as antagoniIing the ,eo,le. therefore gi!ing encouragement to the communists to de!elo, more su,,ort among the ,eo,le and therefore threatening the future of Vietnam. and that 4e could ne!er ho,e to 4in the 4ar against the communist attac< 4ith Diem. A lot of !er sincere ,eo,le "elie!ed that. The other argument 4as that the countr side 4as essentiall unaffected " the 4hole 2uddhist struggle and that in fact the ,rograms of the countr side 4ere going along. A ha,,en to thin< that that is a little eFaggerated "ecause A thin< the reall critical thing that ha,,ened 4as the out"urst of the 2uddhist re!olt. 4hich turned the attention of the ,alace a4a from the strategic hamlet ,rogram. 4hich until that time had "een Guite successful. "ut reGuired an enormous amount of ,alace attention and stimulus and dri!e. 7hen the 2uddhist thing "le4 u, and then the fight 4ith the Americans de!elo,ed. all of that stimulus and dri!e had to "e di!erted onto the other ,ro"lems. The ,rogram 4as let lag at eFactl the time 4hen the communists had identified it as a ma6or threat. in the s,ring of #$%&. and had instructed their ,eo,le that the 4ere to destro this ,rogram at all costs. "ecause it reall did threaten them strategicall . So the "egan to attac< it in a"out June or Jul . and ou can see the terrorist incidents gro4 at that time against it. Cne inter,retation is

that this 4as a reflection of the disenchantment 4ith Diem. The other is that it 4as an eF,ression of communist strategic focus on a dangerous ,rogram. A ta<e the communist direction as the <e element. A <no4 these are argua"le. and A donEt mind. 2ut the fact 4as that the 4ouldnEt ha!e had a re!olt if the /nited States had not encouraged it. There 4as no dou"t a"out that 4hatsoe!er. A thin< itEs the greatest mista<e 4e made. A <no4 3r. Johnson also thought it 4as a terri"le mista<e. "ut !ice ,residents donEt ha!e much ,o4er. (: This is s,eculati!e. of course. "ut do ou thin< in the face of the o,,osition Diem 4as eF,eriencing from the 2uddhists and the unrest in the arm and so forth. could he ha!e "een sustained through that crisisH ': Ch. es. ?es. Af the Americans had maintained their commitment. their su,,ort. no dou"t a"out it. 2ut 4hen the Americans indicated a change. then "ing. it 4as gone. it 4ent. (: 7here does this ,ut Boger -ilsmanH ': 7ell. A thin< Boger and some of the others. and :A!erell; -arriman A disagreed 4ith on !arious :things; at times55A 6ust thin< their assessment of the ,ro"lem. of the nature of the ,ro"lem. and the ,olicies that 4e follo4ed 4ere mista<en. No4 A must admit that the 4erenEt entirel free in that "ecause the had a lot of ,ressure "ehind them from the American ,eo,le and the American ,ress. ThatEs 4h A sa . 4hen that ,icture a,,eared in 8ife magaIine. the game 4as almost o!er. 2ecause 4e do ha!e a go!ernment 4hich has to reflect strong attitudes " the American ,eo,le. That certainl had a strong element. a strong im,act on the situation. No4 AEm not one of those 4ho "elie!es that ou can ignore the American ,eo,le. ?ou cannot. ?ouE!e got to listen to them. ?ouE!e got ho,efull to educate them as to 4hat the realit of the ,ro"lem is. "ut the are the ultimate re,ositories of ,o4er. and 4hen the decide something itEs done. And it 4as done 4ith Diem on that image. and it 4as done 4ith Vietnam on the Tet image. (: A case in ,oint ,erha,s55 ': AtEs a "ad 4a to ma<e decisions ma "e. "ut nonetheless. itEs ,art of our go!ernment s stem. (: ThatEs going to lead us into an interesting discussion on the role of the media. A thin<. A donEt <no4 4hether 4eEll get to it. An interesting. A thin<. case in ,oint. and AEd "e interested in our e!aluation of it. 4as the raid on the @a 8oi ,agoda in August. 4hich "rought a lot of things to a head. ': Sure. (: Nhu. or Diem. 4hoe!er 4as o,erating. a,,arentl used Vietnamese s,ecial forces to su,,ress a focus of 2uddhist discontent. and the ,ress made a great deal out of this. "ecause it 4as 4ell <no4n that the 4ere 'AA5su,,orted. ad!ised. 4hate!er. ': 55su,,orted. es. (: Did 4e <no4 a"out this in ad!anceH ': No. No. (: -o4 4as a ,erson li<e55or 4h . A should sa . 4as a ,erson li<e Da!id -al"erstam su,,osedl informed ahead of time and 4e didnEt <no4H ThatEs raised a "one of contention. ': A didnEt realiIe he sa s he 4as informed ahead of time. (: 7ell. not much ahead of time. A thin< a da or so ahead of time. ': A ne!er heard that statement either. Ch. freGuentl ne4s,a,ermen get a ti, on things that the go!ernment doesnEt get. The fact that 4e ha!e an ad!iser 4ith a unit doesnEt mean that 4eEre ,ri! to e!er order the get. A mean. 4hen Pa< 'hung -ee mo!ed into Seoul in #$%#. some of the American ad!isers almost 4ere 4ith the unit. not realiIing 4hat the 4ere in!ol!ed in. ?ou <no4. ouEre a foreigner and the orders come do4n that chain. 7e didnEt ha!e resident ad!isers 4ith e!er "attalion or 4hate!er structure. At 4asnEt a !er large force an 4a . it 4as a small force. The could ha!e easil used them and told them to go do something 4ithout telling us. and ,ro"a"l 4ould ha!e. "ecause the <ne4 4e 4ould ha!e o"6ected. ?ou see. in the raid on the ,agodas. Diem A thin< came to the conclusion that he had to su,,ress the 2uddhists. As A said earlier. A thin< he succeeded. 2ut he came to the conclusion that the 4ere not 6ust a religious force. "ut a ,olitical force that 4as attac<ing the authorit of his state. and he had no choice "ut to su,,ress them. -e used the s,ecial forces. "ecause he ha,,ened to ha!e them. the 4ere hand and eas and he didnEt ha!e to eF,lain them to a 4hole general staff or an thing. 6ust reach out and tell them to do it. (: DidnEt he ma<e an effort. or someone ma<e an effort. to ,in this on the ABVN rather than on the s,ecial forcesH ': 7ell. that 4as the fuss that 4e got into after4ards. A thin<. as A remem"er it. the Guestion 4as 4hether the arm had ,artici,ated in it. The had arm uniforms on. And then the arm had al4a s "een unha,, a"out the s,ecial forces ha!ing a se,arate line of command to NhuEs structure. ThatEs 4h the e!entuall shot 'olonel :8e ^uang; Tung in the most outrageous murder of all. fran<l . A !er mild. straightfor4ard. decent gu . 2ut the arm then. 4ith the reaction. ou see. of the Americans to this. the arm insisted this 4asnEt arm . :-enr 'a"ot; 8odge too< this ,oint u, and made something of it. and at a time 4hen 4e 4ere "uilding our contacts 4ith the arm and 4anted to maintain that o,tion of the arm . then that "ecame im,ortant. ?ou see. Guite o"!iousl Diem and Nhu too< the interregnum "et4een :Frederic<; Nolting. that the did res,ect and realiIed that he 4as losing the "attle of su,,orting them and had "een <ic<ed out o"!iousl and re,laced " 8odge. 4ho 4as a !er un<no4n Gualit at that ,oint. The didnEt <no4 4hich 4a heEd

go. The thought the Ed ta<e the interregnum "et4een those t4o am"assadors and 6ust eliminate the 2uddhist thing and ,resent 8odge 4ith a fait accom,li. that it had "een eliminated. 4asnEt there an more. 7ell. 8odge is not one that ta<es that <ind of a gesture lightl and this affecte his entire attitude to4ards him. (: Did 8odge inter,ret that as a challenge. an insult ,erha,sH ': No. it554ell. that the deli"eratel had acted "efore he got there in order to 6ust do a4a 4ith the 2uddhist ,ro"lem "efore the had the ,ro"lems of dealing 4ith him. (: That "rings u, an interesting ,oint concerning the55 )Anterru,tion* There is an interesting series of "lan< s,ots and con6ectures concerning their relationshi, right "efore the cou,. "et4een 8odge and (eneral :Paul; -ar<ins. the 3AA( chief. and 3r. :John; Bichardson. the station chief of 'AA. 'an ou sort that outH ': 7ell. 8odge came out to Vietnam ha!ing "een chosen. as the former !ice ,residential candidate for the Be,u"licans in #$%J. " President Kenned . in order to de5,oliticiIe our ,ro"lems in Vietnam and get the Be,u"licans on the hoo< as 4ell as the Democrats. As A said. this challenge to his authorit " Diem and Nhu affected 8odgeEs entire a,,roach. -ar<ins. in the 3AA( ,osition. 4as con!inced that the 4ar 4as going relati!el 4ell. not ,erfectl . "ut mo!ing along. The ,rograms actuall 4or<ing of im,ro!ing the armed forces and the strategic hamlet ,rogram seemed to "e in the right direction and so forth. and that the 2uddhist ,ro"lems 4ere some ,olitical thing that 4ere off in a corner and shouldnEt affect our main interest in the su,,ort of the South Vietnamese and the 4ar effort. Bichardson. " direction and " tradition. 4as in direct touch 4ith Nhu. had tal<ed to Nhu o!er the. 4hat. ear and a half since AEd left. and had a fran< relationshi, 4ith him. understood 4hat he 4as tal<ing a"out and tr ing to do. and "asicall s m,athiIed 4ith the conce,t of a ,olitical. hamlet5"ased solution to the insurgenc ,ro"lem. That 4e also shouldnEt "e di!erted " the ur"an. religious ,ro"lems from our main interest in the ma6or challenge to our interests there. 4hich 4as from the North. 8odge came in 4ith much more of a sense of the American reaction to the 2uddhist ,ro"lems and the intensit of feeling in the /nited States. much more a4are of the shar, difference of o,inion 4ithin the administration as to 4hat ought to "e done. and ,ro"a"l a little "etter informed a"out President Kenned Es "asic thin<ing. that something had to "e done a"out Diem and Nhu. So he came in after the raid on the ,agodas. determined to distance himself from and distance the /nited States from total identification 4ith Diem and Nhu. This. of course. conflicted 4ith Bichardson and -ar<insE !ie4 of 4hat 4as im,ortant and 4hat 4as the significant element of the ,ro"lem. 4hich 4as the countr side ,ro"lem. This led e!entuall to his dismissing Bichardson in order s m"olicall to indicate the end of the relationshi, 4ith Nhu. 2ecause Diem 4as not ielding to 8odgeEs demands. and the 4ere demands. Diem 4as not ielding to those demands. The chemistr "et4een the t4o didnEt 4or< at all. Cne of the more 4r as,ects 4as one of 8odgeEs first ca"les 4hen he got there. and he 4ent to some ceremon at the ,alace. Diem had a,,eared in a traditional Vietnamese mandarinEs coat. and A guess the other ,eo,le there. too. Diem. for a long time. had ado,ted the sort of French 4hite shar<s<in suits that all the "ureaucrats did. and then increasingl he turned to ,utting on a traditional Vietnamese costume. 8odgeEs ca"le is rather amusing "ecause it tal<s a"out the medie!al court 4ith all its connotations. Cf course. the reall fascinating thing 4as that 4hen 8odge finall left Vietnam a"out a ear and a half later. he ,ut on a Vietnamese costume for the final ceremon 55 (: 8odge didH ThatEs interesting. ': 55at 4hich he 4as gi!en the National Crder. The contradiction "et4een the t4o has ne!er reall "een eF,lained. A mean. 8odge 4as a !er strong5minded. a !er forceful fello4. "ut. . . . As A sa . the chemistr 4as ne!er going to 4or< in the circumstances unfortunatel . The other thing is that 8odge did not concei!e his role as "eing the manager of the American effort. -e concei!ed his role as "eing an indi!idual sent out to ma<e his o"ser!ations and ma<e his contri"ution. As a result he did not tr to manage the American team in that sense and assert his authorit 55it sort of 4ent its different 4a s. (: 7as there a manager "elo4H ': 7ell. Truehart 4as there. "ut if the am"assador isnEt going to insist on authorit no"od else reall can successfull do so. (: That "rings u, a stor that A ha!e encountered in another conteFt. and that is that follo4ing the Diem cou,55A thin< itEs in Decem"er55Secretar 3cNamara 4ent to Saigon on one of man !isits and came "ac< and re,orted that in fact there had not "een leadershi, of the countr team. as it 4ere. "ut that he had great ho,es for a oung man named Da!id Nes. 4ho 4as going to act as a coordinator at the second echelon le!el. And a"out a month later Da!id Nes got the sac<. Do ou <no4 an thing a"out that stor H ': A donEt remem"er. "ut A thin< it 4as a Guestion of 4hether Nes 4as ,osing some threat to 8odgeEs "asic authorit . A donEt <no4 the stor . "ut A thin< that 4as the guess4or<. (: AE!e heard the same thing. ThatEs as far as it goes. ': See. the histor of the American effort in Vietnam 4as a continuing agoniIing effort to get the Americans organiIed for the nature of the 4ar 4e 4ere in. 7e 4ent through all these a4ful ,ro"lems of the struggle "et4een the militar and the ci!ilians. and the different ci!ilian agencies and all the rest of it. 7e actuall ,ut the strategic hamlet ,rogram under ,rett good management 4hen 4e sent a fello4 named Philli,s55 (: Bufus Philli,sH ': Buf Philli,s. Buf Philli,s there to run the American su,,ort of the ,rogram. 7hile 4e didnEt unif the militar side of it. it reall

4asnEt all that rele!ant at the time and it 4asnEt a ma6or ,ro"lem. Then. of course. 4e got into the total confusion of the 4hole cou, and the ,ost5cou,. That 4as 6ust anarch . Then 4e tried a series of eF,eriments to at least get the ci!ilian Americans organiIed. 2ill Porter 4ent out there and !arious other ,eo,le. That sort of mo!ed it a little "it. At 4asnEt until President Johnson ,ut 2o" Komer in to Odamn it. get this ci!ilian side of the thing organiIed.O that he came u, 4ith the ans4er. Secondl . the sent +lls4orth 2un<er out there to "e the commander55+lls4orth too< charge. no dou"t of it. Komer had the "rilliant solution of unif ing the ci!ilian and militar countr side effort under a militar command. That sol!ed all the ,ro"lems. That the militar had a unit of command. "ut the ci!ilians had their o4n role in it and the 6oint organiIation and all the rest of it. At 4or<ed. 2ut it 4asnEt until President Johnson finall made that :decision and; ,ut a gu 4ith 2o"Es enthusiasm and dri!e into the role that it e!entuall 4or<ed. (: AE!e seen t4o schools of thought also on the effect of the cou, on the communists. not 6ust the communists. the N8F. 4hich is the more inclusi!e term. A thin<. Cne !ie4 is that militaril the Viet 'ong made great strides ta<ing ad!antage of the confusion and the falling a,art of the strategic hamlet ,rogram and so on. Another !ie4 is that ,oliticall the N8F lost its focus for a 4hile "ecause it no longer had Diem as a s m"ol of e!er thing that 4as 4rong. At 4as no longer the onl anti5go!ernment game in to4nN there 4ere lots of anti5go!ernment games ou could 6oin if ou 4anted to ,la . ': ThatEs interesting. (: And that a"out a third of the mem"ers of the N8F 4ent inacti!e or sim,l Guit in the aftermath of the55not in the aftermath. in the summer during the 2uddhist trou"les. and for sometime thereafter the N8F lost considera"le num"ers. not necessaril fighters. ': A ha!e heard that inter,retation. A 4ould sa that the effect on the N8F and the communists generall 554ell. one communist di,lomat. A thin< he 4as a North Vietnamese. "ut he 4as ,art of the 4hole "usiness or N8F. one or the other. said the 6ust loo<ed 4ith a"solute amaIement at the fact that the Americans thre4 Diem out. couldnEt understand it. Secondl . there 4as a surge of attac<s to destro the strategic hamlet ,rogram. 4hich of course the ne4 go!ernment couldnEt identif 4ith an 4a . So the did ta<e ad!antage of that ,eriod of confusion. and ,eriod of !er 4ea< leadershi, under the 6unta. Duong Van 3inh ,articularl . -is onl decisi!e act 4as to decide to <ill Diem and Nhu. (: Do ou thin< that 4as 3inhEs decisionH ': Ch. ,ersonall . es. 4ithout an dou"t. An fact. the other generals A thin< 4ere sha<en " it. (: 7ho do ou thin< ,ulled the trigger. or is that im,ortantH ': That fello4 that 4as <illed later. (: @uanH ': ?es. ?es. 4hate!er his name 4as. 2ecause 4hen :Ngu en; Khanh got in he 6ust too< him out and shot him. A thin<55thereEs no dou"t a"out it. @uan <illed him. ThereEs no dou"t a"out that he 4as 3inhEs aide and that he acted on 3inhEs orders. no Guestion a"out it. The other generals then 4ere faced 4ith a fait accom,li. The couldnEt ,ut -um,t Dum,t "ac< together again unfortunatel . 2ut then the floundered around for three months and the ,lace 4as coming to ,ieces and Khanh mo!ed and too< o!er. 2ut the communists 4ere not. interestingl enough. eGui,,ed to eF,loit the confusion to the degree that the should ha!e "een. An other 4ords. the did not ha!e the structure. the siIe force. either ,olitical or militar . 4hich 4ould ena"le them to mo!e into that ,eriod of !acuum. And so after a surge to get rid of the strategic hamlets and this great ne4 4orld thatEs o,ening u,. then the rather grinding "usiness of the da resumed and the militar in the countr side 6ust sort of toughened u, and said. O4ell. 4eE!e got to fight these gu s. <ee, on fighting them.O The communists. N8F. continued their effort. And it did ta<e them a little 4hile to re6igger their ,olitical line. "ut it didnEt ta<e long. A donEt recall that as "eing an great ,ro"lem. (: A noticed in researching documents that55the ones that A ha!e at least55sho4 a focus on ,olitical matters of the 'AA ca"les coming out of Saigon immediatel after the cou,. And it has "een s,eculated that this 4as "ecause the 'AAEs 6urisdiction. if ou 4ill. in militar matters had "een ta<en a4a . Cr 4as this sim,l a Guestion of ,rioritiesH ': This 4as ,riorities. The main ,ro"lem 4as the ,olitical thing of 4hether the could ,ut something together. The countr side re,orting had "een ta<en o!er in great effect " the militar . A mean. the had the ,ro!ince teams " then. A donEt <no4. ma "e not. The had theater teams. And a lot of the statistical stuff of num"ers of incidents and stuff li<e that. that flo4ed in through the mission and 4as a!aila"le to 'AA. "ut the didnEt re,ort it as something the disco!ered or found. AEm sure that the 'AA ca"les said something a"out the 4ar and ho4 it 4as going at that time. 2ut ouEre right. it did focus !er hea!il on the ,ro"lems of the ,olitics of the 6unta and then Khanh and then the 2uddhists and all the other actions that 4ere going on there. 2ecause that 4as the name of the game. (: 7hat res,onsi"ilit did the 'AA retain after A thin< itEs called C,eration S4itch"ac<. for re,orting on things li<e order of "attle and so forthH ': 7ell. it 4asnEt C,eration S4itch"ac< that did that. ?ou al4a s had a militar intelligence com,onent to 3AA(. The got the statistics from the Vietnamese militar . The 'AA 4ould get some statistics from the ,olice. "ut the militar 4ere more com,rehensi!e on the militar actions and fighting ,ro"lems and so forth. The S4itch"ac< merel got 'AA out of an action res,onsi"ilit 4ith res,ect to the 'AD(s :'i!ilian Arregular Defense (rou,s; and the northern o,erations and things li<e that.

(: C,erational ,rogramsH ': ?es. the o,erations. The didnEt change their function. 2ut 'AA ne!er felt that it 4as its 6o" to ,ro!ide com,rehensi!e statistical re,orting. That 4as the 3issionEs. Ats 6o" 4as to tr to de!elo, some useful sources in "oth the go!ernment. the o,,osition elements. and to the eFtent feasi"le using the ,olice and the intelligence structures. ci!ilian intelligence structures. to get into the communist side. And then of course after S4itch"ac< 4e in theor got out of the 4hole action area and then. oh. siF months or a ear later it 4as o"!ious that the ,lace 4as coming a,art and that 4e needed local forces and local ,olitical counter5insurgenc <inds of forces. 'AA "egan to come u, 4ith some of those and got the a,,ro!als to su,,ort them and get them going. That 4as the BD :Be!olutionar De!elo,ment; cadre and some of the other ,rograms. \\\\\\\\ Then. of course. the reall im,ortant mission. though. 4as the Ta lor5Bosto4 one. in Ccto"er or something li<e that. At came o!er for a"out three of four da s. /nfortunatel A 4as not there. A had "een called o!er to 3anila to meet John 3c'one. our ne4 director of 'AA. A had 6ust come "ac< and had a"out a half5hour tal< 4ith Bosto4. and thatEs all. AE!e al4a s <ind of regretted that. "ecause A had the feeling that the Ta lor5Bosto4 mission. in its re,ort that e!entuall sho4ed u,. did not ,ut an adeGuate stress on the im,ortance of the strategic hamlet. the !illage le!el of the 4ar. the 4hole counterinsurgenc role. "ut instead reall started us off on 4hat A thought 4as the 4rong foot. of focusing ,articularl on the militar and the strengthening of the militar . (: And ,ressures against the North for a ,ossi"le55 ': 7ell. and all that stuff a"out the North. 4hich 4as <ind of incidental. 7eEd alread "een doing a little of that. "ut A 4as in the ,rocess of "ecoming disenchanted 4ith it as not "eing !er feasi"le. (: These 4ere 4hat. "lac< o,erationsH ': ?es. Dro,,ing ,eo,le in and so forth. A guess 4e ran our first ones in #$%J. so it 4as "efore that. 2ut55 (: -adnEt 8ansdale trained some teams 4a "ac< in the middle fiftiesH ': Ch. some of his ,eo,le had theoreticall left some ca,a"ilities u, in -anoi 4hen the 4ent a4a . "ut no. it ,la ed no role at that time. 8ansdale 4as more s m"olic. -e 4as loo<ing for the s m"olism and the ,olitical effect of this. and not unreasona"l . Some of his ideas are a little fe once in a 4hile. "ut he did understand the "asic ,olitical Gualit that 4as necessar to an continuing struggle. 2ut the Ta lor5Bosto4 thing A thought reall missed the ,oint at the time. A reall 4as al4a s sorr that A hadnEt had more of a chance to get to them on it. A donEt <no4 4h . A donEt <no4 4hether it 4ould ha!e made an difference. "ut A didnEt. The <ind of dismissed the 'AA as. 4ell. ou get off and do a little of that intelligence 4or<. and thatEs all. A thought that the 'AA at that ,articular ,oint had figured out some of the things a"out 4hat the nature of the 4ar 4as all a"out. Particularl a fe4 of the eF,eriments in the !illages 4here 4eEd armed some of the local tri"esmen or local citiIens in the Delta or u, the coast or u, in the mountains or some ,lace. (: -o4 did Diem feel a"out arming the ,o,ulation as o,,osed to arming something li<e the self5defense forceH ': -e 4as a little sus,icious of it. "ut Nhu con!inced him that it 4as a good thing. And the didnEt 6ust 4ander through the "ac< countr side and thro4 the guns out the "ac< of the truc<s. A mean55Diem of course had no hesitation in arming a 'atholic communit "ecause he had confidence that the 4ould fight. and the did. ThereEs no Guestion a"out it. 2ut he 4ent along 4ith the effort u, in the tri"al areas and he 4ent along 4ith some of the other ,rograms. 4hich 4ere more eF,erimental than an thing. 7e deli"eratel conducted them as eF,eriments. and then tried to demonstrate to Nhu the things that had 4or<ed and the things that hadnEt a"out them. and that the <e to it 4as the local leadershi, and the local sense of res,onsi"ilit . A thin< he got a lot of the strategic hamlet out of some of those eF,eriments. Then he "roadened it and a,,lied it. and then he ,ut the ,hiloso,hical gloss on to, of it. 7e certainl made mista<es in some ,arts of it. A donEt ha!e an dou"t a"out that. 2ut as an identification of the correct strateg for that <ind of a 4ar. A thin< that the 'AA ,eo,le 4ere on the right trac< at that time. and that the Ta lor5Bosto4 mission 4ent in the 4rong direction. (: That. of course. nearl confirms a Guestion A thin< A had as<ed on the handout. 4hich 4as. is it too much to sa that ou thin< the 'AA had the secret to 4inning the 4ar and didnEt get a chance to a,,l itH ': 7ell. A co!ered this in m "oo< a little "it. that there is an inherent ,ro"lem here. that 'AA is an agenc 4hose machiner 4or<s through secret channels. And ou canEt reall 4in a 4ar secretl . So someho4 4e had to figure out55and it too< us a long time to do so55ho4 to organiIe a ,ro,er ,olitical counterinsurgenc effort outside of 'AA. 4ith 'AA ,la ing a role. No4 e!entuall 4e came to it 4ith 'CBDS. "ut it too< us a"out fi!e ears to figure out the structure. An the fi!e ears 4e 4ent through all sorts of noise and confusion unfortunatel . 2ut as a strateg . es. A thin< thereEs no Guestion a"out it. that the strateg of focusing on the !illage le!el of the 4ar. encouraging the ,artici,ation and acti!ating the local ,o,ulation to ,la a role. 4as the <e to the nature of the 4ar that the 4ere facing. And the strategic hamlet ,rogram55A donEt care a"out little !ariations in the ,rograms. A mean. !illage. hamlet. things li<e that are minor !ariations against the "asic ,hiloso,h 55did 4or< in #$%2. 7ilford 2urchett said it did. and heEs no friend. (: ThatEs Guite a com,liment. ': And it did 4or< in #$%$. #$MJ and #$M# once 4e got at it again. And 4hen 4e chased around in other areas it didnEt 4or<. Source: htt,:LLngothelinh.tri,od.comL'ol" PDiem'ou,.htm

