1 Jerhma Mshc Timc

Orismc 1.1 AR f :AR topik mgisto a >0 |x a| < f (a) f (x). f >0 (a , a + ) A
'Estw kai qei (ii) sto an uprqei Lme ti h an uprqei Ta topik ste (i) mgista mia ste (i) qei

kai (ii)

kai topik el qista lgontai

f (a , a + ) A topik elqisto a |x a| < f (a) f (x). topik akrtata

sunrthsh. Lme ti h sto . enai para gw gsimh sto

kai

Prtash 1.1 (Fermat) (a, b)

kai qei topik

An

akrtato sto

f : (a, b) R xo f (xo ) = 0
, tte . Mporome na

xo

Apdeixh
s te

'Es tw

(allic, jewrome thn

f (xo ) = b = 0 f f (xo ) = limxxo

). Epeid

upojsoume

ti

f ( x) f ( xo ) , x xo

uprqei

b > 0 >0

0 < |xxo | <

Epomnwc an

f (x) f (xo ) b b < x xo 2

tte

ra

f (x) f (xo ) b > > 0. x xo 2

opte

opte

x (xo , xo ) x xo < 0 f (x) f (xo ) < 0 f (x) < f (xo ) y (xo , xo + ) y xo > 0 f (y ) f (xo ) > 0 f (y ) > f (xo )
kai an : tte ra

x o < x < x o < y < xo +

opte to

f (x) < f (xo ) < f (y ).

xo

den enai topik akrtato.

Enai

qrsimo

na

apomonsoume

mia

paratrhsh

pou

kname

s th

dirkeia

thc apdeixhc:

Lmma 1.2 f (xo ) > 0

An

, tte uprqei

f : (a, b) R >0
ste

enai

para gw gsimh

sto

xo (a, b)

kai

x o < x < x o < y < xo +

Paratrhsh 1.3 (xo , xo + )
: an mporome na H ta sqsh (1) den

f (x) < f (xo ) < f (y ).

ti h

(1)

sunep getai ta do p.q.

kai

enai

kai

sto .

sumpernoume ti

x < y f (x) < f (y ) 1

f (xo , xo + )
enai

axousa tte

sto den

1 f (x) = x2 sin x +x 2 gia x = 0 kai f (0) = 0, tte parlo pou h f (0) 1 uprqei kai isotai me 2 , h f den enai montonh se kanna disthma (, ) grw ap to 1 1 1 0. Prgmati, an xn = 2n , yn = 2n + kai zn = 2n + (n N), tte xn > yn > zn all 2 f (xn ) < f (yn ) kai f (yn ) > f (zn ), pwc prokptei met ap prxeic.

1 Pardeigma: an

enai para gw gsimh.

Prtash 1.4 (Rolle) f : [a, b] R f (a) = f (b) (a, b)

'Estw ti h An , tte uprqei Afo tim. h

enai suneqc kai h me

f |(a,b) f ( ) = 0
. mgis th

Apdeixh
kai gia kje

enai

suneqc loipn

se

kleis t

dis thma, me

lambnei

tte

x1 , x2 [a, b] f (x1 ) f (t) f (x2 ) t [a, b] f f ( ) = 0 (a, b) f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) f (a) = f (b) x1 x2 (a, b) x1 (a, b) f x1 f (x1 ) = 0 Fermat x2 (a, b) f (x2 ) = 0 2
elqis th Uprqoun An h . enai s tajer, tte gia kje . An qi, tte enai s to , opte (efson , tte h ) kpoio ap ta elqis to s to , ja . An qei topik dio , ra , ap thn Prtash tou . Me ton trpo, an . H sunqeia thc p.q. h ikanopoie

Paratrhsh 1.5 f : [0, 1] R f (0) = f (1) f (x) = 0

An all

gia kje

f [a, b] f (0) = 1 f (x) = x x (0, 1)

sto den kai . 'Estw ti h

mpore

na

paraleifje. tte

tan

x (0, 1]

kai h

Jerhma 1.6 (Mshc Timc) f |(a,b)

para gw gsimh.

