Boiling Heat Transfer-I

Boiling is associated with transformation of liquid to vapor by heating It differs from vaporization in the sense that it is associated with the formation of bubbles The formation of bubbles stir the fluid and breaks the boundary layers thereby increasing the heat transfer coefficient The bubbles are normally formed on the surface scratches. The bubbles do not appear till the wall is heated in excess of the saturation temperature, called wall superheat.

Boiling Heat Transfer-II

The excess temperature required for the onset of formation of bubbles decreases with increase in the size of surface scratches Models exist for the prediction of this, but will not be discussed in this first level course. One of the main interest is the prediction of heat transfer coefficient The general features can be understood for the experiment conducted by Nukiyama. The results are summarized in what is known as Boiling Curve

Pool Boiling Heat Transfer-I

Transition Nucleate boiling Film boiling

Pool Boiling Heat Transfer-II

Free convection region TSat < 5 oC (single phase) Vapor formed at the free surface Onset of nucleation Tsat ~ 5 oC Bubbles nucleate, grow and detach from the surface Increase of wall superheat leads to more vigorous nucleation and rapid increase in heat transfer

Critical heat flux

Single-phase

Leidenfrost point

Boiling curve at 1 atm

As the superheat is increased, the vapor formation become vigorous, it blankets the surface and the heat transfer decreases. This turn around point is called the Critical Heat Flux or Boiling crisis

Pool Boiling Heat Transfer-III

As the superheat is increased, more blanketing causes the heat transfer to drop, till the entire heated surface is blanketed Now the radiation heat transfer also starts playing a role and eventually, the heat transfer starts increasing due to increase convection and radiation heat transfer The second turnaround point is called Leidenfrost point or rewetting point. The heat transfer beyond this point is called film boiling We shall briefly look at some details

Pool Boiling Heat Transfer-IV

Nucleate Boiling (Wall super heat < 30 oC at 1 atm)
Isolated bubbles Region 5 < TSat < 10 oC
Liquid motion is strongly influenced by nucleation of bubbles at the surface. h rapidly increases with wall superheat Heat transfer is principally due to contact of liquid with the surface (single-phase convection) and not due to vaporization.

Jets and Columns Region (10 < TSat < 30 oC at 1 atm)

Increasing nucleation density causes bubbles to coalesce to form jets and slugs Liquid wetting impaired h starts decreasing with increase in superheat

Pool Boiling Heat Transfer-V

Critical Heat Flux (Wall super heat ~30
oC

Pool Boiling Heat Transfer-VI

Transition Boiling ( 30 oC < Tsat < 120 oC at 1 atm)
Called Unstable film boiling Surface conditions oscillate between nucleate and film boiling.

at 1 atm)

Typically 1MW/m2 at 1 atm and increases with pressure If the wall pumps heat flux, there is a potential for the wall to melt as the heat transfer coefficient is very low here due to vapor blanketing.

Film Boiling (Wall super heat >120 oC at 1 atm)

Heat transfer by conduction and radiation across vapor blanket Usually not a preferred mode of cooling but can occur during the ECCS injection in an uncovered core

Boiling Heat Transfer Correlations

Different models exist and there is no single view on this aspect. We shall just list the correlations for application purposes

Pool Boiling Heat Transfer-VII

Nucleate Boiling
Rohsenows correlation is most popular
g ( l v ) q = h fg
0 .5

Pool Boiling Heat Transfer-VIII

Minimum Heat Flux (Leidenfrosts point)
Adapted from Zubers correlation
0 . 25

c p , l T sat C h Pr n l s , f fg

g ( l v ) q = 0 . 09 h fg v ( + )2 l v

Not very reliable

Cs,f , n depends on Surface/fluid combination (Given in Table 10.1 of your book)

Film Boiling
Both Convection and radiation effects are important Bromleys correlation is most quoted

Critical Heat Flux

Lienhards correlation
g ( l v q = 0 . 149 h fg v v2

0 . 25

h overall

4/3

= h conv

4/3

+ h rad h overall

1/3

Pool Boiling Heat Transfer-IX

Nu
L

h fg g ( l v )L 3 h conv L = 0 . 943 v k v (T s T sat ) kv

0 . 25

Condensation Heat Transfer-I

Condensation implies transformation of vapor back to liquid There are basically two mechanisms for condensation
Film Condensation Drop Condensation

h fg = h fg + 0 . 8 c p , v (T s T sat
h rad = T s 4 T sat 4 (T s T sat )

Vapour properties are evaluated at average film temperature, liquid property at saturated temperature

For other cylinder and sphere, the convective heat transfer coefficient is modified as

Nu

h fg g ( l v )D 3 h conv D = C v k v (T s T sat ) kv

0 . 25

The value of C for Horizontal cylinder = 0.62, for sphere, C = 0.67 As an approximation, when h conv

> h rad

h overall = h conv +

3 h rad 4

Condensation Heat Transfer-II

Film Condensation
Entire surface is covered by the condensate, which flows continuously from the surface and provides a resistance to heat transfer between the vapor and the surface. Thermal resistance is reduced through use of short vertical surfaces and horizontal cylinders.