The Decline of South Vietnam e The Fall of Saigon

Cu)as Communist des1ot #idel Castro arries a Viet Cong %lag and 1oses %or a 1hotogra1h with the Viet Cong and the North Vietnamese !rmy 7NV!9 in Kuang &ri, South Vietnam in *5@4. 7Photo+ htt1+88www.military1hotos.net8%orums8showthread.1h1N*4A=A@?Vietnamese?/ilitary?&hread?7u1dated?on?regular?)asis981age4>9

Cu)as Communist des1ot #idel Castro a11ears with a grou1 o% Viet Cong terrorists in South Vietnam in *5@4. 7Photo+ htt1+88www.military1hotos.net8%orums8showthread.1h1N*4A=A@?Vietnamese?/ilitary?&hread?7u1dated?on?regular?)asis981age4>9

Cu)as Communist des1ot #idel Castro e'amines sou2enirs a Cuired )y Viet Cong terrorists. 7Photo+ htt1+88www.military1hotos.net8%orums8showthread.1h1N*4A=A@?Vietnamese?/ilitary?&hread?7u1dated?on?regular?)asis981age4>9

#emale soldiers o% the North Vietnamese army stand at attention. 7Photo+ htt1+88www.military1hotos.net8%orums8showthread.1h1N*4A=A@?Vietnamese?/ilitary?&hread?7u1dated?on?regular?)asis981age4F9

!rmy o% the Re1u)li o% Vietnam SSouth VietnamT 7!RVN9 troo1s guard a shrinking 1erimeter htt1+88www.military1hotos.net8%orums8showthread.1h1N*454A>?South?Vietnamese?Soldiers?7!rmy?Re1u)li ?Vietnam9

7Photo+ htt1+88www.military1hotos.net8%orums8showthread.1h1N*4A=A@?Vietnamese?/ilitary?&hread?7u1dated?on?regular?)asis981age@F9

7Photo+ htt1+88www.military1hotos.net8%orums8showthread.1h1N*4A=A@?Vietnamese?/ilitary?&hread?7u1dated?on?regular?)asis981age@F9

South Vietnamese marines line )ea hes and swim out to shi1s, %leeing %rom the northern 1ort ity o% Da Nang on /ar h 35, *5@F )e%ore its %all to the Viet Cong and north Vietnamese. &his 1i ture was taken as some marines su ess%ully %led, a)andoning s ores o% wea1ons, 2ehi les and e2en a heli o1ter. :n the %oreground, men on LS&s 7Landing Shi1, &ank9 1re1are to throw ro1e to marines oming u1 on inner tu)es. ;nly a %ra tion o% the ityHs *AA,AAA de%enders were e2a uated )e%ore its %all. 7!P Photo9

! re%ugee lut hes her )a)y as a go2ernment heli o1ter gunshi1 arries them away near &uy .oa, 34F miles northeast o% Saigon on /ar h 33, *5@F. &hey were among thousands %leeing %rom re ent Communist ad2an es. 7!P Photo8 Ni k (t9

)Photo: ;ietnam. A =istor " Stanle Karno4*

South Vietnamese soldiers and military 1oli e o%%i ers 7%oreground9 )arri ade the streets during the %all o% South Vietnam. 7Photo+ htt1+88www.military1hotos.net8%orums8showthread.1h1N*4A=A@?Vietnamese?/ilitary?&hread?7u1dated?on?regular?)asis981age@F9

Viet Cong guerilla %ighters ride in a tank in Da Nang, South Vietnam in *5@F. 7Photo+ htt1+88www.military1hotos.net8%orums8showthread.1h1N*4A=A@?Vietnamese?/ilitary?&hread?7u1dated?on?regular?)asis981age4>9

North Vietnamese troo1s run a ross the tarma o% &an Son Nhat air )ase in Saigon as smoke )illows )ehind a)andoned (.S. !ir #or e trans1ort 1lanes !1ril 4A, *5@F. &he taking o% Saigon marked the %all o% the (.S.?)a ked south and the end to a de ade o% %ighting. 7Vietnam News !gen y8R-(&-RS9

!n !meri an o%%i ial 1un hes a man in the %a e who was trying to get on an air1lane already o2erloaded with %leeing Vietnamese re%ugees seeking to %lee Nha &rang, South Vietnam on !1ril 3, *5@F as Communist troo1s 1re1ared to enter Nha &rang, 7Reuters8Bettmann8Cor)is9

Vietnamese re%ugees run toward heli o1ters in Ruan Lo , South Vietnam in *5@F. 7:mage+ G Nik Wheeler8C;RB:S9

Soldiers and i2ilians are Eammed together on a Na2y )oat that e2a uated them %rom the old im1erial a1ital o% .ue, South Vietnam on /ar h 36, *5@F. 7:mage+ G Bettmann8C;RB:S9

! C:! em1loyee 71ro)a)ly ;.B. .arnage9 hel1s Vietnamese e2a uees onto an !ir !meri a heli o1ter %rom the to1 o% 33 0ia Long Street, a hal% mile %rom the (.S. -m)assy, in Saigon, South Vietnam, on !1ril 35, *5@F. &he e2a uees were %lown to a near)y air ra%t arrier stationed near the oast o% South Vietnam. 7:mage+ G Bettmann8C;RB:S9

Se retary o% State .enry $issinger makes a suggestion %or Vi e President Nelson Ro ke%eller and President 0erald #ord during the !meri an e2a uation o% Saigon, South Vietnam on !1ril 3>, *5@F. 7Photo+ 0erald R. #ord Li)rary9

White .ouse Chie% o% Sta%% Donald Rums%eld 7le%t9, President 0erald #ord 7 enter9, and Di k Cheney are seen laughing on !1ril 3>, *5@F. 7Photo+ 0erald R. #ord Li)rary9

North Vietnamese Communist terrorists 1re1are to in2ade South Vietnam. 7Photo+ htt1+881i asawe).google. om8ha1hu hoan8VietNamWarUFA5*@@34A4@*534*34=9

North Vietnamese Communist terrorists 1re1are to mar h into Saigon. 7Photo+ htt1+881i asawe).google. om8ha1hu hoan8VietNamWarUFA5*@@33@@5=5=3@==39

! North Vietnamese tank rolls into a om1ound in Saigon, South Vietnam during the %all o% Saigon on !1ril 4A, *5@F. 7:mage )y G #ran oise de /ulder8C;RB:S9

North Vietnamese Communist terrorists enter Saigon on tanks and tru ks on !1ril 4A, *5@F, ending the Vietnam War. 7:mage )y G "a Cues Pa2lo2sky8Sygma8C;RB:S9

Vietnamese residents in Saigon wat h Viet Cong terrorists dri2e their tanks at an interse tion on !1ril 4A, *5@F. 7Photo+ htt1+88www.military1hotos.net8%orums8showthread.1h1N*4A=A@?Vietnamese?/ilitary?&hread?7u1dated?on?regular?)asis981age4>9

South Vietnamese army soldiers desert their uni%orms and )oots in South Vietnam in !1ril *5@F. 7Photo+ htt1+88www.military1hotos.net8%orums8showthread.1h1N*4A=A@?Vietnamese?/ilitary?&hread?7u1dated?on?regular?)asis981age4>9

Viet Cong guerillas in tanks and armored 1ersonnel arrier surround the 1residential 1ala e in Saigon on !1ril 4A, *5@F. 7Photo+ htt1+88www.military1hotos.net8%orums8showthread.1h1N*4A=A@?Vietnamese?/ilitary?&hread?7u1dated?on?regular?)asis981age4>9

North Vietnamese troo1s seiIe the 1residential 1ala e in Saigon, South Vietnam on !1ril 4A, *5@F. 7:mage+ G "a Cues Pa2lo2sky8Sygma8C;RB:S9

0eneral Duong Van /inh 7LBig /inhM9, the last 1resident 7%or 4 days9 o% South Vietnam, is arrested )y North Vietnamese troo1s outside the 1residential 1ala e in Saigon during the %all o% Saigon on !1ril 4A, *5@F. 7:mage+ G "a Cues Pa2lo2sky8Sygma8C;RB:S9

South Vietnam !rmy soldiers are detained )y Viet Cong guerillas at the L:nde1enden e Pala eM 7Presidential Pala e9 in Saigon on !1ril 4A, *5@F.

Viet Cong guerilla %ighters rela' in %ront o% the %ormer 1residential 1ala e in Saigon in *5@F shortly a%ter onCuering South Vietnam. 7Cor)is9

Residents o% Saigon e'amine the )ody o% a South Vietnamese army o%%i er, who hose sui ide instead o% surrendering to the Viet Cong, on !1ril 4A, *5@F. 7Photo+ htt1+88www.military1hotos.net8%orums8showthread.1h1N*4A=A@?Vietnamese?/ilitary?&hread?7u1dated?on?regular?)asis981age=>9

'ommunists in -anoi im,ose communism on the Vietnamese ,eo,le in former South Vietnam. )Source: ;ietnam. A =istor " Stanle Karno4*

4F Vietnamese re%ugees wait to )e taken a)oard the am1hi)ious ommand shi1 (SS BL(- R:D0- 7LCC?*59 on *F /ay *5>=. &hey are )eing res ued %rom a 4F %oot %ishing )oat 4FA miles northeast o% Cam Ranh Bay, Vietnam, a%ter s1ending eight days at sea. htt1+88www.de%enseimagery.mil8imagery.htmlUaQsear h,sQ2ietnamese,nQ5A,guidQa=FdAeF@A3= d35F646=>A=)6*%=e4AaA3 >A=3e

#all o% Cam)odia , Rise o% the $hmer Rouge

(nited States !rmy Chie% o% Sta%% 0en. /a'well D. &aylor 7le%t9 toasts $ing Norodom Sihanouk o% Cam)odia in Phnom Penh, Cam)odia in *5FF. /a'well D. &aylor was a mem)er o% the Coun il on #oreign Relations.

Lon Nol 7le%t9, the leader o% Cam)odia, stands )eside National Se urity !d2isor .enry $issinger on ; to)er 33, *5@3.

)Photo: ;ietnam. A =istor " Stanle Karno4*

Prin e Norodom Sihanouk wa2es his hand during his arri2al in .anoi, North Vietnam on /ay 3F, *5@A. !t his right is North Vietnamese Premier Pham Van Dong. !lso seen is Premier Penn Nouth and North Vietnams De%ense /inister Vo Nguyen 0ia1 7wearing helmet9. 7Photo+ G Bettmann8C;RB:S9

);ietnam. A =istor " Stanle Karno4*

S1e ial Presidential -n2oy 0eneral !le'ander /. .aig, "r., talks with (.S. !m)assador to &hailand, Leonard (nger, on his arri2al in Bangkok, &hailand on !1ril 5, *5@4 to start %our days o% onsultations on the tense military situation in Cam)odia. ;n his *3th tour o% :ndo hina in three years, 0eneral .aig will 2isit South Vietnam, Laos, Cam)odia and the new (.S. military headCuarters %or the region at Nakhon Phanom !ir Base in &hailand. 7Bettmann8C;RB:S9

S1e ial Presidential -n2oy, 0eneral !le'ander /. .aig, "r. 73 nd le%t9 meets with President o% Cam)odia Lon Nol in Phnom Penh, Cam)odia on !1ril *3, *5@4 )e%ore de1arting %or Washington, D.C. to deli2er re1ort to (.S. President Ri hard Ni'on on the military situation in Southeast !sia where Communist %or es ha2e threatened the Cam)odian a1ital. 7Bettmann8C;RB:S9

)Photo: ;ietnam. A =istor " Stanle Karno4*

$hmer Rouge terrorists terroriIe the 1eo1le o% Cam)odia a%ter in2ading and o u1ying the a1ital ity o% Phnom Penh in !1ril *5@F. 7Photo+ htt1+88www.i m1a.umd.edu8salI)urga ademy8terrorism8inde'.1h18 ategory8stateterrorism8 asestudies8 am)odia8whatha11ened89

$hmer Rouge %ighters, mem)ers o% the Party o% Demo rati $am1u hea, an e'tremist /ar'ist %a tion led )y Pol Pot, ele)rate *@ !1ril *5@F as they enter the a1ital o% Cam)odia, the ity o% Phnom Penh. During the )rutal $hmer Rouge rule o% the ountry the alled Demo rati $am1u hea 7*5@F?*5@59, 1erha1s as many as *.F million Cam)odians ? or one in si' ? died %rom star2ation, disease, o2erwork, and e'e ution. 7CL!(D- "(V-N!L8!#P80etty :mages9

Cam)odian Communist re)els a1tured the /ayagueI, an !meri an mer hant shi1, in /ay *5@F, a month a%ter the %all o% Saigon. &he hostages were released, )ut not )e%ore a %ailed res ue o1eration resulted in the deaths o% =* !meri an ser2i emen. 7(nited States Na2y Photogra1h9 htt1+88www.nytimes. om8slideshow83AA68*384A8weekinre2iew83AA6*34*O#;RDOSL:D-S.;WO>.html

/ao &se?tung 7le%t9, Prin e Norodom Sihanouk o% Cam)odia 7se ond %rom right9, and Le Du &ho o% Red Vietnam 7right9 meet in Peking during the Vietnam War. 7Photo+ "oel D. /eyerson, (nited States !rmy in Vietnam+ :mages o% a Lengthy War. Washington D.C.+ Center o% /ilitary .istory, *5>6. ;%%i ial (.S. !rmy Photogra1h9

North Vietnams De%ense /inister and Vi e Premier 0en. Vo Nguyen 0ia1 7right9 wel omes Prin e Norodom Sihanouk, Cam)odiaHs Chie% o% State, as the latter arri2es re ently to attend the state %uneral %or North VietnamHs Commissar .o Chi /inh in .anoi, North Vietnam on Se1tem)er 3F, *565. 7Bettmann8C;RB:S9

President of the /nited States Bonald Beagan )left* greets ,ro5'ommunist King Norodom Sihanou< of 'am"odia at the 7hite -ouse in 7ashington. D.'. in #$00.

Prince Norodom Sihanou< of 'am"odia a,,ears 4ith Nicolae 'eausescu )left*. the President of 'ommunist Bomania. during his !isit to 'ommunist Bomania in #$M2.

Cam)odians greet the Red Vietnamese army a%ter Red Vietnam in2aded Cam)odia in *5@5 %ollowing three years o% geno ide ommitted )y Pol Pot and his $hmer Rouge. 7Photo+ htt1+88www.military1hotos.net8%orums8showthread.1h1N*4A=A@?Vietnamese?/ilitary?&hread?7u1dated?on?regular?)asis981age49

Vietnamese soldiers a11ear with a grou1 o% Cam)odian %armers in the *5>As. 7Photo+ htt1+88www.military1hotos.net8%orums8showthread.1h1N*4A=A@?Vietnamese?/ilitary?&hread?7u1dated?on?regular?)asis981age49

'am"odian children o"ser!e a ,ile of human "ones in 'am"odia shortl after Pol Pot and his Khmer Bouge terrorists 4ere de,osed in #$M$. An estimated & million 'am"odians died of eFhaustion in the rice ,addies or died during 9interrogation= in a torture cham"er at the hands of Pot and his Khmer Bouge. )Philli, Jones (riffithsL3agnumLTime*

Three of the 4ater5"ased tortures em,lo ed " the Khmer Bouge at Tuol Sleng ,rison. Phnom Penh 'am"odia. According to the Khmer Bouge. 4ater"oarding is an act of torture. )Photo: Flic<r*

Khmer Bouge terrorists in 'am"odia torture 'am"odians through 4ater"oarding at 'am"odias Tuol Sleng Prison in a ,ainting done " former 'am"odian ,risoner Vann Nath. )Photo: htt,:LLandre4sulli!an.theatlantic.comLthePdail PdishL2JJML4ee<2JLindeF.html*

! third water?)ased torture em1loyed )y the $hmer Rouge. Prisoners were restrained %a e?down, arms were sha ked to the sides o% the tu) and ankles sha kled inside the tu). &he %a e was easily dunked into the water. 7Photo+ #li kr9

&he Vietnamese army o

u1ied Phnom Penh, Cam)odia during the *5>As during Vietnams war with the $hmer Rouge.

Photogra1hs taken )y the $hmer Rouge o% the hildren o% the 1risoners in ar erated at &uol Sleng. PrisonersH hildren were %reCuently killed in %ront o% their 1arents to add to the 1risonersH su%%ering. 7Photo+ #li kr9

Prisoners and geno ide 2i tims %rom the late stages o% &uol SlengHs o1eration at the &uol Sleng /useum o% 0eno idal Crime. &he /useum )uilding was used )y the $hmer Rouge as a torture %a ility. 7Note the 1ro%essional num)er ards.9 7Photo+ #li kr9

A 'am"odian 4or<er ,ra s "efore the famous s<ull ma, from Tuol Sleng museum. )AFP Photo*

;rder ;ut ;% Chaos+ DVtente , Red China

Chou -nlai 7 enter9 wat hes Chairman /ao hat with Se retary o% State .enry $issinger on the e2ening o% #e)ruary *@, *5@4.

President Ri hard Ni'on greets Red Chinas Commissar /ao &se?tung in Peking on #e)ruary 3*, *5@3.

President Ri hard Ni'on and National Se urity !d2isor .enry $issinger meet with Red Chinas Premier Chou -n?lai during Ni'onHs histori 2isit to Communist?o u1ied mainland China on #e)ruary 34, *5@3. Winston Lord is seated on the %ar le%t. .enry $issinger and Winston Lord are mem)ers o% the Coun il on #oreign Relations and mem)ers o% the &rilateral Commission. 7Bettmann8C;RB:S9

President Ri hard Ni'on 7le%t9 toasts Red Chinas Premier Chou -n?lai.

0eorge ..W. Bush, the (.S. Liaison ;%%i er to Red China, and his wi%e Bar)ara Bush stand in %ront o% a 1ortrait o% Chairman /ao. 0eorge ..W. Bush was a mem)er o% the Coun il on #oreign Relations %rom *5@* to *5@5.

Da2id Ro ke%eller, the Chairman and C-; o% Chase /anhattan Bank, 2isits Red Chinas Premier Chou -nlai in Peking, Red China in *5@4. 7Photo+ Me)oirs )y Da2id Ro ke%eller9

President Lyndon B. "ohnson wat hes !m)assador?at?Large !2erell .arriman shake hands with So2iet Premier !leksei $osygin on "une 3F, *56@. 7Photo+ #rank Wol%e8Lyndon B. "ohnson Presidential Li)rary9

Da2id Ro ke%eller 7le%t9, President o% Chase /anhattan Bank, and his daughter Ne2a Ro ke%eller 7se ond %rom le%t9 greet So2iet Premier Nikita $hrush he2 7right9 at the $remlin in /os ow, So2iet (nion on "uly 35, *56=. David Rockefeller attended the March 1964 Bilderberg Meetings held in illiamsb!rg, "irginia, #$%$&$ 7Photo+ Me)oirs )y Da2id Ro ke%eller8Wide World Photos9

So2iet di tator Leonid BreIhne2 whis1ers into the ears o% President Ri hard /. Ni'on. 7Photo+ htt1+88www.military1hotos.net8%orums8showthread.1h1NtQ*45=A49

President Ri hard Ni'on toasts with Leonid BreIhne2 and .enry $issinger during the $remlin se2en?day summit on%eren e with the So2iet Communist Party in /os ow, So2iet Russia on "uly 4, *5@=. 7Bettmann8C;RB:S9

Vietnam 7ar e S,ecial Anterest: 'ouncil on Foreign Belations

Coun il on #oreign Relations is lo ated in New <ork City at the .arold Pratt .ouse, a )uilding on the southwest orner o% Park !2enue and 6>th Street in midtown /anhattan, one )lo k west o% the 6>th Street and .unter College su)way station.