Tte uprqei

f : [a, b] R (a, b)
me

enai

suneqc

f ( ) =
(Gewmetrik: mnh enai uprqei na shmeo

f (b) f (a) . ba
sto grfhma thc

(, f ( ))

parllhlh sth q ord pou ennei ta

(a, f (a))
me

kai

f (b, f (b))

pou h efapto.)

Apdeixh

Jewrome th

sunrthsh

g : [a, b] R

g (x) = f (a) +
(paratrhse ti

f (b) f (a) (x a) f (x) ba

enai h exswsh thc eujeac pou

pernei ap to paragwgsimh uprqei

) f (a ) (x a) y = f (a) + f (bb a f (b)f (a) (a, f (a)) ba (a, b) g (a) = g (b) = 0 (a, b) g ( ) = 0
kai qei klsh kai s to . me , dhlad

).

enai suneqc s to thn Prtash tou

Ap

[a, b] Rolle

, ,

0=

f (b) f (a) f ( ). ba
An h

2
enai para gw gsimh, tte h

Jerhma 1.7 (Darboux) f ((a, b))

eikna

f : (a, b) R

enai disthma.

Apdeixh
tic timc (allic

Ja dexoume ti an

x, y (a, b)
. Mporome

me na

x<y

, tte h

f
:

lambnei lec

metax

f (x)
thn .

kai

f (y )
).

upojsoume

ti

jewrome

'Es tw

me

f (x) < < f (y )

me

ja

f (x) < f (y )
brome opte

(x, y )

s te

f ( ) =
thn

ti uprqei

g : [x, y ] R g (t) = f (t) t g (t) = f (t) g (x) < 0 < g (y ) g g [x, y ] g ( ) = min{g (t) : t [x, y ]} g ( ) = 0 Fermat (x, y ) =x g (x) < 0 x1 > x g (x1 ) < g (x) g (x) =y g (y ) > 0 y1 < y g (y1 ) < g (y ) g (y ) (x, y ) g Fermat g ( ) = 0 f ( ) = . 2
Orzoume . sunrthsh , 'Eqoume , epomnwc an h eqe upoteje suneqc, ja brskame to 'Omwc zhtomeno gia thn efarmzontac to gnwrz oume ti Jerhma Endiamswn Timn. suneqc. Uprqei mnon enai s te . Gia na sumpernoume ti : ap thn Prtash . , prpei na , bebaiwjome ti pwc s to Isqurzomai ti me Prgmati, afo , opte h Lmma 1.2 uprqei tim den enai elqis th. Omowc, me , giat, afo , ra ti , ap to Lmma 1.2 petai h tim den enai elqis th. elqis to s to Sunepc ) . 'Epetai h qei topik ra , dhlad An h enai para gw gsimh sto . . kai gia

loipn

gia

kpoio

Prisma 1.8 f : (a, b) R x (a, b) f x (a, b) f (t) > 0 x (a, b) f (t) < 0
kje , tte h diathre kpoio tte tte An uprqan ap to Jerhma

prshmo gia

kje

gia kje

(a, b) t (a, b) t (a, b)

. .

Dhlad Kai an

f (x) = 0 f (x) > 0 f (x) < 0

an gia

Apdeixh (a, b)
kpoio

x, y (a, b) f (x) < 0 < f (y ) Darboux 2

me

tte

f ( ) = 0

gia

Paratrhsh 1.9 f ) f ( x) limyx f (yy x

An h enai kai, 'Omwc an h

'Estw tte

axousa,

efson

f : [a, b] R f (x) 0 f
gia h enai axousa

suneqc

kje

axousa,

f |(a,b) x (a, b) f ( y ) f ( x) 0 y x
kai .

para gw gsimh.