Analysis of Film Condensation-I

Nusselt Analysis for Laminar Flow
Assumptions: A pure vapor at Tsat Creeping boundary layer flow Negligible shear stress at liquid/vapor interface.

Dropwise Condensation
Surface is covered by drops ranging from a few micrometers to agglomerations visible to the naked eye. Thermal resistance is greatly reduced due to absence of a continuous film. Surface coatings may be applied to inhibit wetting and stimulate dropwise condensation.

We shall derive it from the basic equations

Analysis of Film Condensation-II

Momentum Equation
(u ) (u ) l u x + v y
Negligible

Analysis of Film Condensation-III

u = 0, y = y
u =

2u p = x + l y 2
vg

lg

c1 =
( f v )g 2 l

l g l

2 y y 2 2

d 2u ( f v ) g = l dy 2

d 2u dy 2

( f v )g = l

Energy Equation
2T (T ) (T ) u = +v y 2 x y
Negligible

On Integration we get
u = ( f v )g y + c1y + c 2 l 2 u = 0, y = 0
2

2T y 2

= 0

Boundary Conditions

c2 = 0

T = c1 y + c 2

Analysis of Film Condensation-IV

Boundary Conditions
T = TW , y = 0 T = T Sat , y =

Analysis of Film Condensation-V

& = l dm

T = T w + (T sat

y Tw )

( l v )g 3 2 d 3 l

From Energy Balance per unit width

T & = kl h fg d m y T sat T w x = k x l

& m & dm & + dm & m

Note that the boundary layer thickness is still unknown This is obtained in the following manner

& m

y=

& = l udy m
0

For unit width

2 2 y y 2 2

& dm
dy

= l
0

( l v )g l

& + dm & m

k l T sat T w & = 2 dm x h fg k (T T w ) d 3 = l l sat Equating 1 and 2 we get dx l ( l v ) h fg g

k (T T w ) 4 = l l sat x + c1 4 l ( l v ) h fg g

( l v )g 3 = l 3 l

Analysis of Film Condensation-VI

Using the Boundary Condition
= 0 at x = 0

1/ 4

Analysis of Film Condensation-VII

Nu
x

c1 = 0

4 k l l ( T sat T w ) x = l ( l v ) h fg g

( v ) h fg gx 3 hx x = = l l k l l ( T sat T w ) kl
1/ 4

1/ 4

To account for sub-cooling the f0ollowing correction is made

h fg = h fg (1 + 0 . 68 Ja

Nu

l ( l v ) h fg gx 3 = 0 . 707 k l l ( T sat T w )

)
)
Jacob Number

Where, Ja = Finally,
h =

c p (T sat T w h fg

Just as in natural convection, we can show that

Nu = 4 Nu 3
l ( l v ) h fg gL 3 = 0 . 943 k l l ( T sat T w )
1/ 4

kl T q 1 = = kl y T sat T w T sat T w T sat T w

(T sat

Tw

)=

kl

Analysis of Film Condensation-VIII

Effects of Turbulence
Three flow regimes may be identified and delineated in terms of a Reynolds number defined as
Re

Analysis of Film Condensation-IX

Laminar Region Re < 30
h L l2 / g kl

4 g l ( l v ) 3 4 l u = = l 3 l 2

1/ 3

= 1 . 47 (Re

) 1 / 3

Wavy Laminar Region 30 < Re < 1800

h L l2 / g kl

1/ 3

Re 1 . 08 (Re

)1 . 22

5 .2

Turbulent Region Re > 1800

h L l2 / g kl

1/3

Re

8750 + 58 Pr l 0 . 5 Re

0 . 75

253

Analysis of Film Condensation-X

Calculation procedure:
To use the equations in the previous slide, we first use the relation
& = m
W L (T sat T w ) h fg & L & 4m 4m 4 h L L (T sat T w = = Since Re = W L l Wl l h fg h
L

Analysis of Film Condensation-XI

A single tube or sphere:
l ( l v ) k l 3 h fg g h D = C l ( T sat T w ) D
1/ 4

hL

Re .

Tube: C = 0.729

Sphere: C = 0.826

Vertical Tier of N-tubes:

l ( l v ) k l 3 h fg g h D , N = 0 . 729 N l ( T sat T w ) D
1/ 4

Re

h fg

4 L (T sat T w

Thus, the left hand side of the equations in previous slide can also be expressed in terms of Reynolds number and known parameters. Hence we can solve for Re, and hence for h L