Directors of the 'o!ncil on (oreign Relations d!ring the "ietnam

Name Whitney .. She1ardson !llen W. Dulles .amilton #ish !rmstrong #rank !lts hul &homas $. #inletter William !./. Burden Walter .. /allory Phili1 D. Reed Da2id Ro ke%eller W. !2erell .arriman "ose1h -. "ohnson 0rayson L. $irk -lliott V. Bell "ohn ". / Cloy !rthur .. Dean Charles /. S1o%%ord William C. #oster Caryl P. .askins "ames !. Perkins William P. Bundy 0a)riel .auge Carroll L. Wilson C. Douglas Dillon .enry R. La)ouisse Ro)ert V. Roosa Lu ian W. Pye !l%red C. Neal Bill /oyers Cyrus R. Van e .edley Dono2an Bayless /anning J)igniew BrIeIinski 'ollege Degree B.!. ;'%ord *5*4 !.B. Prin eton *5*= !.B. Prin eton *5*6 B.!. <ale *5A> !.B. (. Penn. *5*F !.B. .ar2ard *53@ LL.B. #ordham *53= B.S. .ar2ard *546B Ph.D. (ni2. Chi ago *5=A B.!. <ale *5*4 Ph.D. .ar2ard *5=4 Ph.D. Wis onsin *54A B.!. Colum)ia *53F LL.B. .ar2ard *53* B.!. Cornell *53* B.!. <ale *53= Ph.D. .ar2ard *54F Ph.D. Prin eton *54@ B.!. <ale *545 Ph.D. .ar2ard *5=@ B.S. /:& *543 B.!. .ar2ard *54* !.B. Prin eton *536 Ph.D. /i higan *5=3 Ph.D. <ale *5F* Ph.D. Brown *5=* B.!. (ni2. o% &e'as *5F6 B.!. <ale *545 B.!. ;'%ord *546 B.!. <ale *5=4 Ph.D. .ar2ard *5F4 )ear of Directorshi* *53*?*566 *53@?*565 *53>?*5@3 *54=?*5@3 *5==?*56@ *5=F?*5@= *5=F?*56> *5=F?*565 *5=5?*5>F *5FA?*5FF *5FA?*5@= *5FA?*5@4 *5F4?*566 *5F4?*5@3 *5FF?*5@3 *5FF?*5@3 *5F5?*5@3 *56*?*5@F *564?*5@5 *56=?*5@= *56=?*5>* *56=?*5@5 *56F?*5@> *56F?*5@= *566?*5>* *566?*5>3 *56@?*5@6 *56@?*5@= *56>?*5@6, *5>*?*5>@ *565?*5@5 *5@*?*5@@ *5@3?*5@@

ar
ar

+rimar, -cc!*ation D!ring the "ietnam

;% Counsel o% Sulli2an , Cromwell Slaw %irmT 7*563?*5659 -ditor o% 0orei+n /%%airs magaIine 7*53>?*5@39 Se retary o% the Coun il on #oreign Relations 7*5==?*5@39 (.S. Re1resentati2e to N!&; 7*56*?*56F9 (.S. !m)assador to Belgium 7*5F5?*56*9 -'e uti2e Dire tor o% the Coun il on #oreign Relations 7*53@?*5F59 Chairman o% the #ederal Reser2e Bank o% New <ork 7*56A?*56F9 Chairman and C-; o% Chase /anhattan Bank 7*565?*5>*9 Chairman o% the Coun il on #oreign Relations 7*5@A?*5>F9 (nder Se retary o% State %or Politi al !%%airs 7*564?*56F9 President, Carnegie -ndowment %or :nternational Pea e 7*5FA?*5@*9 President o% Colum)ia (ni2ersity 7*5F4?*56>9 &reasurer o% the Coun il on #oreign Relations 7*5F3?*56=9 Chairman o% the Coun il on #oreign Relations 7*5F4?*5@A9 Partner o% Sulli2an , Cromwell Slaw %irmT 7*535?*5@69 /em)er o% Da2is, Polk , Wardwell Slaw %irmT 7*5=A?FA, *5F3?*5@49 Dire tor o% !rms Control and Disarmament !gen y 7*56*?*5659 President o% Carnegie :nstitution o% Washington 7*5F6?*5@*9 President o% Cornell (ni2ersity 7*564?*5659 !sst. Se retary o% State %or -ast !sian and Pa i%i !%%airs 7*56=?659 President o% /anu%a turers .ano2er &rust Co. 7*564?*5@*9 Pro%essor at /assa husetts :nstitute o% &e hnology Se retary o% the &reasury 7*56*?*56F9B Chairman o% the Brookings :nstitution 7*5@A?*5@69 -'e uti2e Dire tor o% (N:C-# 7*56F?*5@59 Partner o% Brown Brothers .arriman , Co. 7*56F?*5549 Pro%essor o% Politi al S ien e at /:& #irst Vi e President o% #ederal Reser2e Bank o% Boston 7*5F*?*5F69 Pu)lisher o% NewsdayB White .ouse Press Se retary Se retary o% the !rmy 7*563?*56=9B De1uty Se retary o% De%ense 7*56=?*56@9 -ditor?in?Chie% o% &ime, :n . 7*56=?*5@59 Dean o% Stan%ord Law S hool 7*56=?*5@*9 Dire tor o% Resear h :nstitute %or :nternational Change 7*563?*5@@9

Directors of the 'ouncil on Foreign Belations during the Vietnam 7ar

C. Douglas Dillon

Da2id Ro ke%eller

"ohn ". / Cloy

!llen W. Dulles

Phili1 D. Reed

"ose1h -. "ohnson

0a)riel .auge

William P. Bundy

!rthur .. Dean

Charles /. S1o%%ord

0rayson L. $irk

"ames !. Perkins

Cyrus R. Van e

Ro)ert V. Roosa

William C. #oster

#rank !lts hul

Caryl P. .askins &homas $. #inletter .edley Dono2an Bill /oyers

.amilton #ish !rmstrong

-lliott V. Bell

William !./. Burden

Whitney .. She1ardson

Walter .. /allory

ar +rofiteers or Damn )ankees.

'o!ncil on (oreign Relations Members and /heir -cc!*ation d!ring the "ietnam ar

Walt W. Rostow B.!. <ale *546 National Se urity !d2isor 7*566?*5659

Stanley R. Resor B.!. <ale *545 Se retary o% the !rmy 7*56F?*5@*9

-llsworth Bunker B.!. <ale *5*6 (.S. !m)assador to South Vietnam 7*56@?*5@49

William / C. /artin "r. B.!. <ale *53> Chairman o% the #ederal Reser2e 7*5F*?*5@A9

/ 0eorge Bundy B.!. <ale *5=A National Se urity !d2isor 7*56*?*5669

$ingman Brewster "r. B.!. <ale *5=* President o% <ale (ni2ersity 7*564?*5@@9

!l%red .ayes B.!. <ale *54A President o% the #ederal Reser2e Bank o% New <ork 7*5F6?*5@F9

W. !2erell .arriman B.!. <ale *5*4 (.S. Negotiator at the Paris Pea e Con%eren e on Vietnam 7*56>?*5659

-. Roland .arriman B.!. <ale *5*@ Chairman o% !meri an Red Cross 7*5F=?*5@49

.enry R. Lu e B.!. <ale *53A -ditor?in?Chie% o% Ti)e magaIine 7*534?*56=9

"ohn Sherman Coo1er B.!. <ale *534 (.S. Senator 7R?$entu ky, *5=6?*5=5, *5F3?*5FF, *5F6?*5@49

-ugene V. Rostow B.!. <ale *544 (nder Se retary o% State %or Politi al !%%airs 7*566?*5659

&ownsend W. .oo1es B.!. <ale *5== (nder Se retary o% the !ir #or e 7*56@?*5659

$night Woolley B.!. <ale *5*@ Partner o% Brown Brothers .arriman , Co. 7*54*?*5>39

.enry "ohn .einI :: B.!. <ale *54* Chairman o% the )oard o% ..". .einI Com1any 7*5F5?*5>@9

Phili1 L. 0eyelin B.!. <ale *5== -ditorial Page -ditor o% The Washin+ton #ost 7*56>?*5@59

Ri hard /. Bissell "r. B.!. <ale *543 De1uty C:! Dire tor %or Plans 7*5F5?*5639

Cord /eyer "r. B.!. <ale *5=4 !ssistant De1uty C:! Dire tor o% Plans 7*56@?*5@49

Chester Bowles B.!. <ale *53= (.S. !m)assador to :ndia 7*5F*?*5F4, *564?*5659

"ohn $. "essu1 B.!. <ale *53> Chie% -ditorial Writer o% ,i%e magaIine 7*5F*?*5659

"ohn V. Lindsay B.!. <ale *5== /ayor o% New <ork City 7*566?*5@49

"uan &erry &ri11e Ph.B. <ale *53* Chairman and C-; o% Pan !meri an World !irways, :n . 7*56=?*56>9

Dean 0. ! heson B.!. <ale *5*F /em)er o% Co2ington , Burling Slaw %irmT 7*5F4?*5@*9

Roswell L. 0il1atri B.!. <ale *53> Partner o% Cra2ath, Swaine , /oore Slaw %irmT 7*54*?*5F*, *5F4?*56*, *56=?*5@@9

". :rwin /iller B.!. <ale *54* Chairman o% the )oard o% Cummins -ngine Co. 7*5F*?*5@@9

0eorge S. /oore B.S. <ale *53@ Chairman o% the )oard o% #irst National City Bank o% New <ork 7*56@?*5@A9

W. Stuart Symington B.!. <ale *534 (.S. Senator 7D?/issouri, *5F4?*5@69

0eorge ..W. Bush B.!. <ale *5=> (.S. Congressman 7R?&e'as, *56@?*5@*9

"onathan B. Bingham B.!. <ale *546 (.S. Congressman 7D?New <ork, *56F?*5>49

". Ri hardson Dilworth B.!. <ale *54> Chairman o% the )oard o% Ro ke%eller Center, :n . 7*566?*5>39

/el2in Laird (.S. Se retary o% De%ense 7*565?*5@49

.arold Brown Se retary o% the !ir #or e 7*56F?*5659

.enry $issinger National Se urity !d2isor 7*565?*5@F9B (.S. Se retary o% State 7*5@4?*5@@9

0lenn &. Sea)org Chairman o% !tomi -nergy Commission 7*56*?*5@*9

"ose1h ". Sis o !sst. Se . o% State %or :nternational ;rganiIation !%%airs 7*56F?*5659

William -. Col)y Chie% o% #ar -ast Di2ision o% C:! 7*563?*56@9

Ray S. Cline De1uty Dire tor o% C:! %or :ntelligen e 7*563?*5669

"ohn !le' / Cone Dire tor o% Central :ntelligen e !gen y 7*56*?*56F9

Ri hard .elms Dire tor o% Central :ntelligen e !gen y 7*566?*5@49

/aE. 0en. -dward Lansdale C:! agent

0o2ernment ;%%i ials in the Lyndon B. "ohnson !dministration+

Paul .. NitIe Se retary o% the Na2y 7*564?*56@9B De1uty Se retary o% De%ense 7*56@?*5659

Dean Rusk (.S. Se retary o% State 7*56*?*5659

Ro)ert S. / Namara (.S. Se retary o% De%ense 7*56*?*56>9

.enry .. #owler Se retary o% the &reasury 7*56F?*56>9

.enry Ca)ot Lodge "r. (.S. !m)assador to South Vietnam 7*564? *56=, *56F?*56@9

0en. Charles .. Bonesteel ::: Commander o% (.S. >th !rmy S$oreaT 7*566?*5659

0en. /a'well D. &aylor Chairman, "oint Chie%s o% Sta%% 7*563?*56=9B (.S. !m)assador to South Vietnam 7*56=?*56F9

0en. William C. Westmoreland Commander, (.S. /ilitary !ssistan e Command, Vietnam 7*56=?*56>9B (.S. !rmy Chie% o% Sta%% 7*56>?*5@39

0en. .arold $. "ohnson (.S. !rmy Chie% o% Sta%% 7*56=?*56>9

0en. Donald V. Bennett Su1erintendent o% (.S. /ilitary ! ademy 7*566? *56>9B Commanding 0eneral, V:: Cor1s 7*56>? *5659

Da2id $.-. Bru e (.S. !m)assador to 0reat Britain 7*56*?*5659

Charles -. Bohlen (.S. !m)assador to #ran e 7*563?*56>9

!rthur ". 0old)erg (.S. Re1resentati2e to the (nited Nations 7*56F?*56>9

Llewellyn -. &hom1son (.S. !m)assador to the So2iet (nion 7*5F@?*563, *566?*5659

.enry !. Byroade (.S. !m)assador to Burma 7*564?*56>9

.arlan B. Cle2eland (.S. Re1resentati2e to N!&; 7*56F?*5659

0eorge W. Ball (nder Se retary o% State 7*56*?*5669B (.S. Re1resentati2e to the (nited Nations 7*56>9

.u)ert .. .um1hrey Vi e President o% the (nited States 7*56F?*5659

Ni holas deB $atIen)a h (.S. !ttorney 0eneral 7*56F?*5669B (nder Se retary o% State 7*566?*5659

0eorge C. / 0hee (.S. !m)assador to West 0ermany 7*564?*56>9

Businessmen, ;rganiIation -'e uti2es, and /is ellaneous+

&homas S. 0ates "r. Chairman o% /organ 0uaranty &rust Co. o% New <ork 7*56F?*5@A9

#rederi k /. War)urg Partner o% $uhn, Loe) , Co. 7*54*?*5@49

Walter B. Wriston Chairman o% Citi)ank 7*5@A?*5>=9

0eorge Cham1ion Chairman o% the )oard o% Chase /anhattan Bank 7*56*?*5659

Charles -. SaltIman Partner o% 0oldman, Sa hs , Co. 7*5F6?*5@49

"ohn &. Connor Sr. Chairman o% !llied Chemi al Cor1. 7*565? *5@59B (.S. Se retary o% Commer e 7*56F?*56@9

Roger /. Blough Chairman and C-; o% (nited States Steel Cor1. 7*5FF?*5659

&homas ". Watson "r. Chairman o% :nternational Business /a hines Cor1. 7*56*?*5@*9

!l)ert Lindsay Ni kerson Chairman and C-; o% So ony?/o)il ;il Co. 7*564?*5659B Chairman o% the #ederal Reser2e Bank o% New <ork 7*565?*5@39

#red ". Bor h Chairman and C-; o% 0eneral -le tri Co. 7*56@?*5@39

$ermit 0ordon President o% &he Brookings :nstitution 7*56@?*5@@9

&homas L. .ughes President o% Carnegie -ndowment %or :nternational Pea e 7*5@*?*55*9

"ohn D. Ro ke%eller ::: Chairman o% &he Ro ke%eller #oundation 7*5F3?*5@*9

-dwin ;. Reis hauer (.S. !m)assador to "a1an 7*56*?*5669

Dwight D. -isenhower President o% the (.S. 7*5F4?*56*9

Nelson !. Ro ke%eller 0o2ernor o% New <ork 7*5F5?*5@49

Ral1h ". Bun he (nder Se retary o% the (nited Nations %or S1e ial Politi al !%%airs 7*5F>?*56@9

Phili1 C. "essu1 Sr. "udge o% the :nternational Court o% "usti e 7*56*?*5@A9

"a o) $. "a2its (.S. Senator 7Re1u)li an?New <ork, *5F@?*5>*9

Cli%%ord P. Case (.S. Senator 7Re1u)li an?New "ersey, *5FF?*5@59

Cor1orate /edia and College Presidents+

Daniel L. S horr Washington, D.C. Corres1ondent %or CBS 7*566?*5@69

#rederi k S. Bee)e Chairman o% the )oard o% &he Washington Post Co. 7*56*?*5@49

William S. Paley Chairman o% the )oard o% Colum)ia Broad asting System 7*5=6?*5>49

!rthur .ays SulI)erger Chairman o% the )oard o% &he New <ork &imes Co. 7*5F@?*56>9

.arding #. Ban ro%t -'e uti2e Vi e President o% &he New <ork &imes Co. 7*564?*5@=9

Ro)ert #. 0oheen President o% Prin eton (ni2ersity 7*5F@?*5@39

Nathan /. Pusey President o% .ar2ard (ni2ersity 7*5F4?*5@*9

0rayson L. $irk President o% Colum)ia (ni2ersity 7*5F4?*56>9

!ndrew W. Cordier President o% Colum)ia (ni2ersity 7*56>?*5@A9

"ohn Sloan Di key President o% Dartmouth College 7*5=F?*5@A9

"ames !. Perkins President o% Cornell (ni2ersity 7*564?*5659

Lin oln 0ordon President o% "ohns .o1kins (ni2ersity 7*56@?*5@*9

Charles ". .it h President o% (ni2ersity o% Cali%ornia at Berkeley 7*56@?*5@F9

Clark $err President o% (ni2ersity o% Cali%ornia at Berkeley 7*5F>?*56@9

". -. Walla e Sterling President o% Stan%ord (ni2ersity 7*5=5?*56>9

"ohn -. Sawyer President o% Williams College 7*56*?*5@49

Cal2in .. Plim1ton President o% !mherst College 7*56A?*5@*9

"ulius !. Stratton President o% /assa husetts :nstitute o% &e hnology 7*5F5?*5669

"ames /. .ester President o% New <ork (ni2ersity 7*563?*5@F9

"ohn B. ;akes -ditorial Page -ditor o% The Ne" 1or$ Ti)es 7*56*?*5@@9

'o!ncil on (oreign Relations Members and /heir -cc!*ation d!ring the "ietnam
Name 4overnment -fficials5 -llsworth Bunker Stanley R. Resor / 0eorge Bundy William P. Bundy W. !2erell .arriman Cyrus R. Van e C#R /em)ershi1 7<ear9 *5=3?*5>= *566?1resent *5=@?*55F *56A?3AAA *534?*5>6 *56>?3AA* Primary ; u1ation

ar 01964119233

Walt W. Rostow -ugene V. Rostow "ohn !le' / Cone Ri hard .elms .enry Ca)ot Lodge "r.

*5FF?3AA3 *5FF?*55@ *5F>?*5@@ *5@4?3AA3 *56*?*5>*

0en. /a'well D. &aylor 0eorge W. Ball

*5=6?*5>F *5=5?*554

Ro)ert S. / Namara Dean Rusk .enry !. $issinger "ose1h ". Sis o "ohn /. Leddy !nthony /. Solomon ". Wayne #rederi ks Walter /. $ots hnig -rnest $. Lindley Ro)ert R. Bowie Paul .. NitIe Norman S. Paul &ownsend W. .oo1es Llewellyn -. &hom1son "r. #oy D. $ohler "a o) D. Beam Da2id $.-. Bru e Charles -. Bohlen William R. &yler 0eorge C. / 0hee Phili1 $. Crowe 0. #rederi k Reinhardt Philli1s &al)ot !ngier Biddle Duke -dwin /. /artin "ohn W. &uthill Ro)ert /. / Clinto k Viron P. Vaky

*56>?3AA5 *5F3?*55= *5F6?3AA5 *566?3AA= *56*?*554 *566?3AA@ *5F5?3AA= *5F5?*5>* *56*?*5@5 *5=@?3AA> *5=5?3AA= *5F@?*5@> *5F*?3AA= *564?*5@* *5FA?*55A *563?*55* *5=6?*5@@ *5F4?*5@4 *546?=5, *564?@3 *5F=?*55F *5F6?*5@6 *5F5?*5@A *5F*?3A*A *5F4?*55= *56*?*556 *56@?*556 *5F>?*5@6 *5@*?3A*3

(.S. !m)assador to South Vietnam 7!1ril 3>, *56@?/ay **, *5@49 Se retary o% the !rmy 7"uly 3, *56F?"une 4A, *5@*9 National Se urity !d2isor 7"anuary 3A, *56*W#e)ruary 3>, *5669 President o% #ord #oundation 7*566?*5@59 !ssistant Se . o% State %or -ast !sian and Pa i%i !%%airs 7/ar h *6, *56=?/ay =, *5659 Dire tor o% the Coun il on #oreign Relations 7*56=?*5@=9 (.S. Negotiator at the Paris Pea e Con%eren e on Vietnam 7*56>?*5659 (nder Se retary o% State %or Politi al !%%airs 7!1ril =, *564?/ar h *@, *56F9 (.S. Negotiator at the Paris Pea e Con%eren e on Vietnam 7*56>?*5659 De1uty Se retary o% De%ense 7"anuary 3>, *56=W"une 4A, *56@9 Se retary o% the !rmy 7"uly F, *563W"anuary 3*, *56=9 &rustee o% the Ro ke%eller #oundation 7*5@A?*5@@, *5>A?*5>*9 National Se urity !d2isor 7!1ril *, *566W"anuary 3A, *5659 (nder Se retary o% State %or Politi al !%%airs 7; to)er *=, *566?"anuary 3A, *5659 Dire tor o% Central :ntelligen e !gen y 7No2em)er 35, *56*?!1ril 3>, *56F9 Dire tor o% Central :ntelligen e !gen y 7"une 4A, *566?#e)ruary 3, *5@49 (.S. !m)assador to South Vietnam 7*st time, !ugust 36, *564?"une 3>, *56=9 (.S. !m)assador to South Vietnam 73nd time, !ugust 3F, *56F?!1ril 3F, *56@9 (.S. !m)assador to West 0ermany 7/ay 3@, *56>?"anuary *=, *5659 Personal Re1resentati2e to the .oly See SVati an CityT 7"une F, *5@A?"uly 6, *5@@9 (.S. !m)assador to South Vietnam 7"uly *=, *56=W"uly 4A, *56F9 Chairman o% the "oint Chie%s o% Sta%% 7; to)er *, *563?"uly *, *56=9 (.S. Re1resentati2e to the (nited Nations 7"une 36, *56>?Se1tem)er 3F, *56>9 (nder (.S. Se retary o% State 7De em)er =, *56*?Se1tem)er 4A, *5669 Senior Partner o% Lehman Brothers S)ank in New <ork CityT 7*565?*5>39 ;% Counsel o% Cleary, 0ottlie), Steen , .amilton Slaw %irmT 7*566?*56>, *565?*55=9 (.S. Se retary o% De%ense 7"anuary 3*, *56*W#e)ruary 35, *56>9B President o% &he World Bank 7*56>?*5>*9 (.S. Se retary o% State 7"anuary 3*, *56*W"anuary 3A, *5659 National Se urity !d2isor 7"anuary 3A, *565WNo2em)er 4, *5@F9 (.S. Se retary o% State 7Se1tem)er 33, *5@4W"anuary 3A, *5@@9 Pro%essor o% 0o2ernment at .ar2ard (ni2ersity 7*563?*5659 !sst. Se retary o% State %or :nternational ;rganiIation !%%airs 7*56F?*5659 !sst. Se retary o% State %or Near -astern and South !sian !%%airs 7*565?*5@=9 !ssistant Se retary o% State %or -uro1ean !%%airs 7*56F?*5659 !ssistant Se retary o% State %or - onomi !%%airs 7*56F?*5659 De1uty !ssistant Se retary o% State %or !%ri an !%%airs 7*56*?*56@9 De1uty !sst. Se retary o% State %or :nternational ;rganiIation !%%airs 7*56F?*5@*9 /em)er o% State De1artment Poli y Planning Coun il 7*56*?*5659 Counselor o% the State De1artment 7Se1tem)er 3*, *566?!1ril *, *56>9 Se retary o% the Na2y 7No2em)er 35, *564?"une 4A, *56@9 De1uty Se retary o% De%ense 7"uly *, *56@?"anuary 3A, *5659 /em)er o% (.S. delegation to the Strategi !rms Limitation &alks 7S!L&9 7*565?*5@=9 (nder Se retary o% the !ir #or e 7*56F?*56@9 (nder Se retary o% the !ir #or e 7*56@?*5659 (.S. !m)assador to the So2iet (nion 7*5F@?*563, "an. 34, *56@?"an. *=, *5659 !m)assador at Large 7*563?*5669 (.S. !m)assador to the So2iet (nion 7Se1tem)er 3@, *563?No2em)er *=, *5669 (.S. !m)assador to the So2iet (nion 7!1ril *>, *565?"anuary 3=, *5@49 (.S. !m)assador to CIe hoslo2akia 7!ugust 4*, *566?/ar h F, *5659 (.S. !m)assador to 0reat Britain 7/ar h *@, *56*?/ar h 3A, *5659 (.S. !m)assador to #ran e 7; to)er 3@, *563?#e)ruary 5, *56>9 (.S. !m)assador to the Netherlands 7"une 34, *56F?"une 3A, *5659 (.S. !m)assador to West 0ermany 7/ay *>, *564?/ay 3*, *56>9 (.S. !m)assador to Norway 7"une 34, *565?!ugust 4*, *5@49 (.S. !m)assador to Denmark 7Se1tem)er *4, *5@4?Se1tem)er 3@, *5@F9 (.S. !m)assador to :taly 7/ay *@, *56*?/ar h 4, *56>9 (.S. !m)assador to 0ree e 7; to)er **, *56F?"anuary 3A, *5659 President o% the !sia So iety 7*5@A?*5>*9 (.S. !m)assador to S1ain 7!1ril *, *56F?/ar h 4A, *56>9 (.S. !m)assador to Denmark 7; to)er 4, *56>?/ay *, *5659 (.S. !m)assador to !rgentina 7"une **, *56=?"anuary F, *56>9 (.S. !m)assador to BraIil 7"une 4A, *566?"anuary 5, *5659 (.S. !m)assador to VeneIuela 7"uly @, *5@A?/ar h *=, *5@F9 (.S. !m)assador to Costa Ri a 7; to)er *@, *5@3?#e)ruary 5, *5@=9

Nathaniel Da2is -dward /. $orry "ose1h C. Satterthwaite Chester Bowles .enry !. Byroade -mory C. Swank William R. $intner Leonard (nger Charles S. Whitehouse -dwin ;. Reis hauer Douglas /a !rthur :: .arold #. Linder !dol1h W. S hmidt &homas $. #inletter .arlan B. Cle2eland !rthur ". 0old)erg Charles W. <ost 0eorge ..W. Bush .u)ert .. .um1hrey Cli%%ord P. Case W. Stuart Symington "a o) $. "a2its #rank #. Chur h ;gden R. Reid "onathan B. Bingham .enry S. Reuss "ohn V. Lindsay C. Douglas Dillon .enry .. #owler !le'ander B. &row)ridge "ohn W. 0ardner Ni holas deB. $atIen)a h -lliot L. Ri hardson

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$enneth Rush William C. #oster !drian S. #isher William S. 0aud 0lenn &. Sea)org Cord /eyer "r. /aE. 0en. -dward 0. Lansdale Nelson !. Ro ke%eller !llen S. Whiting .owland .. Sargeant "ohn Ri hardson "r.

