Professional Documents
Culture Documents
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Sadraj:
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Uvod...
1.1 Akutna bol
Procjena boli.
2.1 Osnovni elementi procjene boli...
2.1.1 Lokacija boli.
2.1.2 Distribucija boli.
2.1.3 Kvaliteta boli.
2.1.4 Trajanje boli..
2.1.5 Nain pojavljivanja boli
2.1.6 Intenzitet boli
2.1.7 imbenici koji pogoravaju i smanjuju bol..
2.1.8 Utjecaj na aktivnosti svakodnevnog ivota i san..
2.1.9 Pridrueni simptomi..
2.1.10 Okolnosti i nain prve pojave boli..
2.1.11 Prethodni slini simptomi...
2.1.12 Prethodno lijeenje..
2.1.13 Trenutno lijeenje...
2.2 Dodatni elementi procjene boli
2.2.1 Socijalni status i radno mjesto..
2.2.2 Psihosocijalna anamneza...
2.2.3 Medicinska povijest bolesti...
2.3 Znakovi upozorenja i oteavajui znakovi ..
2.3.1 Znakovi upozorenja...
2.3.2 Oteavajui znakovi..
Menadment boli..
3.1 Procjena
3.2 Management.
3.3 Revizija
Uinkovita komunikacija
Akutna bol donjeg dijela lea.
5.1 Definicija akutnih bolova u donjem dijelu lea...
5.2 Etiologija i prevalencija akutnih bolova u donjem dijelu lea.
5.2.3 Uzroci akutne boli u donjem dijelu lea...
5.2.3.1 Nespecifina bol donjeg dijela lea...
5.2.3.2 Frakture..
5.2.3.3 Infekcije.
5.2.3.4 Tumori
5.2.3.5 Ankilozantni spondilitis.
5.2.3.6 Degenerativne bolesti kraljenice..
5.3 Uzimanje anamneze.
5.3.1 Anamneza boli..
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1. Uvod
Klinike smjernice za fizioterapiju kod akutne miino kotane boli
predstavljaju pregled znanstvenih dokaza o dijagnostici, prognozi i fizioterapiji
akutne miino kotane boli. Svrha im je facilitirati integraciju znanstvenih
dokaza s klinikom praksom te potaknuti koritenje fizioterapijskih intervencija
koje imaju znanstveno dokazan uinak, iskljuiti koritenje fizioterapijskih
intervencija koje su se pokazale neuinkovitima ili ak tetnima te procijeniti
kakvu ulogu ima koritenje fizioterapijskih intervencija kod kojih ne postoji
dovoljno znanstvenih dokaza o njihovoj uinkovitosti. U ovim smjernicama
nalaze se informacije o menadmentu akutne boli, komunikaciji izmeu
fizioterapeuta i pacijenata te o dijagnostici, prognozi i intervencijama kod
akutne miino kotane boli lumbalnog i prsnog dijela kraljenice, vrata, ramena
i prednjeg dijela koljena. Smjernice su namijenjene iskljuivo za akutne epizode
boli (trajanja kraeg od tri mjeseca), ne bave se specifinim bolestima ili
ozbiljnim stanjima. Nije im namjera propisivati intervencije, ve preporuiti
najefikasniji menadment akutne miino kotane boli.
Bol je biokemijska, fizika i psihika reakcija na mehanike, kemijske ili
toplinske podraaje iznad praga osjetljivosti receptora podraaja. Iako bol
susreemo vie puta u ivotu, teko ju je definirati jer je ona uvijek subjektivni
osjeaj. Predstavlja najei razlog za uzimanje lijekova i traenje pomoi od
zdravstvenih djelatnika (Eccleston, 2001.). Akutna i kronina bol danas se mogu
promatrati unutar biopsihosocijalnog modela (Engel, 1977.) koji prepoznaje
bioloki, psiholoki i socijalni aspekt boli. Ovaj model ne prepoznaje samo
somatski aspekt boli, ve bol objanjava kao krajnji rezultat poremeaja
nociceptivne funkcije koja utjee na cjelokupno funkcioniranje osobe i njenu
interakciju s okolinom. Iako saznanja o nocicepciji dolaze iz tradicionalne
medicinske znanosti, ona se ne mogu odvojiti od psiholokih aspekata
percepcije boli.