Pr gmati,

gia

kje

f (x) = y=x
. ) den .

enai

gnhswc

(opte

f ( y ) f ( x) y x

>0

gia

kje

mporome na

sumpernoume ti

f (x) > 0

panto:

pardei gma h

y=x f (x) = x3

kai

dhlad

axousa, dhlad An

dhlad

Jerhma 1.10 (Kritria Monotonac) f |(a,b) (a) f (x) > 0 x (a, b) x < y f (x) < f (y ) (b) f (x) 0 x (a, b) x < y f (x) f (y ) (g) f (x) < 0 x (a, b) x < y f (x) > f (y )
para gw gsimh. An gia kje . , An gia kje , . gia kje . , 3

'Estw

f : [a, b] R
gnhswc

suneqc

tte

enai

axousa,

tte

(kai

mnon

tte)

enai

tte

enai

gnhswc

fjnousa,

(d) (e)

An

fjnousa, dhlad An

f (x) 0 x (a, b) x < y f (x) f (y ) f (x) = 0 x (a, b)

gia kje . gia kje

tte

(kai

mnon

tte)

f f

enai

tte

(kai

mnon

tte)

enai

stajer.

H ida thc apdeixhc: f |[x,y]

Mshc Timc s thn

'Es tw

, brskoume

ax<yb (x, y )

Efarmzontac to Jerhma

me

f (y ) f (x) = f ( )(y x).

Prisma 1.11 f g f (t) = g (t) + c
kai 'Estw

f, g : [a, b] R
enai sec . sto

suneqec

sunartseic uprqei

kai

stw

ti

oi

uprq oun

kai

(a, b)

Tte

c R

ste

gia kje

t [a, b]

Paratrhsh 1.12
paraleifje. kai

upjesh

ti

orz etai

se

disthma me

den

mpore gia

na

Gia pardei gma h sunrthsh gia den

f : [0, 1] [2, 3]
stajer,

[0, 1] f (x) = 1 x (0, 1) (2, 3) x=0

. gia kje

Epshc h

x [2, 3] f (x) = 1/x (x = 0)

enai enai fjnousa.

en

ikanopoie

f (x) = 1 x f (x) = 0 f (x) = 1/x2 < 0

gia kje

all den

Pardeigma 1.13 x > 1 pN

. (Gia 'Es tw

An

pQ
thn

kai

q oume

anisthta

p>1 (1 + x)p > 1 + px Bernoulli

tte .) . 'Eqoume

gia

kje

Apdeixh f (x) = (1 + x)p (1 + px) f (x) = p(p 1)(1 + x)p2 > 0 x > 1. [1, +) f (0) = 0 (1, 0) : f (x) < 0 f
ra gia axousa s to s to . Efson ra h kai s to

Epomnwc h

f (x) = p(1 + x)p1 p f

enai gnhswc

, qoume:

gnhswc fjnousa, ra

f (x) > f (0) = 0 f (x) > f (0) = 0

ti .

(1, +) : f (x) > 0

'Estw

ra h

gnhswc axousa,

ra

kpoio

Jerhma 1.14 xo (a, b) (i) f (xo ) > 0 (ii) f (xo ) < 0

An An prta

q oume

, tte h

, tte h

f : (a, b) R f (xo ) = 0 f (xo ) f f

kai h qei qei

para gw gsimh. uprqei. sto

Upojtoume Tte . .

se

topik el qisto

topik mgisto sto

xo xo

Ja apodexoume

thn akloujh Prtash:

Prtash 1.15 f : (a, b) R a < xo < x o < xo + < b (i) f (x) < 0 x (xo , xo ) f (x) > 0 x (xo , xo + ) f xo (ii) f (x) > 0 x (xo , xo ) f (x) < 0 x (xo , xo + ) f xo (iii) f (xo , xo + ), f (x)f (y ) > 0 x, y (xo , xo + )) f xo f (a, b) (xo , xo ) (xo , xo + )
'Estw para gw gsimh kai . An gia kje kai . gia kje , tte h qei topik el qisto sto An gia kje kai . gia kje , tte h qei topik mgisto sto sto An h diathre kje prshmo (dhl. den gia tte h qei topik akrtato sto . Ta parapnw isqoun kai an upoteje mnon ti h . enai suneqc sto kai para gw gsimh sto

