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4

: ME13 Dynamics of Vehicles

1000 kg 5.5 / 4.5
(Wheelbase) 2.5

1
1.125
1.150
1.175
2
1200 kg 6 / 4
(Wheelbase) 2.7

1.42
1.52
1.62
1.72
3
1000 kg 5.5 / 4.5
(Wheelbase) 2.5 0.4
5 m/s^2
4000 N
4200 N
4400 N
4600 N
4

1 of 65

 4
1
2
3
4

1
2
3
4

1
2
3
4

1200 kg 6 / 4
(Wheelbase) 2.7 0.35

4 m/s^2
5230 N
5330 N
5430 N
5530 N
2
200 N.m 4,000
1000 kg 4 m/s^2
12:1 95% 0.6

165 kg.m^2
175 kg.m^2
185 kg.m^2
195 kg.m^2
1
6000 N : 4000N (Wheelbase)
2.6
(Peak)

0.6
2.56 m/s^2
2.66 m/s^2
2.76 m/s^2
2.86 m/s^2
1

2 of 65

1
2
3
4

1
2
3
4

9
1
2
3
4

6000 N : 4000N (Wheelbase)

2.6 m
... (Peak) 0.6
0.35m
3.3 m/s^2
3.5 m/s^2
3.7 m/s^2
3.9 m/s^2
1
100
100 km/hr (Disc Brake) ABS
(Peak)
0.6

2
100 km/hr
(Disc Brake) ABS
(Peak) 0.6
5
5

3 of 65

 10

1
2
3
4

11

1
2
3
4

12

1
2
3
4

6000 N : 3500 N 2.4 m 0.35 m
0.65
4400 N
4500 N
4600 N
4700 N
2


6500 N : 4000 N 2.7 m 0.35 m
0.6
1900 N
2000 N
2100 N
2200 N
1
6500 N : 4000 N 2.7
0.35 60
50

6500 N
6700 N
6900 N
7100 N
3

4 of 65

 13

1
2
3
4

14

1
2
3
4

15

1
2
3
4

6000 N : 5000 N 2.6

0.3 50
40

4600 N
4700 N
4800 N
4900 N
4
5000 N : 5000 N
2.8 m 0.3 m 100 km/hr
56 m ABS
... 0.7

2

ABS

5 of 65

 16
1
2
3
4

17

2.

3
4

18
1
2
3
4

(rolling friction)

1
2

6 of 65

 19
1
2
3
4

20
1
2
3
4

21
1
2
3
4

22
1
2
3
4

7 of 65

 23
1
2
3
4

24
1
2
3
4

, ,




1

25
1
2
3
4

(road load) ()
(aerodynamic drag)
(rolling resistance)

26
1
2
3
4

()

8 of 65

 27
1
2
3
4

(aerodynamic drag)
(rolling resistance)

28
1
2
3
4

(aerodynamic drag)

29
1
2
3
4

30
1
2
3
4

()

9 of 65

 31
1
2
3
4

32
1
2
3
4

(roll)
1

33
1
2
3
4

34

()
(Center of Gravity) centre of pressure
(Center of Gravity) centre of pressure
(roll)
(yaw)
1

Pickup Truck
Station Wagon
Family Sedan
Sport Car
1

1
2
3
4

10 of 65

 35
1
2
3
4

(rolling resistance)

(wheel slip)
1

36
1
2
3
4

37
1
2
3
4

(road load) ()
(aerodynamic drag)
(rolling resistance)

38
1
2
3
4

(10-40 psi)

( )

11 of 65

 39
1
2
3
4

40
1
2
3
4

41
1
2
3
4

()

1
(Ackerman Steering)

(roll)
1

42
1
2
3
4

(Ackerman Steering)

12 of 65

 43
1
2
3
4

(Ackerman Steering)

(roll)

44
1
2
3
4

45
1
2
3
4

(lateral acceleration)
(lateral force)
1
(lateral force) (slip angle)

46
1
2
3
4

Cornering Stiffness

(tire load)

13 of 65

 47
1
2
3
4

(steady-state cornering) ()

48
1
2
3
4

Neutral Steer




1

49
1
2
3
4

(understeer)




1

50
1
2
3
4

(oversteer)




1

14 of 65

 51
1
2
3
4

Characteristic Speed
(Ackerman Angle)
(Ackerman Angle)


1

52
1
2
3
4

Critical Speed

(Ackerman Angle)