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(.S. !m)assador to Colom)ia 7!1ril F, *5@=?"une 34, *5@69 (.S. !m)assador to 0uatemala 7No2em)er 3*, *56>?!ugust 3*, *5@*9 (.S. !m)assador to Chile 7; to)er 3A, *5@*?No2em)er *, *5@49 (.S. !m)assador to -thio1ia 7!1ril 3A, *564?Se1tem)er 33, *56@9 (.S. !m)assador to Chile 7; to)er *6, *56@?; to)er *3, *5@*9 (.S. !m)assador to South !%ri a 7/ay 33, *56*? No2em)er *@, *56F9 (.S. !m)assador to :ndia 7*5F*?*5F4, "uly *5, *564?!1ril 3*, *5659 (.S. !m)assador to Burma 7; to)er @, *564?"une **, *56>9 (.S. !m)assador to the Phili11ines 7!ugust 35, *565?/ay 3F, *5@49 (.S. !m)assador to Cam)odia 7Se1tem)er *F, *5@A?Se1tem)er F, *5@49 (.S. !m)assador to &hailand 7No2em)er 35, *5@4?/ar h *F, *5@F9 (.S. !m)assador to Laos 7"uly 3F, *563?De em)er *, *56=9 (.S. !m)assador to &hailand 7; to)er =, *56@?No2em)er *5, *5@49 (.S. !m)assador to the Re1u)li o% China S&aiwanT 7/ay 3F, *5@=?"an. *5, *5@59 De1uty (.S. !m)assador to South Vietnam 7*5@3?*5@49 (.S. !m)assador to Laos 7Se1tem)er 3A, *5@4?!1ril *3, *5@F9 (.S. !m)assador to &hailand 7/ay 4A, *5@F?"une *5, *5@>9 (.S. !m)assador to "a1an 7!1ril 3@, *56*?!ugust *5, *5669 !ssistant Se retary o% State %or Congressional Relations 7*56F?*56@9 (.S. !m)assador to !ustria 7/ay 3=, *56@?Se1tem)er *6, *5659 (.S. !m)assador to :ran 7; to)er *4, *565?#e)ruary *@, *5@39 Chairman and President o% -'1ort?:m1ort Bank o% the (nited States 7*56*?*56>9 (.S. !m)assador to Canada 7Se1tem)er *A, *56>?"uly 5, *5659 (.S. !m)assador to Canada 7*565?*5@=9 (.S. Re1resentati2e to N!&; 7/ar h 3, *56*?Se1tem)er 3, *56F9 !sst. Se . o% State %or :nternational ;rganiIation !%%airs 7#e). 34, *56*?Se1t. >, *56F9 (.S. Re1resentati2e to N!&; 7Se1tem)er >, *56F?"une **, *5659 (.S. Re1resentati2e to the (nited Nations 7"uly 3>, *56F?"une 3=, *56>9 Partner o% Paul, Weiss, Ri%kind, Wharton , 0arrison Slaw %irmT 7*56>?*5@*9 (.S. Re1resentati2e to the (nited Nations 7"anuary 34, *565?#e)ruary 3F, *5@*9 (.S. Re1resentati2e to (nited Nations 7/ar h *, *5@*?"anuary *>, *5@49B (.S. Congressman 7Re1u)li an?&e'as, "anuary 4, *56@?"anuary 4, *5@*9 Vi e President o% the (nited States 7"anuary 3A, *56FW"anuary 3A, *5659B (.S. Senator 7Demo rat?/innesota, *5=5?*56=, *5@*?*5@>9 (.S. Senator 7Re1u)li an?New "ersey, *5FF?*5@59 (.S. Senator 7Demo rat?/issouri, *5F4?*5@69 (.S. Senator 7Re1u)li an?New <ork, *5F@?*5>*9 (.S. Senator 7Demo rat?:daho, *5F@?*5>*9 (.S. Congressman 7Demo rat?New <ork, *564?*5@F9 (.S. Congressman 7Demo rat?New <ork, *56F?*5>49 (.S. Congressman 7Demo rat?Wis onsin, *5FF?*5>49 /ayor o% New <ork City 7"anuary *, *566WDe em)er 4*, *5@49 (.S. Congressman 7Re1u)li an?New <ork, "anuary 4, *5F5WDe em)er 4*, *56F9 (.S. Se retary o% the &reasury 7"anuary 3*, *56*?!1ril *, *56F9 &rustee o% the Ro ke%eller #oundation 7*56A, *56F?*5@=9 (.S. Se retary o% the &reasury 7!1ril *, *56F?De em)er 3A, *56>9B Partner o% 0oldman, Sa hs , Co. 7*565?*5>*9 (.S. Se retary o% Commer e 7*56@?*56>9 (.S. Se retary o% .ealth, -du ation, and Wel%are 7*56F?*56>9 (nder (.S. Se retary o% State 7*566?*5659B (.S. !ttorney 0eneral 7*56F?*5669 (.S. !ttorney 0eneral 7/ay 3F, *5@4?; to)er 3A, *5@49 (.S. Se retary o% De%ense 7"anuary 4A, *5@4?/ay 3=, *5@49 (.S. Se retary o% .ealth, -du ation, and Wel%are 7"une 3=, *5@A?"anuary 35, *5@49 (nder Se retary o% State 7"anuary 34, *565?"une 34, *5@A9 !ttorney 0eneral o% /assa husetts 7*56@?*5659 President o% (nion Car)ide Cor1. 7*566?*5659B (.S. !m)assador to West 0ermany 7*565?*5@39B De1uty Se . o% De%ense 7*5@3?*5@49 Dire tor o% !rms Control and Disarmament !gen y 7*56*?*5659 De1uty Dire tor o% !rms Control and Disarmament !gen y 7*56*?*5659 !dministrator o% (.S. !gen y %or :nternational De2elo1ment 7*566?*5659 Chairman o% !tomi -nergy Commission 7*56*?*5@*9 !ssistant De1uty C:! Dire tor o% Plans 7*56@?*5@49 C:! agentB retired (.S. !ir #or e o%%i er 0o2ernor o% New <ork 7"anuary *, *5F5?De em)er *>, *5@49 Vi e President o% the (nited States 7De em)er *5, *5@=?"anuary 3A, *5@@9 De1uty (.S. Consul 0eneral in .ong $ong 7*566?*56>9 President o% Radio Li)erty 7*5F=?*5@F9 President o% Radio #ree -uro1e 7*56*?*56>9 !ssistant (.S. Se retary o% State %or -du ational and Cultural !%%airs 7*565?*5@@9

Militar, -fficers5 0en. Lyman L. LemnitIer 0en. !ndrew ". 0ood1aster 0en. .arold $. "ohnson 0en. William C. Westmoreland 0en. Charles .. Bonesteel ::: 0en. Ri hard 0. Stilwell 0en. Donald V. Bennett

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Lt. 0en. "ames B. Lam1ert Brig. 0en. DeWitt C. !rmstrong :::

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Brig. 0en /i hael ".L. 0reene

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Brig. 0en. -dwin #. Bla k Brig. 0en. 0eorge !. Lin oln 0en. Da2id !. Bur hinal, (S!# 'or*orate Media5 !rthur .ays SulI)erger !rthur ; hs SulI)erger #rederi k S. Bee)e William S. Paley Da2id Sarno%% .edley Dono2an .enry R. Lu e $atharine 0raham Phili1 L. 0eyelin "ohn B. ;akes -manuel R. #reedman .arding #. Ban ro%t Sig /i kelson "ohn $. "essu1 ;tto #uer)ringer #rank Stanton Charles C. Collingwood Daniel L. S horr .arry S hwartI /a' #rankel "ames B. Reston !)raham /i hael Rosenthal .arrison -. Salis)ury Ro)ert .. -sta)rook "ose1h $ra%t /arCuis W. Childs "ose1h C. .ars h

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Su1reme !llied Commander o% -uro1e 7*564?*5659B Chairman o% the "oint Chie%s o% Sta%% 7*56A?*5639 Su1reme !llied Commander o% -uro1e 7*565?*5@=9B !ssistant to the Chairman o% the "oint Chie%s o% Sta%% 7*563?*5669 (.S. !rmy Chie% o% Sta%% 7"uly 4, *56=? "uly 3, *56>9 Commander, (.S. /ilitary !ssistan e Command, Vietnam 7*56=?*56>9B (.S. !rmy Chie% o% Sta%% 7"uly 4, *56>? "une 4A, *5@39 Dire tor o% S1e ial Studies, ;%%i e o% the !rmy Chie% o% Sta%% 7*564?*5669B Commander o% (.S. >th !rmy S$oreaT 7*566?*5659 Commanding 0eneral, (.S. /ilitary !ssistan e Command 7&hailand9 7*56F?*56@9B Commanding 0eneral, RR:V Cor1s 7Vietnam9 7*56>?*5659B Commanding 0eneral, #irst !rmored Di2ision 7*56@?*56>9 Su1erintendent o% (.S. /ilitary ! ademy 7West Point9 7*566?*56>9B Commanding 0eneral, V:: Cor1s 7*56>?*5659B Dire tor o% De%ense :ntelligen e !gen y 7*565?*5@39B Commanding 0eneral o% (.S. >th !rmy 7$orea9 7*5@3?*5@49B Commander?in?Chie% o% !rmy #or es in Pa i%i 7*5@4?*5@=9 Su1erintendent o% (.S. /ilitary ! ademy 7*564?*5669B .igh Commissioner o% the Ryukyu :slands S;kinawaT 7*56>?*5@39 De1uty Chie% o% !rmy :ntelligen e 7*565?*5@A9B !d2isor to !rmy o% the Re1u)li o% Vietnam ::: Cor1s Commander 7*5@A?*5@*9B Commanding 0eneral o% (.S. !rmy #or es, /ilitary Region 3 SCam Rahn Bay8Nha &rangT, South Vietnam 7*5@*?*5@39B Commanding 0eneral o% #ort De2ens, /assa husetts 7*5@3?*5@49 !ssistant to the Chairman o% the "oint Chie%s o% Sta%% 7*56@?*56>9B De1uty Commandant o% !rmy War College 7*56>?*5@A9B !ssistant Commander, 3Fth Di2ision, South Vietnam 7*5@A?*5@*9B Commanding 0eneral, !rmy .eadCuarters !rea Command, South Vietnam 7*5@*9 Commanding 0eneral, (.S. !rmy Su11ort 7&hailand9 7*56@?*5659B !ssistant Commander o% 3Fth :n%antry Di2ision in South Vietnam 7*5659B !ssistant Chie% o% Sta%%, (.S. !rmy Pa i%i S.onoluluT 7*5@A9B retired in *5@A .ead o% the De1artment o% So ial S ien es, (.S. /ilitary ! ademy 7*5F=?*5659 De1uty Commander, (.S. -uro1ean Command 7*566?*5@49 Chairman o% the )oard o% &he New <ork &imes Co. 7*5F@?*56>9 Chairman and C-; o% &he New <ork &imes Co. 7*564?*55@9 Chairman o% the )oard o% &he Washington Post Co. 7*56*?*5@49 Chairman o% the )oard o% Colum)ia Broad asting System 7CBS9 7*5=6?*5>49 Chairman o% the )oard o% Radio Cor1oration o% !meri a 7RC!9 7*5=@?*5669 -ditor?in?Chie% o% &ime, :n . 7*56=?*5@59 -ditor?in?Chie% o% &ime, :n . 7*534?*56=9 Pu)lisher o% The Washin+ton #ost 7*565?*5@59 -ditorial Page -ditor o% The Washin+ton #ost 7*56>?*5@59 -ditorial Page -ditor o% The Ne" 1or$ Ti)es 7*56*?*5@@9 !ssistant /anaging -ditor o% The Ne" 1or$ Ti)es 7*56=?*5@*9 -'e uti2e Vi e President o% &he New <ork &imes Co. 7*564?*5@=9 Vi e President o% &ime?Li%e Broad ast, :n . 7*56*?*5@A9 Chie% -ditorial Writer o% ,i%e magaIine 7*5F*?*5659B -ditorial Broad aster %or CBS Radio 7*5@*?*5@69 /anaging -ditor o% Ti)e mag. 7*56A?*56>9B Vi e President o% &ime, :n . 7*56>?*5@F9 President o% CBS 7*5=6?*5@*9B Vi e Chairman o% CBS 7*5@*?*5@49 Chie% #oreign Corres1ondent %or CBS 7*566?*5@F9 Washington Corres1ondent %or CBS 7*566?*5@69 /em)er o% the -ditorial Board o% The Ne" 1or$ Ti)es 7*5F*?*5@59 Chie% Washington Corres1ondent %or The Ne" 1or$ Ti)es 7*56>?*5@49 Chie% Washington Corres1ondent %or The Ne" 1or$ Ti)es 7*5F4?*56=9B !sso iate -ditor 7*56=?*56>9 , -'e uti2e -ditor 7*56>?*5659 o% The Ne" 1or$ Ti)es Vi e President o% &he New <ork &imes Co. 7*565?*5@=9 !ssistant /anaging -ditor o% The Ne" 1or$ Ti)es 7*56@?*56>9B !sso iate /anaging -ditor o% The Ne" 1or$ Ti)es 7*56>?*5659 /anaging -ditor o% The Ne" 1or$ Ti)es 7*565?*5@@9 !ssistant /anaging -ditor o% The Ne" 1or$ Ti)es 7*56=?*5@39 !sso iate -ditor o% The Ne" 1or$ Ti)es 7*5@3?*5@=9B -ditor o% the ;1?-d Page o% The Ne" 1or$ Ti)es 7*5@A?*5@49 (nited Nations and Canada Corres1ondent %or The Washin+ton #ost 7*566?*5@*9 Syndi ated Columnist %or The Washin+ton #ost 7*564?*5>69 Chie% Washington Corres1ondent %or St2 ,ouis #ost-3ispatch 7*563?*56>9 #oreign !%%airs Columnist %or !hristian Science Monitor 7*5F3?*5@*9B Chie% -ditorial Writer %or !hristian Science Monitor 7*5@*?*5@=9B

Da2id Lawren e Bankers5 William / Chesney /artin "r. !rthur #. Burns !ndrew #. Brimmer !l%red .ayes #rederi k L. Deming Da2id Ro ke%eller 0eorge Cham1ion 0eorge S. /oore Walter B. Wriston &homas S. 0ates "r. 0a)riel .auge -. Roland .arriman $night Woolley &homas / Can e Ro)ert V. Roosa !rthur 0. !lts hul Charles -. SaltIman #rederi k /. War)urg "ohn /. S hi%% BenEamin ". Buttenwieser Nathaniel Samuels Sidney .omer Samuel B. Payne Ro)ert ..B. Baldwin C. Sterling Bunnell "ohn -'ter "ohn L. Loe) Sr. B!sinessmen5 !l)ert Lindsay Ni kerson "ohn &. Connor Sr. &homas ". Watson "r. ". :rwin /iller Roger Lewis &homas V. "ones Lammot du Pont Co1eland #red ". Bor h Roger /. Blough 0eorge R. Vila "uan &. &ri11e Walker L. Cisler Byron $. -lliott "ohn R. $im)erly "ames C. Donnell :: "ose1h Peter 0ra e, "r. Stanley /ar us .arold S. 0eneen -milio 0. Collado Ri hard /. Bissell "r. ;s ar S. Straus :: Broderi k .askell 6a7,ers5 !llen W. Dulles

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Commentator %or !BC 7*56@?*5@*9 Chairman o% the )oard and -ditor o% U2S2 Ne"s 4 Wor-d 5eport 7*5F5?*5@49 Chairman o% the #ederal Reser2e 7!1ril 3, *5F*?"anuary 4*, *5@A9 Chairman o% the #ederal Reser2e 7#e)ruary *, *5@A?"anuary 4*, *5@>9 President o% National Bureau o% - onomi Resear h 7*5F@?*56@9 /em)er o% the #ederal Reser2e Board 7/ar h 5, *566?!ugust 4*, *5@=9 President o% the #ederal Reser2e Bank o% New <ork 7!ugust *, *5F6?!ugust *, *5@F9 Chairman o% &he - onomi Clu) o% New <ork 7*56F?*5669 President o% the #ederal Reser2e Bank o% /innea1olis 7*5F@?*56F9B (nder (.S. Se retary o% the &reasury %or /onetary !%%airs 7*56F?*5659B 0eneral Partner o% LaIard #reres , Co. 7*565?*5@*9 Chairman o% the )oard o% Chase /anhattan Bank 7*565?*5>*9 President o% Chase /anhattan Bank 7*56*?*5659 Chairman o% the Coun il on #oreign Relations 7*5@A?*5>F9 Chairman o% the )oard o% Chase /anhattan Bank 7*56*?*5659 Chairman o% the )oard o% Citi)ank 7*56@?*5@A9B President o% Citi)ank 7*5F5?*56@9 Chairman o% the )oard o% Citi)ank 7*5@A?*5>=9B President o% Citi)ank 7*56@?*5@A9 Chairman and C-; o% /organ 0uaranty &rust Co. o% New <ork 7*56F?*5@A9 Chairman 7*5@*?*5@59 and President 7*564?*5@*9 o% /anu%a turers .ano2er &rust Co. Partner o% Brown Brothers .arriman , Co. 7*54*?*5@>9B Chairman o% !meri an Red Cross 7*5F=?*5@49 Partner o% Brown Brothers .arriman , Co. 7*54*?*5>39 Partner o% Brown Brothers .arriman , Co. 7*5=F?*5@59 Partner o% Brown Brothers .arriman , Co. 7*56F?*5549 Chairman o% &he - onomi Clu) o% New <ork 7*5@A?*5@*9 &rustee o% the Ro ke%eller #oundation 7*56@?*5>39 Partner o% 0oldman, Sa hs , Co. 7*5F5?*5@@9 Partner o% 0oldman, Sa hs , Co. 7*5F6?*5@49 Partner o% $uhn, Loe) , Co. 7*54*?*5@49 Partner o% $uhn, Loe) , Co. 7*54*?*5@@9 Partner o% $uhn, Loe) , Co. 7*543?*5@@9 Partner 7*56A?*566, *5@3?*5@@9 and /anaging Partner 7*566?659 o% $uhn, Loe) , Co. De1uty (nder (.S. Se retary o% State %or - onomi !%%airs 7*565?*5@39 Partner o% Salomon Brothers 7*56*?*5@*9 Partner o% /organ Stanley , Co. 7*5=@?*5@39 Partner o% /organ Stanley , Co. 7*5F>?*56F, *56@?*5@F9 Senior Vi e President o% #irst National City Bank o% New <ork 7*5F>? .*5@=9 Senior Vi e President o% #irst National City Bank o% New <ork 7*5F5?*5@39 Senior Partner o% Loe), Rhoades , Co. S)rokerage %irmT 7*5FF?*5@@9 Chairman and C-; o% So ony?/o)il ;il Co. 7later /o)il ;il Cor1.9 7*564?*5659B Chairman o% the #ederal Reser2e Bank o% New <ork 7*565?*5@39 Chairman o% !llied Chemi al Cor1. 7*565?*5@59B Se . o% Commer e 7*56F?*56@9 Chairman and C-; o% :nternational Business /a hines Cor1. S:B/T 7*56*?*5@*9 &rustee o% &he Ro ke%eller #oundation 7*564?*5@*9 Chairman o% the )oard o% Cummins -ngine Co. 7*5F*?*5@@9 Chairman o% the )oard o% 0eneral Dynami s Cor1. 7*563?*5@A9 Chairman o% the )oard 7*564? .*55A9 and C-; 7*56A?*5>59 o% Northro1 Cor1. Chairman o% the )oard o% -.:. du Pont de Nemours , Co. 7*56@?*5@*9 Chairman and C-; o% 0eneral -le tri Co. 7*56@?*5@39 Chairman and C-; o% (nited States Steel Cor1. 7*5FF?*5659 Chairman and C-; o% (niroyal, :n . 7*56F?*5@F9 Chairman and C-; o% Pan !meri an !irways 7*56=?*56>9 Chairman o% the )oard o% Detroit -dison Co. 7*56=?*5@F9 Chairman o% "ohn .an o k /utual Li%e :nsuran e Co. SBostonT 7*564?*5659 Chairman o% the )oard 7*56@?*5@A9 and President 7*5F4?*56@9 o% $im)erly?Clark Cor1. &rustee o% the Ro ke%eller #oundation 7*5F4?*56>9 President o% /arathon ;il Co. 7*5=>?*5@39 President and C-; o% W.R. 0ra e , Co. 7*5=F?*5>*9 President o% Neiman /ar us Sde1artment store in Dallas, &e'asT 7*5FA?*5@39 President o% :nternational &ele1hone and &elegra1h Cor1. 7*5F5?*5@49 -'e uti2e Vi e President o% -''on Cor1. 7*566?*5@F9 Dire tor o% /arketing and - onomi Planning, (nited !ir ra%t Cor1. 7*56=?*5@=9 Partner o% 0uggenheim Brothers 7*5F5?*5>49 Vi e President o% Ba he , Co., :n . 7*56F?*5@*9 /em)er o% Sulli2an , Cromwell Slaw %irm in New <ork CityT 7*536?*5F*, *563?*5659

-usta e Seligman !rthur .. Dean 0eorge C. Shar1 Norris Darrell 0eorge !. Brownell #rederi k !.;. S hwarI Ral1h /. Carson Charles /. S1o%%ord S. .aIard 0illes1ie "r. &aggart Whi11le Peter ;. !. Sol)ert Whitney North Seymour #owler .amilton /auri e &. /oore William -ldred "a kson -li Whitney De)e2oise Ro)ert B. 2on /ehren Roswell B. Perkins !l%red ;gden /i hael V. #orrestal 0eorge Ro)erts /orris B. !)ram "ohn N. :rwin :: Ro)ert Sturgis Potter Ro)ert /. Pennoyer Paul 0. Pennoyer Bethuel /. We)ster Dillon !nderson Dean 0. ! heson -dwin ". PutIell, "r. &om $ille%er -rgani8ation 9:ec!tives5 "ose1h -. "ohnson &homas L. .ughes ". 0eorge .arrar "ohn D. Ro ke%eller ::: "ohn ". / Cloy -2erett N. Case !lan Pi%er $ermit 0ordon Samuel P. .ayes /a' #. /illikan #ran is &.P. Plim1ton ". Kuigg Newton "r. Caryl P. .askins Paul /. .erIog Waldemar !. Nielsen C. Dale #uller 'ollege +rofessors5 $ingman Brewster "r. Nathan /. Pusey Ro)ert #. 0oheen "ames !. Perkins 0rayson L. $irk !ndrew W. Cordier Clark $err Charles ". .it h ".-. Walla e Sterling Lin oln 0ordon "ohn Sloan Di key Cal2in .. Plim1ton