ikanopoie

Apdeixh
ra

fjnousa s to

f (x) < 0 x (xo , xo ) f (xo , xo ) xo < s < t < x o f (s) > f (t) f (xo ) = limt xo f (t) f (s) f (xo ) < f (s) f (y ) > 0 y (xo , xo + ) f (xo , xo + ) f (xo ) f (u) u (xo , xo + )
(i) Epeid gia kje , h enai gnhswc . An loipn qoume [mlis ta (giat?)]. Epshc epeid gia kje h enai gnhswc axousa opte omowc qoume gia kje . To (ii) apodeiknetai me ton dio trpo. Gia to (iii), an gia pardeigma gia kje

s to

, tte h

enai gnhswc axousa s to petai ti ja enai

enai

suneqc,

(xo , xo + )
ggou s to

, epomnwc

den mpore na

f (x) > 0 x (xo , xo ) (xo , xo + (xo , xo ) (xo , xo + ) (xo , xo ) xo

kai s to s thn . Afo gnhswc axousa nwsh qei topik akrtato s to . den qrhsimopoijhke h parxh thc para-

Parathrome

ti

s thn

apdeixh

xo .

2
H sunqeia thc

Paratrhsh 1.16
pardei gma enai h

sto

xo

den mpore na paraleifje. an

'Ena

f : (1, 1) R
sto .

me tpo

opoa

den

qei

el qisto

xo = 0

parlo

x f (x) = x+1 f (x) < 0

pou

an

tan

1 < x < 0 0x<1 x<0

kai

f (x) > 0

tan

x>0

Apdeixh Jewrmatoc 1.14 g = f g (xo ) >0

nrthsh . Afo h uprqei s te

'Es tw

ti kai

f (xo ) > 0
enai

Exetzoume ap to

th

su1.2

uprqei

jetik,

Lmma

x o < x < x o < y < xo +

Afo

f (x) < f (xo ) < f (y ).

f (xo ) = 0

, to sumprasma

petai ap thn Prtash 1.15.

Omowc apodeiknetai to (ii).

2
5

Paratrhsh 1.17
ma plhrofora. sto

An

Gia pardei gma, an topik

f1

parousiz ei

f (xo ) = f (xo ) = 0 f1 (x) = x4 , f2 (x) = x4 , f3 (x) = x5 f2 f3

el qisto, h topik mgisto kai h

, tte den q oume en gnei kam, tte ote

mgisto ote el qisto.

Prtash 1.18

An h

f : (a, b) R

enai duo forc paragwgsimh, tte

f (x) = lim
Apdeixh
se

h0

Stajeropoiome

f (x + h) + f (x h) 2f (x) h2 x (a, b)
na .

(x (a, b)).
prta ti an allxw to

Paratrhse

pars tash

f (x + h) + f (x h) 2f (x) h2
den allzei. 'Es tw sunrthsh ' Ara arke na exetsoume to pleurik rio . kajc

h 0+
mia

loipn

h > 0 g : [h, h] R

s te me

[x h, x + h] (a, b)
tpo

Orzoume

{diorjwtik}

g (t) = (f (x + t) + f (x t) 2f (x))
opte

g (h) = g (h) = 0 (h, h) g (h ) = 0

. Epomnwc 'Eqoume ap .

enai

suneqc Mshc kai

to

Jerhma ta

t2 (f (x + h) + f (x h) 2f (x)) h2 [h, h] h (h, h)

s to kai Timc uprqei enai s tajer)

paragwgsimh

s to

s te

h h g (h ) = (f (x + h ) f (x h )) 2 2 (f (x + h) + f (x h) 2f (x)) = 0 h
(upenjmish:

ra

Kajc

f (x + h) + f (x h) 2f (x) f (x + h ) f (x h ) = . 2h h2 h0 h 0 |h | < h f (x)

qoume giat . Efson h uprqei,

(2)

ta

ria

s0+

lim

f (x + s) f (x) s
kai enai sa, kai

kai

s0

lim

f (x + s) f (x) f (x t) f (x) = lim t 0 s t +

aris ter skloc thc (2) tenei s to

uprqoun

sunepc

to

h 0
Epomnwc to

lim

1 2

f (x + h ) f (x) f (x) f (x h ) + h h
tou dexio sklouc thc (2) uprqei kai

= f (x).
me

rio

isotai

f (x)

2 f (x) =

Shmewsh

To

ants trofo

thc

Prtashc s to

den to

isqei rio

genik:

sunrthsh

x|x|

den

qei

deterh

pargwgo

all

f (h) + f (h) 2f (0) h2 h2 = lim h0 h0+ h2 h2 lim

uprqei kai enai mhdn.