Bol je individualno iskustvo na koje utjee mnogo imbenika, kao to su
prethodno iskustvo, vjerovanja i stavovi, raspoloenje i sposobnost suoavanja.
Moe biti indikator oteenja tkiva, ali moe se pojaviti i ako nema znakova koji
upuuju na oteenje tkiva. Stupanj onesposobljenja u odnosu na razinu boli
razliit je izmeu pojedinaca, a takoer postoje varijacije osobnog odgovora na
sredstva i metode za smanjenje bolova (Eccleston, 2001.).
Uinkovito smanjenje boli smatra se ljudskim pravom (NHMRC, 1999.).
Netretirana bol moe imati nepovoljne psiholoke i fizioloke posljedice.
Pacijenti imaju pravo biti aktivno ukljueni u procjenu i menadment svoje boli.
Uinkovita terapija boli trebala bi biti fleksibilna i individualno prilagoena. Bol
je potrebno lijeiti u ranoj fazi jer se formirana, jaka bol tee lijei. S obzirom na
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razvoj novih metoda i lijekova, trebalo bi uvijek biti mogue smanjiti bol do
razine koju pacijent moe tolerirati.
1.1 Akutna bol
Akutna bol je termin koji se odnosi na bol u trajanju kraem od tri mjeseca
(Bonica, 1953., Merskey, 1979.). Uspjeno lijeenje boli u akutnoj fazi
neophodno je u prevenciji nastanka kronine boli koja predstavlja znaajan
individualni, socijalni i financijski teret. Kronina bol je bol koja je prisutna
due od tri mjeseca (Merskey i Bogduk, 1994.). Razlozi loeg lijeenja akutne
boli uglavnom se mogu svesti na neprikladno koritenje farmakoloke terapije i
pogreno shvaanje da bol nije tetna.
Potencijal razvoja kronine boli varira meu pojedincima. Tranzicija akutne u
kroninu bol ovisi o kombinaciji osobnih imbenika, vjerovanja i stavova te
emocionalnom stanju (Linton, 2002.). Ukoliko se bol ne smanjuje tijekom
vremena ili postoje ponavljajue epizode boli, moe se razviti trajna bol. Razvoj
kronine boli rezultat je malih, kumulativnih promjena ivotnog stila koje su se
morale poduzeti zbog podnoenja akutne miino kotane boli (Linton, 2002.).
Intenzitet, trajanje i vrsta boli utjeu na psihosocijalni odgovor, a on opet utjee
na razvoj dogaanja. Danas postoje jaki dokazi da psihosocijalni imbenici na
radnom mjestu utjeu na razvoj kronine boli. Zadovoljstvo poslom predstavlja
zatitni faktor protiv napredovanja akutne boli u donjem dijelu lea u kroninu.
Vano je identificirati osobe koje imaju povean rizik od razvoja kronine boli i
ranom intervencijom prevenirati tetne dogaaje.
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2. Procjena boli
Elementi procjene boli (tablica 1) omoguuju informacije koje fizioterapeuta
mogu upozoriti na postojanje ozbiljnije patologije. Ukoliko nisu prisutni ozbiljni
uzronici bolova (npr. fraktura), nije neophodno postavljati specifinu
patoanatomsku dijagnozu za uinkovit menadment akutne miino kotane
boli.
Tablica 1 Elementi procjene boli
Elementi procjene boli anamneza boli
Lokacija
Distribucija
Kvaliteta
Trajanje
Nain pojavljivanja
Intenzitet
imbenici koji pogoravaju bol
imbenici koji smanjuju bol
Utjecaj na aktivnosti svakodnevnog ivota
Pridrueni simptomi
Okolnosti i nain prve pojave boli
Prethodni slini simptomi
Prethodno lijeenje
Trenutno lijeenje
Izvor: Evidence-based Menadment of Acute Musculoskeletal Pain, Australian
Acute Musculoskeletal Pain Guidelines Group, 2003.
2.1 Osnovni elementi procjene boli
2.1.1 Lokacija boli
Lokacija boli predstavlja anatomsko mjesto na kojem dolazi do boli. To moe ili
ne mora biti mjesto gdje bol nastaje jer se moe raditi i o prenesenoj boli.