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/em)er o% Sulli2an , Cromwell 7*534?*5@69 Partner o% Sulli2an , Cromwell 7*535?*5@69 Partner o% Sulli2an , Cromwell 7*535?*5@*9 Partner o% Sulli2an , Cromwell 7*54=?*5@69 Partner o% Da2is, Polk , Wardwell Slaw %irm in New <ork CityT 7*54A?*5@39 Partner o% Da2is, Polk , Wardwell 7*54F?*5@=9 Partner o% Da2is, Polk , Wardwell 7*54F?*5@@9 /em)er o% Da2is, Polk , Wardwell 7*5=A?*5FA, *5F3?*5@49 /em)er o% Da2is, Polk , Wardwell 7*5=>?3A**9 Partner o% Da2is, Polk , Wardwell 7*5FA?*5539 Partner o% Da2is, Polk , Wardwell 7*5F@?*564, *56F?*5>59 Partner o% Sim1son, &ha her , Bartlett Slaw %irmT 7*535?*54*, *544?*5>49 Partner o% Cleary, 0ottlie), Steen , .amilton Slaw %irmT 7*5=6?*56*, *564?*5>=9 /em)er o% Cra2ath, Swaine , /oore Slaw %irmT 7*536?*5>A9 Partner o% /il)ank, &weed, .adley , / Cloy Slaw %irmT 7*5F=?*5559 Partner o% De)e2oise , Plim1ton Slaw %irmT 7*54*?*55A9 Partner o% De)e2oise , Plim1ton Slaw %irmT 7*5F@?*5549 Partner o% De)e2oise , Plim1ton Slaw %irmT 7*5F@?*5569 Partner o% !le'ander , 0reen Slaw %irmT 7*5FF?*5@F9 Partner o% Shearman , Sterling Slaw %irmT 7*56A?*5>59B Senior sta%% mem)er o% the National Se urity Coun il 7*563?*56F9 Partner o% Winthro1, Stimson, Putnam , Ro)erts Slaw %irmT 7*5*=?*56>9 Partner o% Paul, Weiss, Ri%kind, Wharton , 0arrison 7*563?*56>, *5@A?*5>59 Partner o% Patterson, Belkna1 , We)) Slaw %irmT 7*5FA?*5F@, *56*?*5@A, *5@=?*5@@9 Partner o% Patterson, Belkna1, We)) , &yler Slaw %irmT 7*563?*5>>9 Partner o% Patterson, Belkna1 , We)) Slaw %irmT 7*563?*55F9 Partner o% White , Case Slaw %irm in New <ork C:tyT 7*53>?*5@*9 /em)er o% We)ster , She%%ield Slaw %irm in New <ork CityT 7*54=?*5>=9 Partner o% Baker Botts Slaw %irm in .ouston, &e'asT 7*5=A?*5@=9 /em)er o% Co2ington , Burling Slaw %irm in Washington, D.C.T 7*5F4?*5@*9 Vi e President and 0eneral Counsel o% /onsanto Co. 7*564?*5@@9 0eneral Counsel o% Chrysler Cor1. 7*566?*5@F9 President o% Carnegie -ndowment %or :nternational Pea e 7*5FA?*5@*9 President o% Carnegie -ndowment %or :nternational Pea e 7*5@*?*55*9 President o% &he Ro ke%eller #oundation 7*56*?*5@39 Chairman o% &he Ro ke%eller #oundation 7*5F3?*5@*9 Chairman o% the Coun il on #oreign Relations 7*5F4?*5@A9 President o% !l%red P. Sloan #oundation 7*563?*56>9B Chairman o% the #ederal Reser2e Bank o% New <ork 7*566?*56>9 President o% Carnegie Cor1oration o% New <ork 7*56F?*5>39 President o% &he Brookings :nstitution 7*56@?*5@@9 President o% #oreign Poli y !sso iation 7*563?*5@=9 President o% World Pea e #oundation 7*5F6?*5659 President o% &ea hers :nsuran e and !nnuity !sso iation S&:!!T 7*5F*?*5@F9 President o% &he Commonwealth #und 7*564?*5@F9 President o% Carnegie :nstitution o% Washington 7*5F6?*5@*9 President o% the SalI)urg Seminar in !meri an Studies 7*56F?*5@*9 President o% !%ri an?!meri an :nstitute 7*56*?*5@A9 -'e uti2e Vi e President o% #oreign Poli y !sso iation 7*5F5?*5@39 President o% <ale (ni2ersity 7*564?*5@@9 President o% .ar2ard (ni2ersity 7*5F4?*5@*9 President o% !ndrew W. /ellon #oundation 7*5@*?*5@F9 President o% Prin eton (ni2ersity 7*5F@?*5@39B &rustee o% the Ro ke%eller #oundation 7*564?*5@F9 President o% Cornell (ni2ersity 7*564?*5659 President o% Colum)ia (ni2ersity 7*5F4?*56>9 President o% Colum)ia (ni2ersity 7*56>?*5@A9 Dean, S hool o% :ntl and Pu)li !%%airs at Colum)ia (ni2. 7*563?*56>, *5@A?*5@39 President o% (ni2ersity o% Cali%ornia at Berkeley 7*5F>?*56@9 &rustee o% the Ro ke%eller #oundation 7*56A?*5@F9 President o% (ni2ersity o% Cali%ornia at Berkeley 7*56@?*5@F9B !ssistant Se retary o% De%ense %or Com1troller 7*56*?*56F9 President o% Stan%ord (ni2ersity 7*5=5?*56>9 President o% "ohns .o1kins (ni2ersity 7*56@?*5@*9 President, Dartmouth College 7*5=F?*5@A9B&rustee, Ro ke%eller #oundation 7*5=@?@39 President o% !mherst College 7*56A?*5@*9

"ohn -. Sawyer .oward W. "ohnson "ulius !. Stratton #rederi k L. .o2de "ames /. .ester Walter Consuelo Langsam &heodore /. .es)urgh "erome B. Wiesner Dale R. Corson -dward W. Barrett Courtney C. Brown -dmund !. 0ullion #ran is ;. Wil o' Don $. Pri e "r. Bayless /anning !)ram Bergson Crane Brinton "ohn $ing #air)ank Ru1ert -merson "ohn $enneth 0al)raith /yres S. / Dougal .enry C. Walli h Lloyd 0. Reynolds .arold D. Lasswell #rederi k C. Barghoorn 0eroid &. Ro)inson "ohn N. .aIard !. !rthur S hiller Rene !l)re ht?Carrie .enry L. Ro)erts /arshall D. Shulman !rthur Doak Barnett .enry P. de Vries "ose1h R. Strayer ;skar /orgenstern .ans ". /orgenthau Carl B. S1aeth Ri hard L. Park Miscellaneo!s5 Daniel -lls)erg .arold Brown ". Ri hardson Dilworth Henry J. Friendly Dudley B. Bonsal Charles E. Wyzanski Jr. Phili1 C. "essu1 Sr. Ral1h ". Bun he #rank !. Southard "r. Dwight D. -isenhower "ames B. Conant Winthro1 W. !ldri h .enry S. /organ

*5F4?*55= *566?3AA5 *56F?*554 *5F=?*5@4 *563?*556 *5=@?*5@4 *566?1resent *56A?*55= *566?*5@5 *5=5?*5>@ *5FF?*5@6 *5FF?*55@ *56*?*5>F *5F=?*5@@ *56*?*55> *5FA?*5@A *5F3?*56@ *5=@?*5>F *5F*?*5@6 *5=@?*5@A *5F=?*55@ *5F3?*5>> *563?*5>@ *5FF?*5@@ *5=5?*55A *5=3?*565 *5=3?*55= *56*?*5@6 *5=3?*5@> *5F*?*5@3 *5F6?3AA6 *5F@?*55> *5=3?*5==, *5=@?*5>6 *56A?*5>6 *5FF?*5@6 *5F>?*5@4 *564?*5@* *56A?*5>A *565?1resent *565?1resent *5F=?*553 1942-1985 1946-1994 1959-1978 *53>?*5>* *5=5?*56@ *5F*?*5>6 *5=5?*56> *54=?*5@6 *53@?*5@4 *53>?*5>*

President o% Williams College 7*56*?*5@49 President o% /assa husetts :nstitute o% &e hnology 7*566?*5@*9 President o% /assa husetts :nstitute o% &e hnology 7*5F5?*5669B Chairman o% #ord #oundation 7*566?*5@*9 President o% Purdue (ni2ersity 7*5=6?*5@*9 President o% New <ork (ni2ersity 7*563?*5@F9 President o% (ni2ersity o% Cin innati 7*5FF?*5@*9 President o% (ni2ersity o% Notre Dame 7*5F3?*5>@9B &rustee o% the Ro ke%eller #oundation 7*56*?*5>*9 Pro2ost o% /assa husetts :nstitute o% &e hnology 7*566?*5@*9 Pro2ost o% Cornell (ni2ersity 7*564?*5659B President o% Cornell (ni2ersity 7*565?*5@@9 Dean o% 0raduate S hool o% "ournalism at Colum)ia (ni2ersity 7*5F6?*56>9 Dean o% Colum)ia Business S hool 7*5F=?*5659 Dean o% #let her S hool o% Law and Di1loma y at &u%ts (ni2ersity 7*56F?*5@59 Dean o% S hool o% !d2an ed :nternational Studies at "ohns .o1kins (ni2. 7*56*?*5@49 Dean o% 0raduate S hool o% Pu)li !dministration at .ar2ard (ni2ersity 7*5F>?*5@@9 Dean o% Stan%ord Law S hool 7*56=?*5@*9B President o% the Coun il on #oreign Relations 7*5@*?*5@@9 Pro%essor o% - onomi s at .ar2ard (ni2ersity 7*5F6?*5>=9 Pro%essor o% .istory at .ar2ard (ni2ersity 7*5=3? .*56@9 Pro%essor o% .istory at .ar2ard (ni2ersity 7*5F5?*5@39 Pro%essor o% :nternational Relations at .ar2ard (ni2ersity 7*5=6?*5@A9 Pro%essor o% - onomi s at .ar2ard (ni2ersity 7*5=5?*56A, *564?*5@F9 Pro%essor o% Law at <ale (ni2ersity 7*545?*5@F9 Pro%essor o% - onomi s at <ale (ni2ersity 7*5F*?*5@=9 Sterling Pro%essor o% - onomi s at <ale (ni2ersity 7*5F3?*5>*9 -dward ". Phel1s Pro%essor o% Law and Politi al S ien e at <ale (ni2. 7*56*?*5@*9 Pro%essor o% Politi al S ien e at <ale (ni2ersity 7*5F@? .*5@69 Seth Low Pro%essor o% .istory at Colum)ia (ni2ersity 7*5FA?*5@*9 Pro%essor o% Pu)li Law at Colum)ia (ni2ersity 7*5=6?*5@@9 Pro%essor o% Law at Colum)ia (ni2ersity 7*5=5?*5@*9 Pro%essor o% .istory at Colum)ia (ni2ersity 7*5F4?*5659 Pro%essor o% .istory at Colum)ia (ni2ersity 7*5F6?*56@9 Pro%essor o% 0o2ernment at Colum)ia (ni2ersity 7*56@?*5@=9 Pro%essor o% Politi al S ien e at Colum)ia (ni2ersity 7*56*?*5659 Pro%essor o% Law at Colum)ia (ni2ersity 7*5F3?*5>*9B Partner o% Baker , / $enIie Slaw %irm in New <ork CityT 7*56A?*5>69 Pro%essor o% .istory at Prin eton (ni2ersity 7*5=3?*5@49 Pro%essor o% - onomi s at Prin eton (ni2ersity 7*5==?*5@A9 Pro%essor o% Politi al S ien e at (ni2ersity o% Chi ago 7*5=5?*56>9 William Nelson Cromwell Pro%essor o% Law at Stan%ord (ni2ersity 7*563?*5@39 Pro%essor o% Politi al S ien e at (ni2ersity o% /i higan 7*566?*5>A9 Pentagon Pa1er leaker Se retary o% the !ir #or e 7*56F?*5659B President o% Cali%ornia :nstitute o% &e hnology 7*565?*5@@9 Senior %inan ial ad2iser to the Ro ke%eller %amily 7*5F>?*5>*9 Judge of the U.S. Court of Appeals for 2nd Circuit [New York City] (1959-1974) Judge of the U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York (1962-1976) Judge of the U.S. District Court for the District of Massachusetts (1941-1971) "udge o% the :nternational Court o% "usti e 7*56*?*5@A9 (nder Se retary o% the (nited Nations %or S1e ial Politi al !%%airs 7*5F>?*56@9 &rustee o% the Ro ke%eller #oundation 7*5FF?*5@A9 De1uty /anaging Dire tor o% the :nternational /onetary #und 7*563?*5@=9 President o% the (nited States 7*5F4?*56*9 President o% .ar2ard (ni2ersity 7*544?*5F49 Chairman o% the )oard o% Chase National Bank 7*54=?*5F49 Son o% (.S. Senator Nelson !ldri hB (n le o% Da2id Ro ke%eller and Nelson Ro ke%eller Co?#ounder o% /organ, Stanley , Co. 7*54F?N9B Dire tor o% 0eneral -le tri Co. 7*54=? *5>39B 0randson o% Wall Street )anker "ohn Pier1ont /organ

Note+ &he 0ul% o% &onkin :n ident o urred on !ugust 3, *56=. Note+ Si' Day War in :srael o urred %rom "une FW*A, *56@. Note+ &he *56@ Newark Ra e Riot o urred %rom "uly *3?*@, *56@. Note+ &he *56@ Detroit Ra e Riot o urred %rom "uly 34?3@, *56@. Note+ &et ;%%ensi2e o urred in Saigon and other ities in South Vietnam in #e)ruary *56>. Note+ Dr. /artin Luther $ing "r. was assassinated )y a Llone gunmanM in /em1his, &ennessee on !1ril =, *56>. Note+ (.S. Senator Ro)ert #. $ennedy was assassinated )y a Llone gunmanM in Los !ngeles on "une F, *56>B $ennedy died the ne't day. Note+ $ent State /assa re o urred at $ent State (ni2ersity in $ent, ;hio, (.S.!. on /ay =, *5@A. Note+ &he Watergate S andal o urred in Washington, D.C. on "une *@, *5@3. Note+ Sal2ador !llende, the President o% Chile, was assassinated during a ou1 detat on Se1tem)er **, *5@4.

Maniel Fllsberg T .entagon .apers; Operation 1oc*ingbird 8C<79 or Organized Crime?

Daniel +lls"erg testifies a"out the Pentagon Pa,ers at a Senate su"committee meeting on 3a #%. #$M&. Daniel +lls"erg lea<ed the Pentagon Pa,ers to the +e* Cor7 >imes )a ma6or ne4s,a,er in Ne4 ?or< 'it * in #$M#. Maniel Fllsberg =oined the Council on Foreign Ielations, a private organization in New Sor* Cit&, in "'"( Daniel +lls"erg faced #2 felon counts as a result of his lea< of the Pentagon Pa,ersN the charges 4ere dismissed in #$M&. )Associated Press Photo*

3a #2. #$M& edition of the Ne4 ?or< Times

Pentagon Pa,ers 'harges Are DismissedN Judge 2 rne Frees +lls"erg and Busso. Assails EAm,ro,er (o!ernment 'onductE
Ne4 Trial 2arred 2ut Decision Does Not Sol!e 'onstitutional Assues in 'ase 4& 1artin 7rnold )pecial to 2he New Sor* 2imes
8os Angeles. 3a ## 55 'iting 4hat he called Oim,ro,er (o!ernment conduct shielded so long from ,u"lic !ie4.O the 6udge in the Pentagon ,a,ers trial dismissed toda all charges against Dr. Daniel +lls"erg and Anthon J. Busso Jr. And he made it clear in his ruling that the t4o men 4ould not "e tried again on charges of stealing and co, ing the Pentagon ,a,ers. OThe conduct of the (o!ernment has ,laced the case in such a ,osture that it ,recludes the fair. dis,assionate resolution of these issues " a 6ur .O he said. Da!id B. Nissen. the chief ,rosecutor. said. OAt a,,ears that the ,osture is such that no a,,eal 4ill "e ,ossi"le.O Me,endants Not ?indicated 2ut the decision " /nited States District 'ourt Judge 7illiam 3atthe4 2 rne Jr. did not !indicate the defendantsN it chastised the (o!ernment. Nor did it resol!e the im,ortant constitutional issues that the case had raised. The end of the trial. on its 0$th da . 4as dramatic. The courtroom 4as 6ammed. the 6ur "oF 4as filled 4ith ne4s re,ortersN defense 4or<ers in the +lls"erg5Busso cause. mostl oung ,eo,le. sat in chairs lining the courtroom 4all. Dr. +lls"erg and 3r. Busso. surrounded " their la4 ers. stared intentl as Judge 2 rne Guic<l read his ruling. The (o!ernmentEs action in this case. he said. Ooffended a sense of 6ustice.O and so OA ha!e decided to declare a mistrial and grant the motion for dismissal.O The time 4as 2:JM P.3. The courtroom eru,ted in loud cheering and cla,,ing. The 6udge. "arel hiding a smile. Guic<l strode out the door "ehind his "ench. Tension had "een "uilding for t4o da s. since the sudden disclosure " the (o!ernment esterda that tele,hone con!ersations of Dr. +lls"erg 4ere ,ic<ed u, " 4ireta,,ing in late #$%$ and earl #$MJ. and that all records and logs of those con!ersations had disa,,eared from the Federal 2ureau of An!estigation. 7hen this morning the (o!ernment 4as still una"le to ,roduce either the records or a legal authoriIation for the ta,s. it 4as e!ident that the case had ended. The 6ur 4as not ,resent 4hen the 6udge read his decision. At had "een sent home until 3onda morning. 2efore rendering his decision. the 6udge offered the defendants the o,,ortunit to go to the 6ur for a !erdict. -e said that he 4ould 4ithhold his ruling on their motion to dismiss if the 4anted. -e indicated that if the did decide to go to the 6ur . he 4ould ,ro"a"l dismiss some of the counts 55 siF for es,ionage. siF for theft and one for cons,irac . -e said that he "elie!ed enough of the case 4as left to litigate "efore the 6ur . if the defendants so desired. The did not. and then he read his ruling. OA 6udgment of acGuittal goes to all the facts.O he said. "ut he added that if he ruled on that defense motion. Oit 4ould not dis,ose of all the issues.O That. he said. Ocan onl "e done " going to the 6ur .O -e did sa . ho4e!er. that his ruling 4as "ased not onl on the 4ireta, disclosures. Oor "ased solel on the "rea<5inO of the office of Dr. +lls"ergEs ,s chiatrist on Se,t. &. #$M#. " agents in the em,lo of the 7hite -ouse. Fllsberg 1a& )ue NiBon 2ut Judge 2 rne said that Oon A,ril 2% the (o!ernment made an eFtraordinar disclosureO 55 that of the "rea<5in 55 and that 4as follo4ed " disclosures that the "rea<5in 4as done " a Os,ecial unitO re,orting to the 7hite -ouse.

-e said that the s,ecial unit Oa,,arentl o,erated 4ith the a,,ro!al of the F.2.A.O and that the '.A.A. also "ecame in!ol!ed in the ,rosecution of this case at the OreGuest of the 7hite -ouse.O Dr. +lls"erg and 3r. Busso 4ere 6u"ilant. and mem"ers of their families 4ere in tears as the long ordeal. 4hich started 4ith Dr. +lls"ergEs arrest on June 21. #$M# ended. Dr. +lls"erg said that he 4ould file a ci!il action against former and ,resent high ran<ing officials of the (o!ernment. e!en ,erha,s against President NiFon. Dr. +lls"erg and 3r. Busso contended that the had ta<en the ,a,ers and co,ied them to gi!e them to 'ongress. 4hich. the ho,ed. 4ould "ring ,ressure to end the 4ar in Vietnam. So in realit the 4ere arguing in court not onl constitutional issues. "ut their "elief that the greater good reGuired them to "rea< some regulations to ma<e the ,a,ers ,u"lic. This. too. 4as an issue that the 6ur 4ould ha!e decided. OA am con!inced " the record of the last cou,le 4ee<s. ,articularl the last cou,le of da s.O that the trial should not go on. the 6udge said. O(o!ernmental agencies ha!e ta<en an un,recedented series of actions against these defendantsO he said. -e cited the s,ecial 7hite -ouse O,lum"ersO unit. 4hich Oa,,arentl o,erated 4ith the a,,ro!al of the F.2.A.O O7e ma ha!e "een gi!en onl a glim,se of 4hat this s,ecial unit did.O the 6udge said. OThe latest series of actions com,ound a record alread ,er!aded " instances 4hich threatened the defendantsE rights to a fair trial.O OAt 4as of greatest significance.O he said. that the 4ire5ta, occurred during the ,eriod of cons,irac . O'ontinued (o!ernment in!estigation is no solution.O he added. O"ecause dela s tend to com,romise the defendantsE rights.O -e ,recluded another trial against Dr. +lls"erg and 3r. Busso " including in his ruling this sentence: O/nder all the circumstances. A "elie!e that the defendants should not ha!e to run the ris<. ,resent under eFisting authorities. that the might "e tried again "efore a different 6ur .O Dr. +lls"erg 4as as<ed if he 4as disa,,ointed that the case had not gone to the 6ur and he re,lied. OA thin< that an American 6ur 4ould ha!e come to a 6udgment that is good for this countr .O OTon and A thin< 4e <no4 4e did something right.O he added. -e 4as as<ed if he 4ould disclose the Pentagon ,a,ers again. and he ans4ered. OA 4ould do it tomorro4. if A could do it.O 8eonard 2. 2oudin. a defense attorne . said. OA thin< that the courtEs ruling 4as a,,ro,riate. necessar . eloGuent. 6ustified and dis,ositi!e. The 6udgment 4as made not on the narro4 issue of 4ireta,,ing. "ut on the totalit of (o!ernment misconduct.O Dr. +lls"erg then added that Othe trial isnEt o!er until that "om"ing is o!er in 'am"odia. ODonEt 4e ha!e the right not to "e tried under NaIi la4.O he as<ed. OThis Administration has "een !er straight a"out 4here it is. At is u, to us to tell them 4hat it means to "e an American. OAf facts ,ro!e to "e 4hat the a,,ear to "e. the President has led a cons,irac . not onl against Ton and me. "ut against the American ,u"lic.O 8ater toda . the JudgeEs cler< notified the 6urors " tele,hone that the case had ended and a Guic< ,oll this e!ening sho4ed that at least half of them 4ould ha!e !oted to acGuit the defendants. Source: htt,:LL444.n times.comLlearningLgeneralLonthisda L"igLJ1##.html

Washington :nCuirer /ay >, *55F / Namaras Wall By /i hael Benge Rather than a)sol2ing him o% his sins, %ormer Se retary o% De%ense Ro)ert / Namaras 1seudo?mea ul1a, L:n Retros1e t+ &ragedy and Lessons o% Vietnam,M is a sel%?indi tment. .is lesser rime is sel%?indulgen e. .is arrogan e and du1li ity during the Vietnam on%li t is e hoed throughout his )ook as he re ounts his mismanagement o% the war. :% as he admits, ignoran e was his guiding light, then, it has grown to )e a )ea on today, 1ro2ing that he has learned little a)out Vietnamese ommunism in the almost three de ades that it took him to write his )ook. Besides the war, another tragedy is that / Namara seems to ha2e lost his memory, and has di%%i ulty distinguishing )etween %a ts and %antasy. Nowhere in his )ook does / Namara mention his asinine idea o% )uilding a Lte hnologi alM wall to kee1 the North Vietnamese out o% the South in order to redu e the need to )om) North Vietnam. 7Perha1s he was going to )uild the wall out o% sur1lus -dsels, a ar designed and )uilt while he was C-; o% #ord /otor Com1any that was a total %ailure.9 / Namara didnt su eed in kee1ing the North Vietnamese out o% the South, )ut the wall was )uiltB not on the *@th 1arallel as he 1lannedB rather, it an )e %ound Eust o%% Constitution !2enue in Washington, DC. :ts alled the Vietnam /emorialB )uilt with the names o% F>,AAA dead !meri ans. / Namara is %lat wrong in his laim that L;ur go2ernment la ked e'1erts %or us to onsult to om1ensate %or our ignoran e a)out Southeast !sia.M Rather than a e1ting ad2i e, / Namara and the other LWhiI $idsM arrogantly and deli)erately hose to ignore the e'1erts. :n %a t, / Namara laims there were no e'1erts. &he %a t was there were se2eral e'1erts, in luding the well known #ren h Eournalist and author Bernard #all. :t wasnt that #all had )een L1ainted as a sus1e t ommunist sym1athiIerM as laimed in the )ook, it was )e ause / Namara and his oterie were running the war and were to arrogant to onsult with a damn L#rog.M &hey %elt that the #ren h ouldnt )e trusted )e ause the Vi hy #ren h had olla)orated with the !'is during World War ::, and their olonial administrators in :ndo hina had )een treated as allies )y the "a1anese. !nd the (S had ne2er lost a war, and the #ren h had already lost in :ndo hinaB there%ore, / Namara and his ohort wouldnt )e aught dead onsulting with a )un h o% olonials and losers. !nd what memory la1se would ause / Namara to %orget another e'1ert %or whom President "ohn #. $ennedy had great res1e t %or, 0eneral -dward 0eary LansdaleN Lansdale had )een a 1ersonal ad2isor and on%ident to Phili11ine President Ramon /agsaysay, and had )een instrumental in the de%eat o% the ommunist mo2ement there. Lansdales e'1ertise wasnt limited to the Phili11ines, %or he was e'tremely knowledgea)le a)out the entire situation a ross Southeast !sia. Lansdale had )een in North Vietnam during the two year gra e 1eriod a orded )y the 0ene2a agreements o% *5F=. .e assisted the anti? ommunist Vietnamese to go south while .o Chi /in solidi%ied 1ower in the North. .e was also a 1ersonal ad2isor and lose %riend to South Vietnams President Ngo Dinh Diem. ;n "anuary 3>, *56*, President $ennedy read a re1ort )y 0eneral Lansdale a)out his re ent tri1 to Vietnam. &he %ollowing Saturday morning, $ennedy had his hie% 1oliti al ad2isor all Lansdale at his home and asked him to ome immediately to the White .ouse. When he arri2ed, President $ennedy interru1ted a )rie%ing on %oreign 1oli y and introdu ed Lansdale to the grou1 as his ne't am)assador to Vietnam. ;n /ar h *, *56*, a a)le was sent to the !meri an -m)assy in Saigon %rom "#$s sta%% ordering the desk?)ound -m)assy and its to1 %ield o%%i ers to read Lansdales "anuary re1ort, a)sor) its on e1ts, and a11ly them as a new 1riority in rea hing the 1eo1le in the 1ro2in es and 2illages o% Vietnam. .owe2er, Lansdales ounterinsurgen y and 1a i%i ation e%%orts were undermined )y am)itious 1eo1le in the State De1artment and the o2er?a hie2ers in the Pentagon, who knew that the only way to gain 1romotion, get their LstarsM and win medals was to e'1and the Vietnam on%li t militarily in the on2entional way. :n his )ook, / Namara )elittles 0eneral Lansdale )y stating, L: knew o% only one Pentagon o%%i er with ounterinsurgen y e'1erien e in the region, ...)ut Lansdale was a relati2e Eunior o%%i er who la ked )road geo1oliti al e'1ertise.M 0eo?1oliti al thinking %rom *>th Century -uro1e wasnHt needed in Vietnam, rather Lansdales ideo?and ethno?1oliti al e'1ertise is what would ha2e arried the day. / Namara didnt e2en know that 0eneral Lansdale was on his sta%% until President $ennedy 1ointed him out. !nd when did a 0eneral )e ome a Eunior o%%i erN / Namara also wrongly om1ares .o Chi /inh, as a Vietnamese nationalist, to <ugosla2ias /arshall &ito. .o was as mu h o% a nationalist as / Namara is a historian. .o Chi /inh was an international ommunist, who o?%ounded the #ren h ommunist 1arty in *53A. .e was trained at the Lenin :nstitute in /os ow in *53FB he was a nationaliIed So2iet itiIenB and he took a Russian name, Lino2. .e was assigned as a Russian itiIen in the So2iet Consulate in Canton, China, under the renowned /a hia2ellian Russian Consul, Bordin, when %ighting )roke out )etween Chiang $ai Shek and /ao &se &ung. "ose1h Stalin su11orted Chiang and /ao ne2er %orga2e, nor trusted, /os ow a%ter that. .o was then sent to &hailand in *53> under /os ows orders, where he sha2ed his head and )e ome a Buddhist monk and awaited %urther orders. &hey ame in *54A, when he was sent )y /os ow to .ong $ong to %ound a new ommunist 1arty, whi h .o named L&he :ndo hina Communist 1arty.M ;nly a #ren h ommunist would use that term, %or a true Vietnamese nationalist would ne2er ha2e used the olonialist term :ndo hina. .o was more o% a Stalin than a &ito, and arranged the )etrayal and annihilation o% all o11osition in luding+ nationalists, su h as Phan Boi Chau 7*5369B the murder o% South Vietnamese &rotskyite ommunists 7*5=F9, who had )een an enemy o% Stalins 1oli ies sin e the *53AsB and the sele ti2e elimination o% the non? ommunist Viet /inh leaders 7*5F=?F69, who had greatly ontri)uted to the de%eat o% the #ren h.