(Ackerman Angle)
1

53
1
2
3
4

Characteristic Speed Wheel base (L) = 10 ft Understeer gradient = 0.11 degree / g

280 mph
260 mph
240 mph
220 mph
1

54
1
2
3
4

Critical Speed Wheel base (L) = 10 ft Understeer gradient = - 0.13 degree / g

260 mph
280 mph
240 mph
220 mph
1

15 of 65

 55
1
2
3
4

1.2 kg/m3 20 m/s Dynamic Pressure

240 Pa
240 kPa
480 Pa
480 kPa
1

56

1.2 kg/m3, 0.000015 N-s/sq.m 70 km/hr

Dynamic Pressure
0.044 Pa
227 Pa
454 Pa
2.94 kPa
2
1.2 kg/m3 x y 20 10 m/s
Dynamic Pressure
300 kPa
600 Pa
540 Pa
300 Pa
4
1.2 kg/m3 70 km/hr Static
Pressure 100 kPa Total Pressure
99.77 kPa
100.23 kPa
100.45 kPa
102.94 kPa
2

1
2
3
4

57
1
2
3
4

58
1
2
3
4

16 of 65

 59
1
2
3
4

60 Flow
1
2
3
4

Static Pressure ( A)

100.24 kPa
340.00 kPa
100.48 kPa
580.00 kPa
1
Separation
Favorable Pressure Gradient
Adverse Pressure Gradient
Zero Pressure Gradient
Negative Pressure Gradient
2

61
1
2
3
4

Dirt Deposition

62
1
2
3
4

Wake Vortex

17 of 65

 63
1
2
3
4

Side Force

64
1
2
3
4

Rolling Moment

65
1
2
3
4

Pitching Moment
Drag
Lift
Lift
Side Force
1

66
1
2
3
4

162
Yawing Moment
Drag
Lift
Side Force
Side Force
2

18 of 65

 67
1
2
3
4

68
1
2
3
4

Side Force CG
Rolling Moment
Pitching Moment
Yawing Moment
Inertia Moment
1
Air Dams

69
1
2
3
4

Frontal Area Cd 2 sq.m 0.5 20 m/s Drag

1.2 kg/m3 Headwind 10 m/s
60 N
240 N
270 N
540 N
4

70
1
2
3
4

Cd Cs 0.5 0.4 Side Force 100 N Drag

50 N
80 N
100 N
125 N
4

19 of 65

 71
1
2
3
4

72
1
2
3
4

73
1
2
3
4

Drag // 80 N
Drag
40 N
80 N
160 N
320 N
4
A 100 km/hr Drag 280 N B Frontal
Area A Drag Drag A B
km/hr Cd A B 0.3 0.5
52.3 km/hr
77.5 km/hr
94.2 km/hr
107 km/hr
2
Drag 2 100 Drag 300 500 N
20 m/s
1.0 m/s^2
1.3 m/s^2
1.7 m/s^2
2.0 m/s^2
2

20 of 65

 74
1
2
3
4

75
1
2
3
4

76
1
2
3
4

Drag, Lift Pitching Moment 500 N, 0 N 250 N-m Drag

0.00 m
0.25 m
0.50 m
0.75 m
3
Rolling Moment 250 N-m Side Force CG
40 cm Side force
325 N
425 N
525 N
625 N
4
Total Pressure Dynamic Pressure 650 400 kPa Static Pressure

250 kPa
100 kPa
150 kPa
200 kPa
1

21 of 65

 77
1
2
3
4

78
1
2
3
4

79
1
2
3
4

1.2 kg/m3, 1.5x10-5 Ns/m2 20 m/s Dynamic

Pressure
240 Pa
240 kPa
480 Pa
480 kPa
1
1.2 kg/m3 20 m/s Total Pressure
700 Pa Static Pressure
460 Pa
220 Pa
940 Pa
240 Pa
1
1.2 kg/m3 Total Pressure Dynamic
Pressure 700 240 kPa
20 m/s
20 km/hr
28 m/s
28 km/hr
1

22 of 65

 80
1
2
3
4

Flow Separation

81
1
2
3
4

Flow Separation
Velocity gradient
Velocity gradient
Pressure gradient
Gravity acceleration
1