Paratrhsh 1.19 (a, b)\{xo }

'Estw para gw gsimh sto kai enai suneqc sto

ti .

An to rio

f : (a, b) R lim f (x)

xxo

enai

suneqc

sto

uprqei, tte h

(a, b) f

kai

orz etai

xo

Apdeixh

'Es tw

xxo

lim f (x) = c

An doje

>0

uprqei

>0

s te

0 < |x xo | < |f (x) c| < .

'Es tw brskoume

0<h< h (xo , xo + h)
.

Efarmzontac s te

to

Jerhma

Mshc

Timc

s thn .

f |[xo ,xo +h]

f (xo + h) f (xo ) = f (h )h

'Eqoume

f (xo + h) f (xo ) c = |f (h ) c| < h

afo

0 < |xo h | <

kai isotai

Aut shmanei ti to pleurik rio

h0+

lim

uprqei

me

Me

ton

dio

trpo

(jewrntac

thn

f (xo + h) f (xo ) h f |[xo h,xo ]

) brkai isotai

skoume

ti

to

llo

pleurik

rio

h0
epshc me

lim

f (xo + h) f (xo ) h

uprqei

Epomnwc

to rio

f (xo ) = lim

2
Orismc 1.2

f (xo + h) f (xo ) h0 h lim

uprqei kai isotai me

c = lim f (x)
xxo

f (xo + h) f (xo ) h0+ h dexi pargwgoc f xo f (xo + h) f (xo ) lim h0 h r pargwgoc f xo f (xo )
To pleurik rio mz etai h thc sto to pleurik rio thc sto kai sumbolz etai .

tan

uprqei,

ono-

kai sumbolz etai

f+ (xo )

Omowc

, tan uprqei, onomz etai h

ariste-

Paratrhsh 1.20
rhshc deixe ti: An uprqei to

Parathrome ti h apdeixh thc prohgomenhc parat-

xxo+

lim f (x)

tte

uprqei

dexi

par gw goc

kai

f+ (xo ) =

xxo+

lim f (x)

(omowc gia thn arister

par gw go).

Jerhma 1.21 (Jerhma mshc timc tou Cauchy) f, g : [a, b] R (a, b) (a, b)
An enai suneqec ste sunartseic pou enai , tte uprqei

para gw gsimec

sto

(f (b) f (a))g ( ) = (g (b) g (a))f ( ).

Apdeixh

Jewrome th

sunrthsh

h : [a, b] R

me

h(x) = (f (x) f (a))(g (b) g (a)) (f (b) f (a))(g (x) g (a))

pou enai suneqc , s to

[a, b]

kai ap

paragwgsimh to Jerhma

s to

(a, b)

Parathrome

ti

h(b) = 0 = h(a) h ( ) = 0

epomnwc

Rolle

uprqei

(a, b) 2

s te

, dhlad

f ( )(g (b) g (a)) (f (b) f (a))g ( ) = 0.

Prisma 1.22 f, g : [a, b] R (a, b) g (b) = g (a) f g (a, b)
'Estw . kai kai Tte uprqei ste

suneqec sunartseic pou enai para-

gw gsimec sto (a)

Upojtoume epiplon ti

(b) Oi sunartseic

den q oun koin rz a sto

(a, b)

f (b) f (a) f ( ) = . g (b) g (a) g ( )

Apdeixh
Ap to prohgomeno Jerhma, uprqei

(a, b)

s te

isodnama

(f (b) f (a))g ( ) = (g (b) g (a))f ( ) f (b) f (a) g ( ) = f ( ). g (b) g (a) g ( ) = 0

me thn tte ap thn teleutaa isthta ja eqame

'Omwc kai

g ( ) = 0 f ( ) = 0
,

giat

an

antjeta

upjesh

(b).