/ Namara is e2en re)uked today )y .anois ommunist 1arty theoreti al Eournal, whi h stated that .o was not a nationalist )ut was an Linternationalist,M loyal to /os ows Comintern 1oli ies to the end o% his days. Ro)ert / Namara, 1lease all your 1u)lisher. &he Vietnam on%li t was neither a L1eo1lesH warM nor a i2il war, as / Namara laims. Rather, it was a 1ro'y war )etween su1er1owers W the So2iet (nion and the (nited States, and the wanna)ee su1er1ower, China. Vietnam was ne2er one ountry, )ut had always )een di2ided into there distin t 1oliti al entities, North, Central, and South Vietnam, and ea h region had its own distin t 1oliti al %a tion and diale t. Both the Central and Southern Vietnamese disliked the arrogant and aggressi2e North Vietnamese, and the ommunists %ighting in the South were 1rimarily dire ted )y the North. :n turn, the North Vietnamese ommunists distrusted the Central and Southern ommunists, and in *5F= and again in *56>, the North Vietnamese ommunists used their omrades as annon %odder in order to 1urge the 1arty ranks o% untrustworthy Central and Southern ommunist )rethren, as well as to gain total ontrol o% the ommunist mo2ement in Vietnam. &he Norths in2asion o% the South is om1ara)le to :raCs in2asion o% $uwait. / Namara is also dead wrong in saying that our goal o% sto11ing the ommunist take o2er o% :ndo hina was unworthy. &his is an insult to the F>,AAA !meri ans and the hundreds o% thousands o% 1eo1le o% Vietnam, Laos and Cam)odia whom he sent to )e killed in an attem1t to sto1 the dominos %rom %alling and to hel1 win %reedom %or the 1eo1le o% the region. Be ause o% / Namara, and in s1ite o% those deaths, some o% the dominos %ell when the (S 1ulled out. !nd / Namara has the gall to say that it was unworthy to try to 1re2ent the slaughter o% the almost two million Cam)odians who were murdered )y the Vietnamese?ins1ired, trained, and armed $hmer Rouge 7who were su11orted )y Vietnamese artillery and troo1s9. !nd unworthy to try to 1re2ent the 1ain and hardshi1 su%%ered )y the tens o% thousands o% 1eo1le thrown into the on entration am1s 7Lre? edu ation am1sM9 in Vietnam, Laos and Cam)odia. / Namaras statement that President -isenhowers domino theory was wrong re%le ts his total ignoran e o% .o Chi /inhs Southeast !sian Ltime )om)sM o% the *54As when .o, as a /os ow agent, organiIed the ommunist 1arties o% Vietnam, Laos, Cam)odia 7:ndo hinese Communist Party9, as well as those in &hailand, Burma, /alaya, and :ndonesia. :t is highly unlikely that the 0enerals in :ndonesia would ha2e stood u1 to and de%eated the ommunist mo2ement there without the demonstration o% !meri an resol2e in Vietnam in *56F. #urthermore, without the hundreds o% millions o% dollars and large amounts o% military hardware 1um1ed into the &hai e onomy, &hailand would ha2e )e ome the %ourth domino to %all, a%ter Vietnam, Laos and Cam)odia. Without !meri as resol2e and ommitment, the Vietnamese ommunists would ha2e ontinued to %uel the insurre tion in &hailand until it too %ell, in2ading it as they did Cam)odia. :t isnt that the Vietnam on%li t was unwinna)le as he laims, rather / Namara ensured its loss )y di tating Lrules o% engagementM and limited )om)ing. / Namara arrogantly mi ro?managed the war )y remote, as i% 1laying a )oard game and 1ossessed )y Dr. Strangelo2e, sending daily en oded messages to the 0enerals and !dmirals in Vietnam on the s1e i%i targets he hose to )om) that day. .e ordered 1lanes to make multi1le )om)ing runs on the same target on the same day )e ause it was more ost?e%%e ti2e, )ut it 1ro2ided a Ldu k shootM %or the North Vietnamese. #rom the onset o% the !meri an in2ol2ement, the North Vietnamese ommunists had o1enly 1ro%essed they would %ight a 1rotra ted war and de%eat the !meri ans, not on the )attle%ield, )ut 1oliti ally at home as they had the #ren h. When he 2oted against the 0ul% o% &onkin Resolution, ;regon Senator Wayne /orse, an Le'1ertM on international law, warned the White .ouse and the Pentagon that the (S must either de lare and %ight an all?out war against North Vietnam, or the war would )e lost 1oliti ally. :t wasnt a la k o% e'1erts to onsult with, as he 1ro%essesB the 1ro)lem was that / Namara hose to ignore e'1ert ad2i e. / Namaras %ailed 1oli ies o% the *56As turned the !meri an 1eo1le totally against e2en a minor in2ol2ement in Vietnam, thus ensuring the %ul%illment o% .anois 1ro1hesy and guaranteeing the ommunist 2i tory. :% Lwe were wrongB terri)ly wrong,M as / Namara laims, and he realiIed it in the mid?si'ties and ne2er resigned, then hes ultimately res1onsi)le %or sending thousands o% !meri as L)est and )rightestM to their deaths. / Namaras o1?out is, L<ou shouldnt use your 1ower that you2e a umulated in a sense as the Presidents a11ointeeX to atta k and su)2ert the 1oli ies o% the ele ted re1resentati2e o% the 1eo1le.M .owe2er, the standards set at Nurem)erg de%eat / Namaras logi . Some dra%t e2aders say that / Namaras )ook 2indi ates them %or their a tions, )ut when do two wrongs make a rightN Rather than donating his )ook earnings to hel1 heal the Vietnam 2eterans he hel1ed wound, / Namara 1lans to use them to in rease ommuni ations with the dra onian di tatorshi1 in .anoiB the se ond time he has handed the .anoi ommunists a 2i tory. Sour e+ htt1+88www.wintersoldier. om8stati 1ages8inde'.1h1N1ageQ/ Namara

Coun il on #oreign Relations , Red Vietnam

National %ocialism in ;anoi5 De%ense /inister o% Red Vietnam Lt. 0en. Pham Van &ra and (.S. Se retary o% De%ense William S. Cohen re2iew the Red Vietnamese !rmy in .anoi on /ar h *4, 3AAA. 7Photo+ (.S. De1artment o% De%ense9

Se retary o% De%ense Donald .. Rums%eld shakes hands with Red Vietnams /inister o% De%ense 0en. Pham Van &ra 7le%t9 in .anoi, Red Vietnam on "une F, 3AA6. Donald .. Rums%eld was a /em)er o% the (nited States .ouse o% Re1resentati2es 7Re1u)li an Party?:llinois9 %rom *564 to *565. 7Photo+ (.S. De1artment o% De%ense9

(.S. Se retary o% De%ense Donald .. Rums%eld 7le%t9 and De%ense /inister o% Red Vietnam 0eneral Pham Van &ra salute together. 7Photo+ !#P80etty :mages9

De%ense /inister o% Red Vietnam 0eneral Pham Van &ra 7le%t9 and (.S. Se retary o% De%ense Donald Rums%eld 7right9 re2iew the Red Vietnamese military mar hing )and in .anoi. 7Photo+ !#P80etty :mages9

Se retary o% De%ense Donald Rums%eld re ei2es a )ouCuet o% %lowers %rom an unidenti%ied Communist Party o%%i ial in .anoi. 7Photo+ !#P80etty :mages9

(.S. President Bill Clinton sits with Red Vietnams President &ran Du Luong in %ront o% a statue o% /os ow?trained Vietnamese ommunist .o Chi /inh )e%ore a )ilateral meeting in the Presidential Pala e in .anoi No2em)er *@, 3AAA. 7R-(&-RS8C;RB:S8Larry Downing9

(.S. President Bill Clinton re2iews a guard o% honor a om1anied )y Red Vietnams President &ran Du Luong during his o%%i ial arri2al eremony in .anoi, Red Vietnam on No2em)er *@, 3AAA. President Clinton is the %irst ser2ing (.S. 1resident to 2isit Vietnam sin e the late Ri hard Ni'on went to South Vietnam in "uly *565. 7R-(&-RS80ary .ershorn9

#ormer (.S. President Bill Clinton 7R9 meets with Red VietnamHs Prime /inister Nguyen &an Dung during the Clinton 0lo)al :nitiati2e in New <ork City on Se1tem)er 3@, 3AA@. 7R-(&-RS8Daniel ! ker8Pool9

(.S. President Bill Clinton 7C9 1oses with Red VietnamHs Prime /inister Phan Van $hai 7right9 and &hailandHs Prime /inister Chuan Leek1ai 7le%t9 during the %amily 1hoto o% the !sia?Pa i%i - onomi Coo1erati2e summit 7!P-C9 at the !u kland /useum in !u kland, New Jealand on Se1tem)er *4, *555. 7Photo )y P;;L R-(&-RS9

(nited States Senator 0eorge / 0o2ern 7le%t9 2isits Red Vietnams Premier Pham Van Dong in .anoi in "anuary *5@6.

Phan .ien 7 enter, )a k row9, Communist Vietnams Vi e /inister o% #oreign !%%airs, meets with Ri hard .ol)rooke 7le%t9, (.S. !ssistant Se retary o% State %or -ast !sian and Pa i%i !%%airs, during (.S.?Vietnamese talks on normaliIing relations )etween the ountries in Saigon, Communist Vietnam on De em)er *5, *5@@. 70etty :mages9

#ormer Se retary o% De%ense Ro)ert S. / Namara and Red Vietnamese 0eneral Vo Nguyen 0ia1 7wearing a military uni%orm9, who was North Vietnams ommunist army Commander?in?Chie% during the Vietnam War, are surrounded )y Eournalists as they lea2e their meeting room in .anoi, Red Vietnam on No2em)er 5, *55F. / Namara is a mem)er o% a (.S. delegation led )y the Coun il on #oreign Relations urrently on a %our?day 2isit in .anoi to dis uss a 1ro1osed on%eren e on the Vietnam War to take 1la e sometime in *556. 7.oang Dinh Nam8!#P80etty :mages9

Vietnams ! ting #oreign /inister &ran Kuang Co 7le%t9 meets with Da2id Ro ke%eller 7 enter9 and Coun il on #oreign Relations Chairman Peter 0. Peterson during a %a t?%inding mission in .anoi, Red Vietnam on ; to)er 6, *554. 7.oang Dinh Nam8!#P80etty :mages9

#ormer (.S. Se retary o% De%ense Ro)ert S. / Namara 7L9 shakes hands with Red Vietnamese 0eneral Vo Nguyen 0ia1, who was North Vietnams ommunist army Commander?in?Chie% during the Vietnam War, in .anoi, Red Vietnam on No2em)er 5, *55F. / Namara was a mem)er o% a (.S. delegation led )y the Coun il on #oreign Relations urrently on a %our?day 2isit in .anoi to dis uss a 1ro1osed on%eren e on the Vietnam War to take 1la e sometime in *556. Ro)ert / Namara died in his slee1 at his Washington, D.C. home on "uly 6, 3AA5. 70etty :mages9

.anoi !rmy /useum Dire tor Colonel Nguyen &rong Dai 7 enter9 gi2es (.S. Senator "ohn $erry 7le%t9 the %lying helmet o% (.S. Senator "ohn / Cain in .anoi, Red Vietnam some time in *553. Senator "ohn / Cain is a retired (.S. Na2y 1ilot who was shot down o2er .anoi in *56@ during the Vietnam War and s1ent some time in North Vietnam as a 1risoner?o%?war. Senator "ohn $erry, hairman o% the Senate Sele t Committee on P;W8/:! issues, held talks on the %ate o% (.S. ser2i emen still listed as missing %rom the Vietnam War on No2em)er *>, *553. 7.oang Dinh Nam8!#P80etty :mages9

Red Vietnams De1uty Prime /inister 7and later Prime /inister9 Nguyen &an Dung 7le%t9 meets with (.S. Senator "ohn / Cain on Ca1itol .ill in Washington D.C. on De em)er **, 3AA*. 7"oy e Nalt hayan8!#P80etty :mages9

Se retary o% De%ense William S. Cohen shakes hands with Red Vietnams Prime /inister Phan Van $hai 7le%t9 in his .anoi o%%i e on /ar h *4, 3AAA. 7Photo+ (.S. De1artment o% De%ense9

President Bill Clinton stands in %ront o% a statue o% .o Chi /inh 7le%t9 and )ows to the Red Vietnamese %lag 7right9.

Se retary o% De%ense Ro)ert /. 0ates es orts Red Vietnams Prime /inister Nguyen &an Dung 7le%t9 through an honor ordon and into the Pentagon on "une 3=, 3AA>. 7De1artment o% De%ense 1hoto )y R.D. Ward9

Le%t 1hoto+ (.S. De1uty Se retary o% State "ohn Negro1onte 7le%t9 shakes hands with Red VietnamHs Prime /inister Nguyen &an Dung at the 0o2ernment ;%%i e in .anoi Se1tem)er **, 3AA>. 7Reuters9 Right 1hoto+ Congressman Ste1hen ". SolarI 7le%t9 listens to Le /ai, the De1uty #oreign /inister o% Red Vietnam, at the .arold Pratt .ouse on Se1tem)er @, *55A. 7Photo+ Coun il on #oreign Relations !nnual Re1ort9

World Bank President Ro)ert B. Joelli k listens to Red VietnamHs Prime /inister Nguyen &an Dung in .anoi on !ugust 6, 3AA@. 7G &he World Bank9

De%ense Se retary Donald Rums%eld 7le%t9 meets with Prime /inister o% Red Vietnam Phan Van $hai in %ront o% a )ust o% Communist terrorist .o Chi /inh in .anoi on "une F, 3AA6. 7#rank Jeller8!#P80etty :mages9

(.S. Se retary o% De%ense Ro)ert 0ates walks with VietnamHs /inister o% De%ense 0eneral Phung Kuang &hanh in .anoi, Vietnam on ; to)er **, 3A*A. 0ates was in the region to attend a meeting o% de%ense ministers %rom around the !sia?Pa i%i region. 7Photo )y Pool80etty :mages9

(.S. De%ense Se retary Ro)ert /. 0ates, le%t, talks with Vietnams Prime /inister Nguyen &an Dung at the 1rime ministerHs o%%i e in .anoi, Vietnam on ; to)er **, 3A*A. 7(.S. De1artment o% De%ense 1hoto )y (.S. !ir #or e /aster Sgt. "erry /orrison9

Lawren e .. Summers 7le%t9, President o% .ar2ard (ni2ersity, shakes hands with Phan Van $hai, Prime /inister o% Red Vietnam, a%ter their meeting in /assa husetts .all at .ar2ard (ni2ersity in Cam)ridge, /assa husetts on "une 3>, 3AAF. 7Sta%% 1hoto )y Rose Lin oln8.ar2ard News ;%%i e, .ar2ard (ni2ersity9

Vietnam 7ar e S,ecial Anterest: 2ilder"erg (rou,

Prin e Bernhard o% the Netherlands 1resides o2er the %irst Bilder)erg /eetings in ;oster)eek, Netherlands in /ay *5F=. &he Bilder)erg /eetings were held while the 0ene2a Con%eren e on :ndo hina was in session.

Da2id Ro ke%eller 7le%t9 and his daughter Ne2a Ro ke%eller greet So2iet Premier Nikita $hrush he2 at the $remlin in /os ow in *56=. &his 1hotogra1h was 1u)lished in Da2id Ro ke%ellers auto)iogra1hy Me)oirs.

President Dwight D. -isenhower 7right9 and Prin e Bernhard o% the Netherlands enEoy a laugh together )e%ore their lun heon meeting at the White .ouse in Washington, D.C. on /ar h 6, *5F=. &he Prin e was in the (nited States on an industrial ins1e tion tour. 7Bettmann8C;RB:S9

Prin e Bernhard o% &he Netherlands talks to President Ri hard Ni'on.

President on%ers with %oreign 1oli y ad2isors. President "ohn #. $ennedy 7right9 s heduled to make ru ial old war address )e%ore the (nited Nations 0eneral !ssem)ly on Se1tem)er 3F, on%ers with his to1 %oreign 1oli y ad2isors at the Carlyle .otel in New <ork City on Se1tem)er 3=, *56*. Seated le%t to right are+ "ohn ". / Cloy, Chie% (.S. Disarmament NegotiatorB !rthur .. Dean, .ead Nu lear &est Ban NegotiatorB and Se retary o% State Dean Rusk. / Cloy, Dean, and Rusk were mem)ers o% the Coun il on #oreign Relations and Bilder)erg /eetings 1arti i1ants. 7Bettmann8C;RB:S9

0eorge C. / 0hee, new (.S. !m)assador to West 0ermany, alls on President "ohn #. $ennedy at the White .ouse on /ay *=, *564 to 1ay a %arewell all )e%ore re1orting to his new 1ost, and to dis uss the PresidentHs %orth oming 2isit to 0ermany. 0eorge C. / 0hee was a mem)er o% the Coun il on #oreign Relations, a Bilder)erg /eetings 1arti i1ant, and a Rhodes S holar. 7Bettmann8C;RB:S9

Vi e President Lyndon B. "ohnson talks with di1lomat !rthur .. Dean 7le%t9 in 0ene2a, SwitIerland in !1ril *56*. !rthur .. Dean was a regular Bilder)erg /eetings 1arti i1ant. 7Photo+ .ank Walker8&ime Li%e9

Nota"le 2ilder"erg 3eetings Partici,ants during the Vietnam 7ar

/eetings !ttended FA =3 4> 4@ 46 46 44 4* 3@ 3= 34 34 33 3* 3A *5 *> *@ *6 *6 *6 *F *F *F *4 *A *A *A *A
5 5 @ @ 6 = = 4 4 4 3

Name Da2id Ro ke%eller ;tto Wol%% 2on !merongen 0eorge W. Ball .enry $issinger Sir -ri Roll 7Lord Roll o% :1sden9 0io2anni !gnelli -rnst .. 2an der Beugel .enry ". .einI :: /a' $ohnstamm Prin e Bernhard o% the Netherlands "ose1h -. "ohnson !nthony 0.S. 0ri%%in /. Nuri Birgi /ar us Wallen)erg 7"r.9 "ose1h /.!... Luns Lei% .oegh -milio 0. Collado Charles / C. /athias "r. Sir #rederi Bennett Wil%rid S. Baumgartner Baron Snoy et dH;11uers ;tto 0rieg &idemand 0a)riel .auge She1ard Stone !rthur .. Dean 0eorge C. / 0hee Ro)ert D. /ur1hy "ames !. Perkins William P. Bundy
.elmut S hmidt -dmond de Roths hild Paul .. NitIe J)igniew BrIeIinski Bill D. /oyers "ohn ". / Cloy Charles /. S1o%%ord Dean Rusk Ro)ert S. / Namara / 0eorge Bundy &homas L. .ughes

Country (.S.!. 0ermany (.S.!. (.S.!. 0reat Britain :taly Netherlands (.S.!. :nternational Netherlands (.S.!. Canada &urkey Sweden Netherlands Norway (.S.!. (.S.!. 0reat Britain #ran e Belgium Norway (.S.!. (.S.!. (.S.!. (.S.!. (.S.!. (.S.!. (.S.!.
0ermany #ran e (.S.!. (.S.!. (.S.!. (.S.!. (.S.!. (.S.!. (.S.!. (.S.!. (.S.!.