82
1
2
3
4

Kamm-back shape

83
1
2
3
4

Lift

23 of 65

 84
1
2
3
4

Side Force

85
1
2
3
4

Rolling Moment

86
1
2
3
4

Pitching Moment
Side Force

Lift
Drag
1

87
1
2
3
4

Side Force CG
Yawing Moment
Rolling Moment
Pitching Moment
Inertia Moment
1

24 of 65

 88
1
2
3
4

Bumper Spoilers
Drag
Lift
Yawing Moment
Rolling Moment
1

89

Frontal Area Cd 2 sq.m 0.5 20 m/s Drag

1.2 kg/m3
240 N
480 N
120 N
960 N
1

1
2
3
4

90
1
2
3
4

91
1
2
3
4

Drag Side Force 500 400 N Cd 0.5 Cs

0.40
0.50
0.30
0.60
1
Cd // 0.3
Cd
0.3
1.5
0.6
2.4
1

25 of 65

 92
1
2
3
4

93
1
2
3
4

94
1
2
3
4

Drag 2 100 Drag 300 500 N

Cd, Frontal Area 0.3, 2 sq.m
1.2 kg/m^3
2.8 m/s^2
1.4 m/s^2
5.6 m/s^2
8.4 m/s^2
1
Rolling Moment 20 m/s CRM =
0.30 Frontal Area = 2 sq.m Side Area = 3 sq.m Wheelbase = 1.5 m 1.2 kg/m3
216 N-m
108 N-m
432 N-m
864 N-m
1
Yawing Moment 250 N-m Side Force 100 N Side
Force
2.5 m wheelbase (mid-wheelbase)
2.5 m
2.5 m
2.5 m
1

26 of 65

 95
1
2
3
4

96
1
2
3
4

97
1
2
3
4

Side Force 0.2 cm mid-wheelbase

0.5 cm
Rolling Moment Yawing Moment
Rolling Moment Pitching Moment
Pitching Moment Yawing Moment
Pitching Moment Side Force
1
Static Pressure Dynamic Pressure 300 400 kPa Total Pressure

700 kPa
100 kPa
-100 kPa
75 kPa
1
Static Pressure Total Pressure 300 400 kPa Dynamic Pressure

100 kPa
100 kPa
700 kPa
75 kPa
1

27 of 65

 98
1
2
3
4

Favorable Pressure Gradient

99
1
2
3
4

Adverse Pressure Gradient Aerodynamic Drag

flow separation
flow separation
Drag

100
1
2
3
4

Flow Separation
Vortex

101
1
2
3
4

Vortex
Flow separation
Yawing moment
Pitching moment
Rolling moment
1

28 of 65

 102
1
2
3
4

Dirt Deposition




1

103
1

2
3
4

Dirt Deposition
separation zone

104
1
2
3
4

Drag

105
1
2
3
4

Drag

29 of 65

 106
1
2
3
4

Lift
Rolling moment

Pitching moment

107
1
2
3
4

Pitching Moment

108
1
2
3
4

Yawing Moment

109
1
2
3
4

Yawing Moment




1

30 of 65

 110
1
2
3
4

Rolling Moment

111
1
2
3
4

Side Force wheelbase

Yawing moment
Pitching moment
Rolling moment
Drag
1

112

Side Force CG

Rolling moment
Pitching moment
Drag
Lift
1

1
2
3
4

31 of 65

 113
1
2
3
4

Deck-Lid Spoilers

Drag

Drag
1

114
1
2
3
4

Cd Cl 0.5 0.3 Lift Force 150 N Drag

250 N
500 N
650 N
125 N
1

115
1
2
3
4

Drag Lift 500 300 N Cd 0.5 Cl

0.30
0.40
0.50
d)
1

116

Drag, Lift Pitching Moment 500 N, 100 N 0 N-m Drag

40 cm Lift
2.0 m wheelbase
1.0 m wheelbase
3.0 m wheelbase
4.0 m wheelbase
1

1
2
3
4

32 of 65

 117
1
2
3
4

118
1
2
3
4

119
1
2
3
4

Yawing Moment 250 N-m Side Force 40 cm

Wheelbase Side Force
625 N
313 N
500 N
250 N
1
Rolling Moment 250 N-m Side Force 1000 N
Side Force
0.25 m
0.15 m
0.20 m
0.30 m
1
Side Force 0.2 cm mid-wheelbase
0.5 cm
Rolling Moment Yawing Moment
Rolling Moment Pitching Moment
Pitching Moment Yawing Moment
Pitching Moment Side Force
1

33 of 65

 120
1
2
3
4

(Tyre force variation)
(Suspension Travel)