Diairntac

loipn

me

g ( )

prokptei to zhtomeno.

2
'Estw

Jerhma 1.23 (LHospital)

simec sunartseic (a)

me tic exc idithtec:

f, g : (a, x0 ) (x0 , b) R
.

para gw g-

(b)

xx0

g (x) = 0 g (x) = 0 lim f (x) = lim g (x) = 0

kai

gia kje

x (a, x0 ) (x0 , b) lim f (x) xx0 g (x)

xx0

An

uprqei to

lim f (x) xx0 g (x)

= R lim

, tte uprqei to

kai

xx0

f (x) f (x) . = = lim xx0 g (x) g (x)

2 (ap tic shmeiseic tou A. Giannpoulou)

Apdeixh 0
. Afo

Epektenoume tic

kai

, orzontc tic s to

x0

me

f (x0 ) = g (x0 ) =

xx0
oi

lim f (x) = lim g (x) = 0,

xx0

kai

gnontai tra suneqec s to

(a, b)

Ja dexoume

ti

xx0
'Eqoume

lim+

f (x) f (x) = = lim+ . g (x) xx0 g (x)

f (x) f (x) f (x0 ) = g (x) g (x) g (x0 )

gia kje

x (x0 , b)
to

Oi

f ,g

den

qoun ,

mhdenzetai tac loipn

poujen.

Epshc mshc

g (x) = 0
timc

dhlad

jerhma

tou

(x0 , x) g (x) g (x0 ) = 0 Cauchy

koin rza s to (Prisma 1.22)

giat

den

Efarmzongia

mporome

kje

x (x0 , b)

na brome

x (x0 , x)

s te

f (x ) f (x) = . g (x) g (x )
'Es tw tra

>0

Epeid

lim f (x) xx0 g (x)

, mporome na brome

>0

s te:

an

x0 < < x 0 +

tte

f ( ) g ( )
Epomnwc an

< .

x 0 < x < x0 +

tte

f (x) g (x)
(giat

f (x ) g (x )

<

x0 < x < x < x0 +

).

' Ara,

xx0

lim+

f (x) f (x) = = lim+ . g (x) xx0 g (x)

xx 0

Me anlogo trpo

deqnoume ti

lim

f ( x) g ( x)

O ants toiqoc

kannac gia

to

enai o exc.

Jerhma 1.24
tic exc idithtec: (a)

'Estw

f, g : (a, +) R
gia kje

para gw gsimec

sunartseic

me

(b)

g (x) = 0 g (x) = 0 lim f (x) = lim g (x) = 0

kai

x>a

x+

x+

An

uprqei to

lim f (x) x+ g (x)

= R

, tte uprqei to

lim f (x) x+ g (x)

kai

f (x) f (x) = = lim . x+ g (x) x+ g (x) lim

Apdeixh. Orzoume

1 R f1 , g1 : 0, a

me

f1 (x) = f
Oi

1 x

kai

g1 (x) = g

1 x

f1 , g1

enai paragwgsimec kai

1 x f1 (x) 2f = 1 g1 (x) x2 g
'Eqoume

1 x 1 x
kai

f = g
x0+

1 x 1 x

.
(exh-

x0+
gs te giat).

lim f1 (x) = lim f (x) = 0

x+
Epshc,

lim g1 (x) = lim g (x) = 0

x+
gia kje

g1 (x) = 0

kai

g1 (x) = 0
1 x 1 x
tic

x (0, 1/a)

Tloc,

x0

lim +

f f1 (x) = lim g1 (x) x0+ g

gia

= lim f1 , g1

f (x) . x+ g (x)
kai qoume

' Ara,

efarmzetai

to Jerhma 1.23

x0
Afo

lim +

f1 (x) f1 (x) f (x) = lim = lim . + g1 (x) x0 g1 (x) x+ g (x) f (x) f1 (x) = lim , x+ g (x) x0+ g1 (x) lim

petai to zhtomeno.

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