; u1ation Chairman, Chase /anhattan Bank Chairman, &rilateral Commission Chairman, Coun il on #oreign Relations Chairman and C-; o% ;tto Wol%% 0m). (.S. Re1resentati2e to (nited NationsB (nder Se retary o% State Se retary o% State National Se urity !d2isor Chairman, S.0. War)urg , Co., Ltd. Chairman, #:!& Pro%essor o% :nternational Relations, Leiden (ni2ersity in the Netherlands Chairman, ..". .einI , Co. President, -uro1ean (ni2ersity in #loren e, :taly President, Carnegie -ndowment %or :nternational Pea e Chairman, &riar h Cor1oration Ltd. #ormer &urkish !m)assador to N!&; Chairman, #ederation o% Swedish :ndustries N!&; Se retary?0eneral 7*5@*?*5>=9 Shi1owner -'e uti2e Vi e President, -''on Cor1. (.S. Senator /em)er o% Parliament President, Rhone?Poulen S.!. /inister o% #inan e /inister o% De%ense Chairman o% the )oard o% /anu%a turers .ano2er &rust Co. Dire tor o% :nternational !%%airs at #ord #oundation 7*5F=?*56>9 Partner o% Sulli2an , Cromwell Slaw %irmT (.S. !m)assador to West 0ermany (.S. !m)assador to Belgium 7*5=5?F39 President o% Cornell (ni2ersity -ditor, 0orei+n /%%airs magaIine
Chan ellor o% West 0ermany 7*5@=?*5>39 :nternational #inan ier Se retary o% the Na2y Pro%essor at Colum)ia (ni2ersity S1e ial !ssistant to the (.S. President Chairman, Coun il on #oreign Relations /em)er o% Da2is, Polk , Wardwell Se retary o% State President o% the World Bank National Se urity !d2isor President o% Carnegie -ndowment %or :nternational Pea e

<ears !ttended 7*5F=?*5FF, *5F@?*5F>, *56*?*5@3, *5@=?*5@F, *5@@?*5>F, *5>@?3AA6, 3AA>?3AA5, 3A**9 7*5FF, *5F@, *56A?*5@F, *5@@?*5>A, *5>3?3AA*9 7*5F=, *5FF, *5F@?*5F>, *56A?*5@F, *5@@?*5549 7*5F@, *56=, *5@*, *5@@?*5@>, *5>A? *553, *55=?3AA>, 3A*A?3A*49 7*56=, *566, *56@, *565?*5@F, *5@@? 3AA39 7*5F@?*5F>, *56A, *563?*5@A, *5@3? *5@F, *5@@?*5@5, *5>*, *5>=?*55>, 3AAA9 7*56A?*5@F, *5@@?*5>=, *5>>?*55=, *55@?*55>9 7*5F=, *5FF, *5F@?*5F>, *56A?*5@F, *5@@?*5>69 7*56*?*56=, *56@, *565?*5@F, *5@@, *5@5?*5>A, *5>3, *5>=, *5>6?*5>5, *55*?*553, *55=?*556, *55>9 7*5F=?*5@F9 7*5FF, *5F@?*5F>, *56A?*5@F, *5@@, *5@>, *5>A9 7*564?*5@F, *5@@?*5@>, *5>A, *5>4, *5>6?*5>>, *55*, *554, *5569 7*5F@, *5F>, *56*?*5@F, *5@@, *5>A, *5>4, *5>F9 7*5F@?*5F>, *56A, *563?*56@, *565? *5@F, *5@@?*5>*9 7*56=?*5@F, *5@@?*5>=9 7*5F=, *5F@, *5F>, *56A?*5@=9 7*56*?*5@F, *5@@?*5@>, *5>A9 7*56@, *56>, *5@A, *5@3, *5@=, *5@F, *5>*, *5>=?*5549 7*563, *56F?*5@F, *5@@?*5>A9 7*5F@, *5F>, *56A, *563?*5@=9 7*56A?*56>, *5@3?*5@F, *5@@?*5@>, *5>A9 7*56@?*5@F, *5@@?*5>A, *5>3, *5>=9 7*5FF, *5F@?*5F>, *56*?*56=, *566, *56>?*5@3, *5@=, *5@>9 7*5F@, *56*, *56=?*5@F, *5>A9 7*5F@, *564?*5@4, *5@F9 7*5F=, *5FF, *5F@?*5F>, *56*, *564? *56@9 7*5FF, *5F@, *56A, *563?*56=, *566? *56>, *5@39 7*564, *56F, *56@?*56>, *5@*?*5@F, *5>A9 7*5@4, *5@@?*5>*, *5>4?*5>F, *55A9
7*566?*56@, *565, *5@4?*5@=, *5@@, *5>A, *5>4, *5>69 7*56>?*5@F, *5@@9 7*5F=, *5FF, *5F@?*5F>, *56*, *5649 7*566, *56>, *5@3?*5@4, *5@F, *5@>, *5>F9 7*56@?*5@*, *5@49 7*5F>, *56=?*5669 7*5FF, *56*, *564, *5669 7*5FF, *5F@, *5659 7*56>?*565, *5@F9 7*5F@, *56=, *5>A9 7*5@*?*5@39

Notable 4ilderberg 1eetings .articipants during the ?ietnam +ar

"ohn ". / Cloy S!meri aT Chairman o% the Coun il on #oreign Relations 7*5F4?*5@A9

Da2id Ro ke%eller S!meri aT President o% Chase /anhattan Bank 7*56*?*5659

Prin e Bernhard o% &he Netherlands

0eorge W. Ball (nder (.S. Se retary o% State 7*56*?*5669

!rthur .. Dean S!meri aT Partner o% Sulli2an , Cromwell Slaw %irm in New <ork CityT 7*535?*5@69

Walter .allstein President o% the -uro1ean Commission 7*5F>?*56@9

"ose1h /.!... Luns /inister o% #oreign !%%airs o% the Netherlands 7*5F6? *5@*9B Se retary?0eneral o% N!&; 7*5@*?*5>=9

0eorge D. Woods President o% &he World Bank 7*564?*56>9 /anlio Brosio Se retary?0eneral o% N!&; 7*56=?*5@*9 Pierre?Paul S hweitIer /anaging Dire tor o% :nternational /onetary #und 7*564?*5@49

;tto Wol%% 2on !merongen SWest 0ermanyT Chairman and C-; o% ;tto Wol%% 0m).

0io2anni !gnelli S:talyT Chairman o% #iat S:talian ar om1anyT 7*566?*5569

-rnst .. 2an der Beugel SNetherlandsT Pro%essor o% :nternational Relations at Leiden (ni2ersity

/ar us Wallen)erg "r. SSwedenT Chairman o% #ederation o% Swedish :ndustries

Wil%rid S. Baumgartner #inan e /inister o% #ran e 7*56A?*5639B 0o2ernor, BanCue de #ran e 7*5=5?*56A9

&horkil $ristensen Se retary?0eneral o% ;rganiIation %or - onomi Coo1eration and De2elo1ment 7;-CD9 7*56*?*5659

"onkheer -mile 2an Lenne1 Se retary?0eneral o% ;rganiIation %or - onomi Coo1eration and De2elo1ment 7*565?*5>=9

"elle JiElstra Chairman o% the Board and President o% the Bank %or :nternational Settlements 7*56@?*5>*9

-dmond de Roths hild S#ran eT "ewish )anker

Lord 7-ri 9 Roll o% :1sden Chairman, S.0. War)urg , Co., Ltd. 7*5@=?*5>49B dire tor o% the Bank o% -ngland 7*56>?*5@@9

Denis .ealey S0reat BritainT Se retary o% State %or De%en e 7*56=?*5@A9

/i hael Stewart 7Lord Stewart o% #ulham9 S0reat BritainT #oreign Se retary 7*56F?*566, *56>?*5@A9

.arold Wilson Prime /inister o% 0reat Britain 7*56=?*5@A, *5@=?*5@69

"ames Callaghan Chan ellor o% the -' heCuer 7*56=?*56@9

Sir -dward R.0. .eath Prime /inister o% 0reat Britain 7*5@A?*5@=9B Leader o% the British Conser2ati2e Party 7*56F?*5@F9

Lester B. Pearson Prime /inister o% Canada 7*564?*56>9

BEarni Benediktsson Prime /inister o% : eland 7*564?*5@A9

0aston De%%erre /ayor o% /arseille, #ran e 7*5==?*5=F, *5F4?*5>69

"ens ;tto $rag Prime /inister o% Denmark 7*563?*56>, *5@*?*5@39

&age #. -rlander Prime /inister o% Sweden 7*5=6?*5659

Ludwig -rhard Chan ellor o% West 0ermany 7*564?*5669

$urt 0eorg $iesinger Chan ellor o% West 0ermany 7*566?*5659

0erhard S hrYder /inister o% #oreign !%%airs 7*56*?*5669 and De%en e /inister 7*566?*5659 o% West 0ermanyB former Member of the Na8i +art,

#ranI "ose% Strauss /inister o% #inan e 7*566? *5659 and /inister o% De%ense 7*5F6?*5639 o% West 0ermany

.ermann ". !)s S0ermanyT #ormer Chairman o% the Su1er2isory Board o% Deuts he Bank !0B former Na8i collaborator

.u)ert !nsiau' 0o2ernor o% the National Bank o% Belgium 7*5F@?*5@*9

0uido Carli 0o2ernor o% Ban a d:talia 7*56A?*5@F9

;tto 0rieg &idemand De%ense /inister o% Norway 7*56F?*5@A9

!mintore #an%ani #oreign /inister o% :taly 7*5F>?*5F5, /ay *563, *56F, *566?*56>9

Sir #rank $enyon Ro)erts British !m)assador to the So2iet (nion 7*56A?*5639B British !m)assador to West 0ermany 7*564?*56>9

Dean Rusk (.S. Se retary o% State 7*56*?*5659

Paul .. NitIe Se retary o% the Na2y 7*564?*56@9B De1uty Se retary o% De%ense 7*56@?*5659

Ro)ert S. / Namara (.S. Se retary o% De%ense 7*56*?*56>9B President o% &he World Bank 7*56>?*5>*9

0eorge C. / 0hee (.S. !m)assador to West 0ermany 7*564?*56>9

Da2id $.-. Bru e (.S. !m)assador to 0reat Britain 7*56*?*5659

"ames !. Perkins President o% Cornell (ni2ersity 7*564?*5659

0a)riel .auge Chairman o% the )oard o% /anu%a turers .ano2er &rust Co. 7*5@*?*5@59

"ose1h -. "ohnson President o% Carnegie -ndowment %or :nternational Pea e 7*5FA?*5@*9

-milio 0. Collado S!meri aT -'e uti2e Vi e President o% -''on Cor1. Soil om1anyT 7*566?*5@F9

..". .einI :: S!meri aT Chairman o% the )oard o% ..". .einI Com1any 7*5F5?*5>@9

.enry !. $issinger (.S. Se retary o% State 7*5@4?*5@@9B National Se urity !d2isor 7*565?*5@F9

J)igniew BrIeIinski National Se urity !d2isor 7*5@@?*5>*9B Dire tor o% Resear h :nstitute %or :nternational Change 7*563?*5@@9

0en. Lyman L. LemnitIer Su1reme !llied Commander o% -uro1e 7*564?*5659

William P. Bundy !ssistant Se retary o% State %or -ast !sian and Pa i%i !%%airs 7*56=?*5659

Charles / C. /athias "r. (.S. Senator 7Re1u)li an?/aryland, *565?*5>@9

Vietnam 7ar e S,ecial Anterest: American Bhodes Scholars

President Lyndon B. "ohnson 7%oreground9 meets with 7le%t to right9 (nder Se retary o% State Nicholas <at8enbach, National Se urity !d2isor alt Rosto7, Se retary o% De%ense?designate Clark Cli%%ord, and Se retary o% State Dean R!sk at the White .ouse on #e)ruary F, *56>. 7Photo+ #rank Wol%e, Lyndon B. "ohnson Presidential Li)rary9

(.S. Senator =$ illiam (!lbright hats with (.S. Se retary o% State Dean R!sk 1rior to Rusks testimony )e%ore the SenateHs #oreign Relations Committee, haired )y #ul)right, on erning !meri as in2ol2ement in South Vietnam on #e)ruary *>, *566. 7Photo )y 0ene #orte8Pi torial Parade80etty :mages9

Rhodes S holars and Coun il on #oreign Relations /em)ers

0eorge C. / 0hee (.S. !m)assador to West 0ermany 7*564?*56>9

Ni holas $atIen)a h (.S. !ttorney 0eneral 7*56=?*5669

Dean Rusk (.S. Se retary o% State 7*56*?*5659

Walt W. Rostow National Se urity !d2isor 7*566?*5659

.arlan B. Cle2eland (.S. Re1resentati2e to N!&; 7*56F?*5659

Ro)ert V. Roosa Partner o% Brown Brothers .arriman , Co. S)ankT 7*56F?*5549

Charles -. SaltIman Partner o% 0oldman, Sa hs , Co. S)ankT 7*5F6?*5@49

!l%red .ayes President o% #ederal Reser2e Bank o% New <ork 7*5F6?*5@F9

&homas L. .ughes President o% Carnegie -ndowment %or :nternational Pea e 7*5@*?*55*9

Whitney .. She1ardson Dire tor o% Coun il on #oreign Relations 7*53*?*5669

Charles ". .it h President o% (ni2ersity o% Cali%ornia at Berkeley 7*56@?*5@F9

#rederi k L. .o2de President o% Purdue (ni2ersity 7*5=6?*5@*9

Lin oln 0ordon President o% "ohns .o1kins (ni2ersity 7*56@?*5@*9

$ermit 0ordon President o% &he Brookings :nstitution 7*56@?*5@@9

William -. Ste2enson President o% !s1en :nstitute So% .umanisti StudiesT 7*56@?*5@A9

/yres S. / Dougal Pro%essor o% Law at <ale (ni2ersity 7*545?*5@F9

Charles C. Collingwood Chie% #oreign Corres1ondent %or CBS 7*566?*5@F9

.edley Dono2an -ditor?in?Chie% o% &ime, :n . 7*56=?*5@59

"ohn B. ;akes -ditorial Page -ditor o% The Ne" 1or$ Ti)es 7*56*?*5@@9

0en. Charles .. Bonesteel ::: Commander, (.S. >th !rmy S$oreaT 7*566?*5659

;ther Prominent Rhodes S holars

"ohn Brademas (.S. Congressman 7D?:ndiana, *5F5?*5>*9

Carl !l)ert S1eaker o% the .ouse 7*5@*?*5@@9

". William #ul)right (.S. Senator 7D?!rkansas, *5=F?*5@=9

Byron R. White "usti e o% the (.S. Su1reme Court 7*563?*5549

"ohn /. .arlan :: "usti e o% the (.S. Su1reme Court 7*5FF?*5@*9

.oward $. Smith Co?!n hor o% !BC -2ening News 7*565?*5@F9

-rwin D. Canham -ditor?in?Chie% o% !hristian Science Monitor 7*56=?*5@=9

/aE. 0en. Bernard W. Rogers Commanding 0eneral o% Fth :n%antry Di2ision S#t. CarsonT 7*565?*5@A9

"ohn &. / Naughton !ssistant Se retary o% De%ense %or :nternational Se urity !%%airs 7*56=?*56@9

/orris B. !)ram Partner o% Paul, Weiss, Ri%kind, Wharton , 0arrison Slaw %irm in New <ork CityT 7*563?*56>, *5@A?*5>59

Courtney C. Smith President o% Swarthmore College 7*5F4?*5659

-l2is ". Stahr "r. President o% :ndiana (ni2ersity 7*563?*56>9

"ames /. .ester President o% New <ork (ni2ersity 7*563?*5@F9

Wilson .. -lkins President o% (ni2ersity o% /aryland 7*5F=?*5@>9

-dgar #. Shannon "r. President o% (ni2ersity o% Virginia 7*5F5?*5@=9

Ro)ert .. -)ert Dean o% .ar2ard /edi al S hool 7*56F?*5@@9

Carleton B. Cha1man Dean o% Dartmouth /edi al S hool 7*566?*5@49

Don $. Pri e "r. Dean o% 0raduate S hool o% Pu)li !dministration at .ar2ard (ni2ersity 7*5F>?*5@@9

Samuel .ut hison Beer Pro%essor o% 0o2ernment at .ar2ard (ni2ersity 7*5F4?*5>39

Daniel ". Boorstin Pro%essor o% !meri an .istory at the (ni2ersity o% Chi ago 7*5F6?*5659

Rhodes S holars , Vietnam War 7*56=?*5@49 0o2ernment ;%%i ials+ ZDean Rusk W (.S. Se retary o% State 7*56*?*5659 ZWalt W. Rostow W National Se urity !d2isor 7*566?*5659 Z0eorge C. / 0hee W (nder Se retary o% State %or Politi al !%%airs 7*56*?*5649B (.S. !m)assador to West 0ermany 7*564?*56>9 Z.arlan B. Cle2eland W (.S. Re1resentati2e to N!&; 7*56F?*5659 ZPhili1 /. $aiser W /inister at (.S. -m)assy in London 7*56=?659B Chairman o% -n y lo1edia Britanni a :nternational Ltd., London 7*565?@F9 ZNi holas de B. $atIen)a h W (nder (.S. Se retary o% State 7*566?*5659B (.S. !ttorney 0eneral 7*56F?*5669 Z"ohn &. / Naughton W !ssistant Se retary o% De%ense %or :nternational Se urity !%%airs 7*56=?*56@9 ". William #ul)right W (.S. Senator 7Demo rat?!rkansas, *5=F?*5@=9 Carl B. !l)ert W /em)er o% the (.S. .ouse o% Re1resentati2es 7Demo rat?;klahoma, *5=@?*5@@9B S1eaker o% the .ouse 7*5@*?*5@@9 Z"ohn Brademas W /em)er o% the (.S. .ouse o% Re1resentati2es 7Demo rat?:ndiana, *5F5?*5>*9 "ohn /arshall .arlan :: W "usti e o% the (.S. Su1reme Court 7*5FF?*5@*9 Byron R. White W "usti e o% the (.S. Su1reme Court 7*563?*5549 BenEamin Cushing Duniway W "udge o% the (.S. Court o% !11eals %or the Ninth Cir uit SSan #ran is oT 7*56*?*5@69 0en. Charles .. Bonesteel ::: W Commanding 0eneral o% (.S. >th !rmy S$oreaT 7*566?*5659 ZBrig. 0en. 0eorge !. Lin oln W .ead o% the De1artment o% So ial S ien es at (.S. /ilitary ! ademy 7*5F=?*5659 ZBrig. 0en. !mos !. "ordan W .ead o% the De1artment o% So ial S ien es at (.S. /ilitary ! ademy 7*565?*5@39 Z/aE. 0en. Bernard W. Rogers W Commanding 0eneral o% Fth :n%antry Di2ision S#t. Carson, ColoradoT 7*565?*5@A9B Commandant o% Cadets at (.S. /ilitary ! ademy 7*56@?*5659 Bankers and Businessmen+ ZRo)ert V. Roosa W Partner o% Brown Brothers .arriman , Co. S)ank in New <ork CityT 7*56F?*5549 ZCharles -. SaltIman W Partner o% 0oldman, Sa hs , Co. S)ank in New <ork CityT 7*5F6?*5@49 Z!l%red .ayes W President o% the #ederal Reser2e Bank o% New <ork 7*5F6?*5@F9 William S. Vaughn W Chairman o% the )oard o% -astman $odak Co. S ameraT 7*56@?*5@A9 ZCharles #in h Bar)er W Chairman and C-; 7*5@*?*5>39 and President 7*565?*5@*9 o% !meri an Smelting and Re%ining Co. Z0eorge Bar)er /unroe W President o% Phel1s Dodge Cor1. Smining om1anyT 7*566?*5@F9 "ames Ross /a donald W Vi e President %or Cor1orate Resear h at &e'as :nstruments :n . S al ulatorsT 7*56>?*5@=9 Z&om $ille%er W 0eneral Counsel o% Chrysler Cor1. Sautomo)ileT 7*566?*5@F9 Cor1orate Lawyers+ Z/orris B. !)ram W Partner o% Paul, Weiss, Ri%kind, Wharton , 0arrison Slaw %irm in New <ork CityT 7*563?*56>, *5@A?*5>59B President o% Brandeis (ni2ersity 7*56>?*5@A9 "ohn W. Di key W Partner o% Sulli2an , Cromwell Slaw %irm in New <ork CityT 7*564?*55>9 Z#owler .amilton W Partner o% Cleary, 0ottlie), Steen , .amilton Slaw %irm in New <ork CityT 7*5=6?*56*, *564?*5>=9 Z#ran is D. Logan W Partner o% /il)ank, &weed, .adley , / Cloy Slaw %irm in New <ork CityT 7*56F?*5569 "a k Burton "usti e W Partner o% Drinker, Biddle , Reath Slaw %irm in Philadel1hiaT 7*563?*5>39 "ohn L. /oore "r. W Partner o% !lston , Bird Slaw %irm in !tlantaT 7*5F6?*5@@9 .omer Lindsey Bru e W Partner o% Baker Botts Slaw %irm in .oustonT 7*535?*5@59 Z-well -. /ur1hy "r. W Partner o% Baker Botts Slaw %irm in .oustonT 7*56=?*5549 College Presidents, Deans, and Pro%essors+ ZCharles ". .it h W President o% (ni2ersity o% Cali%ornia at Berkeley 7*56@?*5@F9 ZLin oln 0ordon W President o% "ohns .o1kins (ni2ersity 7*56@?*5@*9 Z#rederi k L. .o2de W President o% Purdue (ni2ersity 7*5=6?*5@*9 Z"ames /. .ester W President o% New <ork (ni2ersity 7*563?*5@F9 -l2is ". Stahr "r. W President o% :ndiana (ni2ersity 7*563?*56>9B Se retary o% the !rmy 7*56*?*5639 -dgar #. Shannon "r. W President o% (ni2ersity o% Virginia 7*5F5?*5@=9 Wilson .. -lkins W President o% (ni2ersity o% /aryland 7*5F=?*5@>9B Class C Dire tor o% #ederal Reser2e Bank o% Ri hmond 7*564?*5@*9 Willard Deming Lewis W President o% Lehigh (ni2ersity SPennsyl2aniaT 7*56=?*5>39 Courtney Craig Smith W President o% Swarthmore College SPennsyl2aniaT 7*5F4?*5659 &homas C. /endenhall :: W President o% Smith College Swomens ollege in /assa husettsT 7*5F5?*5@F9 Ro)ert William /a Vi ar W Chan ellor o% Southern :llinois (ni2ersity 7*56>?*5@A9 Z7Col.9 Wesley W. Pos2ar W Chan ellor o% the (ni2ersity o% Pitts)urgh 7*56@?*55*9 ZDon $. Pri e "r. W Dean o% the 0raduate S hool o% Pu)li !dministration at .ar2ard (ni2ersity 7*5F>?*5@@9 Ro)ert .. -)ert W Dean o% .ar2ard /edi al S hool 7*56F?*5@@9 Carleton B. Cha1man W Dean o% Dartmouth /edi al S hool 7*566?*5@49 Donald Wayne &aylor W Dean o% 0raduate S hool at <ale (ni2ersity 7*565? .*5@F9 Nathaniel Bernard Blum)erg W Dean o% S hool o% "ournalism at (ni2ersity o% /ontana 7*5F6?*56>9 ZSte2en /uller W Pro2ost o% "ohns .o1kins (ni2ersity 7*5@*?*5@39B Vi e President %or Pu)li !%%airs at Cornell (ni2ersity 7*566?*5@*9 ZSamuel .ut hison Beer W Pro%essor o% 0o2ernment at .ar2ard (ni2ersity 7*5F4?*5>39 Z"ohn $ing #air)ank W Pro%essor o% .istory at .ar2ard (ni2ersity 7*5F5?*5@39 "ohn Phili1 Dawson W Pro%essor o% Law at .ar2ard Law S hool 7*5F@?*5@49 Z/yres S. / Dougal W Pro%essor o% Law at <ale (ni2ersity 7*545?*5@F9 Ro)ert Penn Warren W Pro%essor o% -nglish at <ale (ni2ersity 7*56*?*5@49 !. Walton LitI W Pro%essor o% -nglish Literature at Prin eton (ni2ersity 7*5F6?*5549 -dward Dudley .ume "ohnson W Pro%essor o% -nglish at Prin eton (ni2ersity 7*56*?*5@@9 Ro)ert P. .amilton W Pro%essor o% Law at Colum)ia (ni2ersity 7*54@?*5@A9 .arry Willmer "ones W Pro%essor o% Law and "uris1ruden e at Colum)ia (ni2ersity 7*5=@?*5@59

Z.enry Lithgow Ro)erts W Pro%essor o% .istory at Colum)ia (ni2ersity 7*5F6?*56@9B Pro%essor o% .istory at Dartmouth College 7*56@?*5@39 Penn &. $im)all :: W Pro%essor o% "ournalism at Colum)ia (ni2ersity 0raduate S hool o% "ournalism 7*5F5?*5>F9 Daniel ". Boorstin W Pro%essor o% !meri an .istory at the (ni2ersity o% Chi ago 7*5F6?*5659 Chaun y Dennison .arris W Pro%essor o% 0eogra1hy at (ni2ersity o% Chi ago 7*5=@?*5>=9 Z0ordon !. Craig W Pro%essor o% .istory at Stan%ord (ni2ersity 7*56*?3AAF9 ZCarl B. S1aeth W William Nelson Cromwell Pro%essor o% Law at Stan%ord (ni2ersity 7*563?*5@39 /orris #rank Sha%%er W Pro%essor o% /i ro)iology at &ulane (ni2ersity 7*5=4?*5@49 #erdinand #air%a' Stone W Pro%essor o% Law at &ulane (ni2ersity 7*5=>?*5@59 Charles &. Da2is W Pro%essor o% .istory at &ulane (ni2ersity 7*56=?*55>9 &hornton Leigh Page W Pro%essor o% !stronomy at Wesleyan (ni2ersity 7*5F>?*5@*9 0eorge Claren e $ent W Pro%essor o% Plant Pathology at Cornell (ni2ersity 7*5=F?*5@F9 "ournalists+ Z.owland .. Sargeant W President o% Radio Li)erty8Radio #ree -uro1e 7*5F=?*5@F9 ZCharles C. Collingwood W Chie% #oreign Corres1ondent %or CBS 7*566?*5@F9 .oward $. Smith W Co?!n hor o% !BC -2ening News 7*565?*5@F9 Z.edley Dono2an W -ditor?in?Chie% o% &ime, :n . 7*56=?*5@59 Willie /orris W -ditor?in?Chie% o% 6arper7s Ma+a8ine 7*56@?*5@*9 Z-rwin D. Canham W -ditor?in?Chie% o% !hristian Science Monitor 7*56=?*5@=9 Z"ohn B. ;akes W -ditorial Page -ditor o% The Ne" 1or$ Ti)es 7*56*?*5@@9 ;rganiIation -'e uti2es+ Z&homas L. .ughes W President o% Carnegie -ndowment %or :nternational Pea e 7*5@*?*55*9B (.S. State De1artment Dire tor o% :ntelligen e and Resear h 7*564?*5659 Z$ermit 0ordon W President o% &he Brookings :nstitution 7*56@?*5@@9 ZWilliam -. Ste2enson W President o% !s1en :nstitute So% .umanisti StudiesT 7*56@?*5@A9 ZWaldemar !ugust Nielsen W President o% !%ri an?!meri an :nstitute 7*56*?*5@A9 $arl 0ottlie) .arr, "r. W President o% !eros1a e :ndustries !sso iation o% !meri a, :n . 7*564?*5>@9 Ro)ert Caldwell Bates W Se retary o% Ro ke%eller Brothers #und 7*5F3?*5@49 ZCharles 0. Bolte W Vi e President o% Carnegie -ndowment %or :nternational Pea e 7*566?*5@*9 Larkin .undley #arinholt W Vi e President o% !l%red P. Sloan #oundation 7*563?*5@A9 ZRal1h $ir)y Da2idson W De1uty Dire tor %or .umanities and So ial S ien es at the Ro ke%eller #oundation 7*56=?*5@A9 ZRi hard .enry Nolte W -'e uti2e Dire tor o% :nstitute o% Current World !%%airs 7*5F5?*5@>9B (.S. !m)assador to -gy1t 7*56@9 Note+ ZQmem)er o% the Coun il on #oreign Relations

Vietnam 7ar e S,ecial Anterest: S<ull e 2ones

Congressman 0-;R0- ..W. B(S. 7le%t9 2isits !meri an military 1ersonnel on his tri1 to Southeast !sia SVietnamT, %rom De em)er 36, *56@ through "anuary **, *56>, 1rior to the &et ;%%ensi2e. 7Photo+ 0eorge Bush Presidential Li)rary and /useum9 7Note+ C!PS Q /em)er o% Skull , Bones9

#ormer (.S. Na2y Lieutenant ";.N #;RB-S $-RR< testi%ies in %ront o% the (.S. Senate on !1ril 33, *5@*. !1ril 33 is the )irthday o% Vladimir Lenin, %ounder o% the So2iet (nion.