121

(body bounce resonance)
(wheel hop resonance) 4 (passenger vehicle) Hz
2 , 15
15 , 2
20 , 40
40 , 20
1

1
2
3
4

122
1
2
3
4

(body bounce resonance) 1

sprung mass = 400kg, unsprung mass=45kg, tyre stiffness = 200 kN/m, suspension stiffness = 30kN/m, and
uspension damping = 2.5 kNs/m
1 Hz
2 Hz
8 Hz
15 Hz
1

34 of 65

 123
1
2
3
4

124

(wheel hop resonance) 1

sprung mass = 400kg, unsprung mass=45kg, tyre stiffness = 200 kN/m, suspension stiffness = 30kN/m, and
suspension damping = 2.5 kNs/m
2 Hz
8 Hz
11 Hz
15 Hz
3

1
2
3
4

Active Semi-active suspension

I. sprung unsprung mass
II.
III.
I
II
I III
I,II III
4

125
1
2
3
4

automotive damper
==> damper Orifice ==> ==>
==> damper ==>
==> damper Cavitations ==>
==> damper ==>
1

35 of 65

 126
1
2
3
4

bump rebound automotive damper

bump rebound
bump rebound
bump rebound
bump rebound
2

127
1
2
3
4

(NVH)

128

1
2
3
4

I. wheel base filtering ()

II. wheel base filtering (resonance) (anti-resonance)

III. wheel base filtering
I
II
III
I III
4

36 of 65

 129
1
2
3
4

pitch bounce

Yaw moment of inertia

Radius of gyration pitch
3

130
1
2
3
4

3m m body bounce mode

1, 1.5, 3
1,2,3
1.2, 2, 6
3,6,9,12
1

131
1
2
3
4

3m m body pitch mode

1, 1.5, 3
1,2,3
1.2, 2, 6
3,6,9,12
3

132

1 (Quarter Car model) linear suspension

spring, linear damper, tyre spring

1 basic active suspension modelling

4

1
2
3
4

37 of 65

 133

1
2
3
4

134

Tyre force variation

I.
II.
III.
IV.

1
2
3
4

twin tube monotube damper

I.
II. monotube damper
III. monotube twin tube damper
II
III
II III

135
1
2
3
4

(perception of ride)
(comfort)

38 of 65

 136
1
2
3
4

(perception of ride)

137
1
2
3
4

(ride)

(Tyre force variation)

138
1
2
3
4

(Steering rack)
3

139
1
2
3
4

rack and pinion

(packaging)

39 of 65

 140

1
2
3
4

Ackerman Geometry
I. linkage
II. rack and pinion
III.
I
I, II
I, III
II, III
3

141
1
2
3
4

perfect Ackerman geometry

Ackerman geometry
Ackerman geometry
Ackerman geometry
Ackerman geometry
3

142
1
2
3
4

king pin offset at the ground ()

(road feel)

40 of 65

 143
1
2
3
4

castor angle

wheel aligning torque

144
1
2
3
4

centering moment () castor angle

castor angle

centering moment
1

145
1
2
3
4

Oversteer
(Drive Torque)

differential

146
1
2
3
4

electronic power steering hydraulic power steering

41 of 65

 147
1
2
3
4

(four-wheel steer)

(Transient Response)

oversteer
2

148
1
2
3
4

Steer By Wire

(packaging)

149
1
2
3
4

Power Spectral Density (PSD)

(Spatial Frequency) Wavenumber
PSD
PSD

PSD
PSD

2

150
1
2
3
4

Wavenumber

42 of 65

 151
1
2
3
4

Wavelength Wavenumber
Wavelength = ()(Wavenumber)
Wavelength = /Wavenumber
Wavelength = 1/Wavenumber
Wavelength = (2)(Pi)(Wavenumber)
3

152

(Spatial Frequency) (Temporal Frequency)

= ()()
= /
= 1/

1
2
3
4

153
1
2
3
4

(Roll)

(Spatial Frequency) Wavenumber

(Spatial Frequency) Wavenumber

(Spatial Frequency) Wavenumber
2

43 of 65

 154
1
2
3
4

155
1
2
3
4

(Roll) 1 Hz 80

12 /
17 /
22 /
27 /
3
(Natural Frequency)

(Roll)

(Roll)

(Roll)

(Roll)