";.N #;RB-S $-RR< 7 enter9 a11ears with his %ellow Na2y o%%i ers in South Vietnam during the early years o% the Vietnam War.

";.N #;RB-S $-RR< 7rear, len hing his teeth9 L1rotestsM the Vietnam War with .ollywood a tress "ane #onda 7%ront9.

(.S. Congressman 0-;R0- ..W. B(S. 7R?&e'as9 smiles 1roudly as he 1ins )ars on his son 0-;R0- W. B(S. in *56>. &he )ars re1resented 0eorge W. BushHs entry as a Se ond Lieutenant into the &e'as !ir National 0uard.

(.S. Senator ". William #ul)right 7D?!rkansas, )a k to the amera9, hairman o% the Senate #oreign Relations Committee, %a es a Eammed ommittee room as his grou1 takes testimony on !1ril 33, *5@* %rom ";.N $-RR<, one o% the leaders o% a week?long anti?war demonstration )eing ondu ted )y the Vietnam Veterans !gainst the War. $erry, a three?time de orated %ormer Na2y Lieutenant 7Eunior grade9 and later (.S. Senator 7D?/!9 made a mo2ing 1lea to end the war, asking e2ery !meri an to onsider who would )e the last hosen Lto die %or a mistake.M /any o% $errys Vietnam 2eteran omrades are )ehind him listening to his 1lea. 7(P:9 htt1+88i oni 1hotos.word1ress. om83AA58A=81age838

Skull , Bones mem)er ";.N $-RR< is es orted )y 1oli e o%%i ers a%ter getting arrested during a 1rotest against the Vietnam War in an undated 1hotogra1h. ";.N $-RR< is a mem)er o% the Coun il on #oreign Relations.

D!V:D .. &.;RN- 7le%t9 talks to ";.N $-RR< at an anti?Vietnam War 1rotest. D!V:D .. &.;RN- is President Bara k ;)amas (.S. !m)assador to :talyB ";.N $-RR< is a (.S. Senator.

Le%t 1hoto+ ";.N $-RR< talks to (.S. Senator &ed $ennedy in Washington D.C. on !1ril 3*, *5@*. Right 1hoto+ ";.N $-RR< and %ormer Beatles singer "ohn Lennon 7right9 1arti i1ate in an anti?Vietnam War 1rotest at New <ork Citys Bryant Park in *5@*.

Le%t to right+ !V-R-LL .!RR:/!N 7le%t9, the (nder Se retary o% State %or Politi al !%%airs, President Lyndon B. "ohnson, C:! Dire tor "ohn / Cone, C:! agent William -. Col)y 7sitting )ehind / Cone9, National Se urity !d2isor / 0-;R0- B(ND< 7se ond %rom right in the rear9, and Se retary o% De%ense Ro)ert / Namara meet in the ;2al ;%%i e in De em)er *564.

Se retary o% the Na2y ";.N C.!#-- 7 enter9 is es orted )y the Commander o% Na2al #or es Vietnam Vi e !dmiral "erry $ing as they 2isit a (.S. Na2y out1ost in the 0olden &riangle area o% the /ekong Delta o% South Vietnam on "une 3*, *5@A.

Cardinal #ran is S1ellman 7le%t9 and &ime -ditor?in?Chie% .-NR< L(C- 7right9 stand )eside South Vietnams President Ngo Dinh Diem. 7Photo+ ,uce and 6is E)pire )y W.!. Swan)erg9

.enry Ca)ot Lodge "r. 7le%t9 wat hes !ssistant Se retary o% State W:LL:!/ P. B(ND< talk to South Vietnams Premier 0en. Nguyen Cao $y in Saigon in /ar h *56@. 7!P8Wide World Photos9

(.S. !m)assador to South Vietnam /a'well &aylor wat hes National Se urity !d2isor / 0-;R0- B(ND< shake hands with (.S. !rmy 0en. William C. Westmoreland while 2isiting South Vietnam in #e)ruary *56F.

#rom le%t to right+ 0uy ". Pauker, J)igniew BrIeIinski, National Se urity !d2isor / 0-;R0- B(ND<, -ri Se2areid, .ans /orgenthau, ;. -dmund Clu)), and "ohn D. Donoghue engage in a de)ate on Vietnam War on "une 3*, *56F. 7!P8Wide World Photos9

B!RR< J;R&.:!N 7right9, head o% (S:! "oint (.S. Pu)li !%%airs ;%%i e, hats with (.S. !rmy 0en. William C. Westmoreland in Saigon, South Vietnam in *566. 7Photo+ Co Rentmeester8&ime Li%e9

Standing with three o?de%endants, %amed 1ediatri ian Dr. BenEamin S1o k 7se ond %rom le%t9 talks to news re1orters on "une *=, *56> a%ter they were on2i ted )y a %ederal Eury o% ons1iring to ounsel young men to e2ade the dra%t. Le%t to right are+ author /it hell 0oodman, S1o k, /i hael #er)er and Re2. William Sloane Co%%in "r., Cha1lain o% <ale (ni2ersity. ! %i%th de%endant, /ar us Raskin, was a Cuitted. BenEamin S1o k was a mem)er o% S roll , $eyB William Sloane Co%%in "r. was a mem)er o% Skull , Bones. 7Bettmann8C;RB:S9

!m)assador?at?Large !V-R-LL .!RR:/!N, Se retary o% State Dean Rusk 7le%t9, South Vietnamese !m)assador to the (.S. Vu Van &hai, (.S. Senator .iram #ong, and (. !le'is "ohnson 7leaning on ta)le9 talk se retly a)oard !ir #or e ;ne on #e)ruary F, *566. 7Photo+ <oi hi R. ;kamoto, Lyndon B. "ohnson Presidential Li)rary9

President Lyndon B. "ohnson 7le%t9 meets with Coun il on #oreign Relations mem)ers Walt Rostow, W:LL:!/ P. B(ND<, Cyrus Van e, and %ormer President Dwight -isenhower a)oard !ir #or e ;ne on !1ril *>, *56>. Walt Rostow, William P. Bundy, and Cyrus Van e were graduates o% <ale (ni2ersity. 7Photo+ <oi hi R. ;kamoto, Lyndon B. "ohnson Presidential Li)rary9

President Lyndon B. "ohnson 7third %rom right9 walks in the Rose 0arden on /ay >, *56> with his Vietnam War negotiators 7%rom le%t to right9 Phili1 .a)i), Cyrus Van e, 0en. !ndrew 0ood1aster, !V-R-LL .!RR:/!N, and William ". "orden.

!meri an negotiators .eyward :sham, William .. Sulli2an, .enry $issinger, 0eorge !ldri h 7standing9, W:NS&;N L;RD 7on le%t side, sitting to the right o% !ldri h9, and "ohn Negro1onte sign the surrender 1a1ers in the 1resen e o% Le Du &ho 7seated on the right side, se ond man %rom the right9 and other North Vietnamese Communist en2oys.

Peter W. Rodman, .enry $issinger, W:NS&;N L;RD, !l .aig, William Sulli2an 7ne't to .aig9, Da2id -ngel, and "ohn Negro1onte 7seated9 meet inside a hotel room in Paris in *5@4 )e%ore negotiating with the North Vietnamese Commissars.

W:NS&;N L;RD 7the man on the %ar right s rat hing his head9 makes his 1resen e at the Paris Pea e Con%eren e on "anuary 34, *5@4 while Se retary o% State .enry $issinger signs the surrender 1a1ers in %ront o% Le Du &ho and North Vietnams Commissars.

National Se urity !d2isor Brent S ow ro%t 7%ar le%t9, (.S. Senator "ohn / Cain 73 nd le%t9, (.S. Senator ";.N $-RR< 73nd right9, and (.S. Se retary o% State Lawren e -agle)urger 7right, rear9 listen to President 0-;R0- ..W. B(S. as he makes a 1risoner?o%?war announ ement on ; to)er 34, *553 in the Rose 0arden. President Bush announ ed that the Red Vietnamese go2ernment agreed to hand o2er all material on !meri an 1risoners o% war.

Senator ";.N #. $-RR< wat hes President Bill Clinton ele)rate with Senator "ohn / Cain on "uly **, *55F, %ollowing the eremony where Bill Clinton e'tended di1lomati re ognition to Red Vietnam.

Senator ";.N $-RR< greets Do /uoi, the Se retary 0eneral o% the Vietnam Communist Party, in .anoi in "uly *554.

.anoi !rmy /useum Dire tor Colonel Nguyen &rong Dai 7C9 hands to (.S. Senator ";.N #. $-RR< 7le%t9 the %lying helmet o% (.S. Senator "ohn / Cain in .anoi, Red Vietnam some time in *553. Senator "ohn / Cain is a (.S. Na2y 1ilot who was shot down o2er .anoi in *56@ during the Vietnam War. Senator $erry, hairman o% the Senate Sele t Committee on P;W8/:! issues, held talks on the %ate o% (.S. ser2i emen still listed as missing %rom the Vietnam War on No2em)er *>, *553. 7.oang Dinh Nam8!#P80etty :mages9

President 0-;R0- W. B(S. meets with Red Vietnams President Nguyen /inh &riet in the %ormer 1ala e o% the #ren h go2ernor general o% :ndo hina in .anoi on No2em)er *@, 3AA6. 7$ham8Reuters9

0B!sh5 >;o, ;o, ;o 'hi Minh, "iet 'ong is gonna 7in$ ;e,, ;e,, 6B=, ho7 man, kids did ,o! kill toda,.?3

Le%t 1hoto+ President 0-;R0- W. B(S. is seen smiling in %ront o% a statue o% .o Chi /inh. Right+ President 0-;R0- W. B(S. and Red Vietnams President Nguyen /inh &riet ins1e t their omrades in .anoi. President 0-;R0- W. B(S. has )een a used o% going !W;L in the &e'as !ir National 0uard during the Vietnam War.

President 0eorge W. Bush shakes hands with Red Vietnams President Nguyen /inh &riet in .anoi in No2em)er 3AA6.

The Living Hell of Amerasians in Vietnam

By Michael Benge FrontPageMagazine.com | Tuesday, November 22, 2005 Shunned by much of society, denied access to land, forced to work in degrading conditions, treated as virtual slaves, and routinely abused at the hands of the police and of a privileged class who enjoy the state's protection, Amerasians (mixed-race) live deplorable lives under the communist regime in Vietnam. Amerasians bore the brunt of the Vietnamese communists hatred toward America after their take over of South Vietnam in 1975. Used and abused by the communist officials, beaten at will, debased, raped and forced into prostitution, Amerasians have suffered at the hands of Vietnamese communists. Many Amerasians were rounded up by the Vietnamese communists and sent to concentration camps, where they were forced to de-activate mines with nothing more than a knife. According to one internee, only two out of eight in his section survived, six were blown up one by one in the minefields. They were told that they had to harvest what their fathers had sown; however, many of the mines were those sown by the communists themselves. When U.S. forces withdrew from Vietnam in 1975, an estimated 50,000 Amerasian children were left behind. Amerasians My lai are regarded as "bui doi" dirt or dust of life children of the enemy by the xenophobic Vietnamese communists. However, to be My lai den bui doi half-black Amerasian is the lowest of the low in the repressive Vietnamese communist society. There is a Vietnamese saying that it is better to marry the village dog than a man from somewhere else. It was commonplace for the mothers of Amerasian children to tear up their childrens birth certificate in an attempt to hide the ethnicity of their children out of fear of persecution by the communists; more so if their children were My lai den. At best, the mothers were ostracized shunned for bearing "half-breeds" because this meant that they had "collaborated" with the hated American enemy. Some mothers, fearing the new government's reaction, gave up their Amerasian children to relatives, childless couples, orphanages, or even abandoned them on the streets. As the new Communist government consolidated its power, the prejudice and discrimination Amerasians and their mothers had experienced before the War's end was institutionalized. Along with other "collaborators," Amerasians were denied educational and vocational opportunities and other social service amenities such as access to health care. Many, along with their families, were relocated to the New Economic Zones with little or no infrastructure and social services in desolate, remote, sparsely populated regions to which adherents of the former "puppet regime" were sent. Here they were gi2en land and a little %ood and told to start their li2es anew. But many o% them )e ame 2irtual sla2es. ;ut ast, des1ised, and o1enly dis riminated against, many o% the %atherless !merasians and their mothers )e ame 1art o% Pthe dust o% li%eP 7)ui doi9, the 1oorest?o%?the?1oor and %or ed to li2e on the %ringes o% Vietnamese so iety. Lo al hildren hased the !merasian hildren and 1elted them with sti ks and stones while shouting+ Pgo )a k to !meri aP or L)astard o% !meri an im1erialists.M <oung !merasian )oys and girls were o%ten ra1ed and sold into 1rostitution. Sour e+ htt1+88www.to1i'. om8%orum8world82ietnam8&-.>K5PLD/R!P.F.0

The +ternal Flame at the Kenned gra!e at Arlington National 'emeter

John McCain, Jane Fonda, & Friends

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.ollywood a tress "ane #onda entertains the Viet Cong terrorists in North Vietnam in "uly *5@3.

:n this No2em)er @, *55*, %ile 1hoto Sen. "ohn / Cain, R?!riI, is hugged )y %ormer North Vietnam Col. Bui &in on Ca1itol .ill a%ter a hearing o% the Senate Sele t Committee on P;W and /:! a%%airs. &in o2ersaw the North Vietnamese military 1rison o1eration alled the P.anoi .iltonP, where / Cain was held 1risoner during the Vietnam War. Prodded on the 3AA> am1aign trail to talk a)out his om1elling 1ersonal story, / Cain usually demurs. P:Hm 2ery relu tant to do so, as you know,P he said. 7!P Photo )y Dennis Cook9

!meri an (.S. !ir #or e 1ilot Ca1tain Charles Boyd is es orted )y his a1tors in North Vietnam to a P1risonersH gathering 1oint.P .is air ra%t was down on a mission in !1ril *566. &his 1hoto, made )y two -ast 0erman 1hotogra1hers, is 1art o% a o2er story in the ; to)er 3Ath issue o% Life Magazine sho7ing the &merican *risoners of 7ar and their lives in 'omm!nist hands, and is one of the first vie7s *!blished in &merica on o!r ca*t!red servicemen$ 'harles Bo,d retired as a 4eneral and is c!rrentl, a member of the 'o!ncil on (oreign Relations$ 7Sour e+ htt1+881i asawe).google. om8ha1hu hoan8VietNamWarUFA5*@@4A6>334=*A6*A9

! Vietnamese woman in North Vietnam es orts an !meri an airman to a 1rison am1 during the Vietnam War.

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Le%t+ Senator "ohn / Cain talks to Prime /inister o% Red Vietnam Phan Van $hai. Right+ Senator "ohn / Cain shakes hands with Red Vietnams Commissar Dung.

Le%t Pi ture+ Sen. "ohn / Cain 7le%t9 warmly greets Red Vietnams Prime /inister Vo Van $iet during a *553 2isit to .anoi. $iet was a ranking ommunist 1arty mem)er o% the se ret Central Committee o% the %ormer National Li)eration #ront 7Viet Cong9 and was 1art o% the elite liCue res1onsi)le %or setting 1oli ies and dire ting the ommunist war waged against the 1ro?demo ra y Vietnamese as well as (.S. %or es in South Vietnam. Right Pi ture+ Senator / Cain em)ra es /ai Van ;n in .anoi on No2em)er *4, *556. /ai Van ;n identi%ied himsel% as one o% the Vietnamese who 1ulled / Cain %rom .anoiHs &ru Ba h Lake, where / Cain 1ara huted in *56@ a%ter his )om)er was shot down. / Cain has said, many times, that, a%ter 1ulling him %rom the lake, the Vietnamese )rutally )eat him and sta))ed him with a )ayonet.

Commissar #ernando Barral, a S1anish 1sy hiatrist residing in Cu)a, inter2iewed P;W "ohn / Cain in an o%%i e o% the Committee %or #oreign Cultural Relations in .anoi.

Students at -ar!ard /ni!ersit ,rotest against 7illiam P. 2und . the former Assistant Secretar of State for Far +astern Affairs. for 9crimes against the ,eo,le= outside 7illiam P. 2und s home in 'am"ridge. 3assachusetts. 7illiam P. 2und 4as a mem"er of S<ull e 2ones and a mem"er of the 'ouncil on Foreign Belations. )Photo: 2ill 2rett. 2oston (lo"e*

South Vietnams President Ngo Dinh Diem 7le%t9 was assassinated in Saigon on No2em)er 3, *564, and !meri as President "ohn #. $ennedy 7right9 was assassinated in Dallas, &e'as on No2em)er 33, *564. (.S. Senator Ro)ert #. $ennedy was assassinated in Los !ngeles, Cali%ornia on "une F, *56> and died the ne't day. &he $ennedy )rothers o11osed !meri as military e'1edition in South Vietnam. Ngo Dinh Diem was LeliminatedM in a ou1 detat with the a11ro2al o% rogue indi2iduals in the $ennedy administration.

-'iled %ormer Prime /inister o% South Vietnam Nguyen Cao $y 7le%t9 and his wi%e Le $im 1ray to .uong 1agoda monk &hi h /inh .ien 7right9 at the Chan &inh tower garden o% the 1agoda in .atay 1ro2in e, 6A km 74> miles9 southwest o% .anoi, on "anuary 3>, 3AA=. &he @=?year?old %ormer head o% the (.S.?)a ked Saigon go2ernment returned to his hometown to make 1ea e with himsel% and the 2i tors o% war. 7:mage+ G $.!/8Reuters8Cor)is9

Nguyen Cao $y 7le%t9, %ormer air %or e general o% South Vietnam and Prime /inister o% South Vietnam, greets President o% Vietnam Nguyen /inh &riet at a )anCuet in .anoi, Vietnam on "une 33, 3AA@. Nguyen Cao $y died on "uly 34, 3A**. 7Photo+ htt1+88www.2iettri)une. om82t8inde'.1h1NidQ**3*9

Le%t+ Ngo D:nh Diem a11ears on the %ront o2er o% the !1ril =, *5FF edition o% Ti)e magaIine. Right+ /adame Nhu a11ears on the %ront o2er o% the !ugust 5, *564 edition o% Ti)e magaIine.

Le%t+ Vietnams -m1eror Bao Dai a11ears on the %ront o2er o% the /ay 35, *5FA edition o% Ti)e magaIine. Right+ &hi h &ri Kuang a11ears on the %ront o2er o% the !1ril 33, *566 edition o% Ti)e magaIine.

South Vietnams Premier 0eneral Nguyen Cao $y 7le%t, #e)ruary *>, *566 edition9 and South Vietnams President Nguyen Van &hieu 7right, Se1tem)er *F, *56@ edition9 a11ear on the %ront o2er o% Ti)e magaIine.

South Vietnams Premier /aEor 0eneral Nguyen $hanh 7right, !ug. @, *56= edition9 and 0eneral Duong Van /inh 7right, No2em)er >, *5649 a11ear on the %ront o2er o% Ti)e magaIine.

Vietnamese Communist .o Chi /inh a11ears on the %ront o2er o% the No2em)er 33, *5F= 7le%t9 and /ay *3, *5@F 7right9 editions o% Ti)e magaIine.

North Vietnams 0eneral Vo Nguyen 0ia1 a11ears on the %ront o2er o% the "une *@, *566 7le%t9 and #e)ruary 5, *56> 7right9 editions o% Ti)e magaIine.

(.S. Se retary o% State Dean Rusk 7le%t, #e)ruary =, *5669 and (.S. Se retary o% De%ense Ro)ert S. / Namara 7right, "uly >, *5669 a11ear on the %ront o2er o% Ti)e magaIine. Dean Rusk was a mem)er o% the Coun il on #oreign Relations in *566.

Cam)odias Prin e 7later $ing9 Norodom Sihanouk 7le%t, !1ril 4, *56= edition9 and (.S. President Lyndon B. "ohnson 7right, !ugust 6, *56F edition9 a11ear on the %ront o2er o% Ti)e magaIine.

Le%t+ (.S. !m)assador to South Vietnam .enry Ca)ot Lodge "r. a11ears on the %ront o2er o% the /ay *F, *56= edition o% Ti)e magaIine. Right+ National Se urity !d2isor / 0eorge Bundy a11ears on the %ront o2er o% the "une 3F, *56F edition o% Ti)e magaIine.

'o!ncil on (oreign Relations members .enry $issinger 7le%t, #e)ruary *=, *5659 and Daniel -lls)erg 7right, "uly F, *5@*9 a11ear on the %ront o2er o% Ti)e magaIine.

Le%t+ /em)ers o% the "oint Chie%s o% Sta%% a11ear on the %ront o2er o% the #e)ruary F, *56F edition o% Ti)e magaIine. Right+ (.S. !rmy Chie% o% Sta%% 0eneral .arold $. "ohnson a11ears on the %ront o2er o% the De em)er *A, *56F edition o% Ti)e magaIine.

Le%t+ (.S. !rmy 0eneral William C. Westmoreland, the Commander o% (.S. /ilitary !ssistan e Command, Vietnam S/!CVT, a11ears on the %ront o2er o% the #e)ruary *5, *56F 7le%t9 and /ay F, *56@ 7right9 editions o% Ti)e magaIine.

Vietnam Veterans 3emorial in 7ashington. D.'.

Arlington National 'emeter in Arlington. Virginia. /.S.A. C!er 10.JJJ American soldiers ,erished in Vietnam during the Vietnam 7ar. 3a their souls rest in ,eace.

The +ternal Flame at the Kenned gra!e at Arlington National 'emeter

Tom" of the /n<no4n Soldier