44 of 65

 156

1
2
3
4

157
1
2
3
4

158
1
2
3
4

20 20
180 km/hr
134
154
174
194
4


(Harmonic)
1
2
3
4
2

45 of 65

 159

1
2
3
4

160

1
2
3
4

161

1
2
3
4

(Reciprocating)

60 V
3

(Reciprocating)

60 V
90 V

4
1/4 (Quarter Car
Model)
3
20 150

1.0 Hz
1.2/ Hz
1.3 Hz
1.4 Hz
2

46 of 65

 162

1
2
3
4

163
1
2
3
4

164
1
2
3
4

1.4 Hz 20
150 1/4
(Quarter Car Model)
2.8 KN
2.6 KN
2.4 KN
2.2 KN
4
1/4 (Quarter Car Model)
(Damping Ratio) 0.2 0.4

(Passenger Car)
(Response Gain)
(Dampled Natural Frequency) (Natural Frequency)

(Dampled Natural Frequency) (Natural

Frequency)
4
(Damping Ratio)
(Passenger Car)

0.1 0.3
0.2 0.4
0.3 0.5
0.4 0.6
2

47 of 65

 165

1
2
3
4

166
1
2
3
4

167
1
2
3
4

PSD (Power Spectrail
Density) (Road Acceleration)

2.5 Hz
2.0 Hz
1.5 Hz
1.0 Hz
4


1/4 (Quarter Car Model)

3
(Shock Absorber) (Orifice)

48 of 65

 168
1
2
3
4

(Shock Absorber)

169

(Resonance)
(Resonance)
(Resonance)
(Resonance)
3

1
2
3
4

170
1
2
3
4

1/4 (Quarter Car Model)

(Unsprung Mass)

49 of 65

 171
1
2
3
4

172

1/4 (Quarter Car Model)

(Unsprung Mass)
(Transmissibility)

5 10 Hz
15 20 Hz
3

3
4

1/4 (Quarter Car Model)

(Unsprung Mass)
(Response Gain)

(Response Gain)

(Response Gain)

173
1
2
3
4

(Leaf Spring)

1
2

50 of 65

 174
1
2
3
4

175

1/4 (Quarter Car Model)

(Leaf Spring) (Response Gain)

1
2
3
4

1/4 (Quarter Car Model)

(Leaf Spring) (Response Gain)
(Unsprung Mass)

176
1
2
3
4

chassis

51 of 65

 177
1
2
3
4

Spring
Transmission
Control-arm
Shock absorber
2

178
1
2
3
4

(Solid axles)
Trailing arm
Hotchkiss
MacPherson strut
Double wishbones
2

179
1
2
3
4

(Independent suspension)



(Roll stiffness)
3

180
1
2
3
4

Active suspensions

52 of 65

 181
1
2
3
4

(Roll center)
Positive Swing Arm Geometry
Positive Swing Arm Geometry
Parallel Horizontal Links
Inclined Parallel Links
4

182
1
2
3
4

longitudinal force
lateral force

183
1
2
3
4

Bias-ply tire
Bias-belted tire
Radial tire

184
1
2
3
4

P175/70R14
Passenger car, 175 aspect ratio, 70-mm section width, Radial, 14-inch rim
Passenger car, 175 section width, 70-mm aspect ratio, Radial, 14-inch rim
Passenger car, 175 aspect ratio, 70-mm section width, Radial, 14-mm rim
Passenger car, 175 section width, 70-mm aspect ratio, Radial, 14-mm rim
2

53 of 65

 185
1
2
3
4

...
... (Tire vertical load)
...
...
skid number ... 100
1

186
1
2
3
4

Contact patch
Carcass
Sidewall
Rim
1

187
1
2
3
4

Cornering stiffness
Lateral force
Lateral force
Lateral force
Lateral force
3

188
1
2
3
4

Z
Aligning moment
Overturning moment
Rolling resistance moment
Brake torque
1

Camber angle Camber angle

Camber angle
Slip angle Slip angle
Slip angle

54 of 65

 189
1
2
3
4

Rollover

190
1
2
3
4

Rollover
Rollover 90 (X axis)
Rollover
Rollover (Outside wheels)
... Rollover
3

191

(Tread) 1.35 (C.G. Height)

0.45 Rollover Threshold (g )
1.5g
3.0g
0.3g
0.6g
1

1
2
3
4

192
1
2
3
4

Rollover Rollover
(Transient)
Yaw-Roll models
Quasi-static Rollover of a rigid vehicle models
Quasi-static Rollover of a suspended vehicle models

55 of 65

193
1
2
3
4

Rollover

Rollover Threshold
Roll stiffness

194
1
2
3
4

(Independent suspension)
Hotchkiss
Four Link
Swing Axle
De Dion
3

195
1
2
3
4

196
1
2
3
4

Anti-Dive suspension Geometry

Pitch
Full anti-dive (100%)
Full anti-pitch Caster
2

Leaf spring
Helical spring
Trailing arm
Torsion bar
3

56 of 65

 197
1
2
3
4

(Vertical clearance)
Chassis
Camber

198

(Solid axle rear suspension)

5 m/s2 weight transfer (Rear axle)
(CG.) 0.5 m (Wheel base) 2.5 m 1200 kg
300 N
600 N
1200 N
2400 N
3

1
2
3
4

199
1
2
3
4

Active Semi active suspension (Dynamic variation)

Function
Roll control
Road holding
Dive control
Squat control
2

57 of 65

 200
1
2
3
4

Carcass
Rim
Tube
Sidewall
3

201
1
2
3
4

P175/70R14 P185/60R15
Radial tire
P175/70R14 rim diameter P185/60R15
P175/70R14 aspect ratio P185/60R15
P175/70R14 (section width) P185/60R15
3

202

(Wheel angular velocity) 60

rad/s Tire effective rolling radius 0.25 m 20 m/s
slip ratio
0.25
0.5
0.75
1
1

1
2
3
4

203
1
2

15 m/s Slip ratio 0.2

(wheel angular velocity) Tire effective rolling
radius 0.25 m
12 rad/s
36 rad/s

58 of 65

3
4

48 rad/s
60 rad/s
3

204
1
2
3
4

(Lock up)

slip ratio

slip ratio
2

205
1
2
3
4

...

2 Adhesion Hysteresis
...

4

206
1
2
3
4

...
Reinforcement
Rolling resistance

59 of 65

 207
1
2
3
4

208
1

30 rad/s Tire
effective rolling radius 0.3 m
15 m/s slip ratio

0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
2

Cornering stiffness
Slip angle Cornering stiffness slip angle
(Linear)
Slip angle Cornering stiffness slip angle
(Non Linear)
Radial-ply Cornering stiffness Bias-ply
(Linear) Cornering stiffness Cornering
stiffness
4

209
1
2
3
4

4 4
Indicator

2

2
3
4

60 of 65

 210
1
2
3
4

Camber trust
(Non-vertical orientation)
slip

211
1
2
3
4

SAE (SAE tire axis system)

X
Y X
Z X
Slip angle XY
3

212

80 rad/s Tire
effective rolling radius 0.3 m 30 m/s slip ratio

0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
2

1
2
3
4

213
1
2

20 rad/s Tire
effective rolling radius 0.25 m 25 m/s slip ratio

0.2
0.4

61 of 65

3
4

0.6
0.8
4

214
1
2
3
4

P210/60R16
210 mm
194 mm
150 mm
126 mm
4

215
1
2
3
4

Rim P195/70R15
70 mm
15 inches
19.5 inches
55 mm
2

216
1
2
3
4

Factor Cornering stiffness

Vertical load

217
1
2

Bias-ply ply
Radial-ply ply

62 of 65

3
4

Bias-ply stiffness Radial-ply

Radial-ply Contact patch Bias-ply
2

218
1
2
3
4

P210/70R15
147 mm
150 mm
210 mm
225 mm
1

219
1
2

Rollover Threshold
Rollover Threshold
(Tread) Rollover Threshold Tread Rollover Threshold

(CG.) (h) Rollover Threshold h Rollover Threshold

Cross slope Rollover Threshold

Rollover
3

3
4

220
1
2
3
4

(Tread) 1.8 (CG. height, h) 1.8

Rollover Threshold ( g acceleration of gravity)
0.25g
0.5g
1g
2g
2

63 of 65

 221
1
2
3
4

Rollover

222
1
2
3
4

(Tread) 1.5 (CG. height, h) 0.75

Rollover Threshold ( g acceleration of gravity)
0.25g
0.5g
1g
2g
3

223
1
2
3
4

Rollover
Rollover Threshold
Roll Stiffness

(Tread)
3

64 of 65

 224
1
2
3
4

Rollover




3

225
1
2
3
4

226
1
2
3
4

4
Rollover




1

227
1
2
3
4

Leaf spring

65 of 65