Svakako je potrebno pitati pacijenta koji dio tijela ga najvie boli i je li bol
poela na tom ili nekom drugom mjestu.
2.1.2 Distribucija boli
Prilikom procjene distribucije boli potrebno je odrediti regije u kojima se osjea
bol. ak i osobe koje se u poetku ale na bol koja se javlja posvuda mogu
opisati tone regije u kojima osjeaju bol. Za procjenu distribucije boli najbolje
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3. Menadment boli
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4. Uinkovita komunikacija
Uinkovita komunikacija neophodna je za uspjeh lijeenja boli. Svi posjeti
fizioterapeutu ukljuuju razmjenu informacija izmeu pacijenta i fizioterapeuta.
Inicijalno, informacije se prikupljaju kao dio klinike procjene to omoguava
fizioterapeutu donoenje fizioterapeutske dijagnoze. Nakon procjene vano je
nastaviti komunicirati s pacijentom i ponuditi mu objanjenje moguih uzroka
boli. Dvosmjerna komunikacija uvijek se treba poticati, a pacijentu mora biti
jasno to se oekuje od njega tijekom procesa fizioterapije.
U veini sluajeva akutne miino kotane boli uzrok nije specifian, a
patologija nije ozbiljna. Fizioterapeut prilikom objanjavanja treba koristiti
terminologiju koja je razumljiva te izbjegavati koristiti alarmirajue, neprikladne
ili netone termine koji se mogu krivo shvatiti. argon takoer treba izbjegavati.
Pisani materijali, kao to su dijagrami, mogu biti korisni u komunikaciji.
Broure i letci rijetko su korisni ako se samo daju pacijentu bez ikakve
komunikacije. Anatomski modeli facilitiraju vizualnu percepciju i korisni su za
demonstriranje dijelova tijela koji su zahvaeni boli, prilikom objanjavanja
uzroka boli i naina lijeenja.
Pacijenti mogu imati razliite strahove, vjerovanja i pogrene predodbe o
svojem problemu, njegovom uzroku i nainu suoavanja s boli. Fizioterapeut
treba uzeti u obzir ove imbenike tijekom informiranja i davanja podrke
pacijentu. Takoer, treba prepoznati eventualne zapreke prilikom razumijevanja
materije koju objanjava pacijentu. Ove zapreke mogu ukljuiti obrazovni
status, etniko porijeklo i nepoznavanje jezika. Ukoliko se fizioterapeutu ini da
ga pacijent nije dobro razumio, potrebno je promijeniti pristup i dodatno
objasniti sva nerazumljiva pitanja.
Istraivanja provedena na pacijentima sa subakutnim bolovima u donjem dijelu
lea pokazala su znaajno poveanje broja pacijenata koji su se vratili na posao
ukoliko im se prualo dovoljno informacija, podrke i ohrabrenja da ostanu
aktivni (Indahl i sur., 1995., 1998.). Jedno nerandomizirano istraivanje o
akutnoj kriobolji potvrdilo je da se povoljan ishod moe postii ukoliko se
prilikom terapije fokusira na strahove pacijenata i objasni im se da da provode
svoju rehabilitaciju s minimumom koritenja pasivnih intervencija (McGuirk i
sur., 2001.). Istraivanje koje su proveli Burton i suradnici (1999.) usporedilo je
koritenje edukativne broure koja je ohrabrivala pacijente da budu aktivni,
uvjeravala ih da kod njih ne postoji nikakav ozbiljni poremeaj, usmjeravala ih
na pozitivan stav te sadravala informacije kako da se aktivno ukljue u proces
lijeenja s koritenjem standardne broure koja je openito opisivala spinalno
oteenje i savjetovala pacijente da ne budu aktivni ukoliko pri aktivnostima
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Subakutna bol odnosi se na epizodu boli koja traje vie od pet tjedana, ali
manje od tri mjeseca (van Tulder i sur., 1997.).
Kronina bol definira se kao epizoda boli koja traje due od tri mjeseca
(Merskey i Bogduk, 1994.).
Internacionalno udruenje za istraivanje boli (International Association for the
Study of Pain, IASP) usvojilo je topografski temelj za definiranje akutne
kriobolje (Merskey i Bogduk, 1994.). IASP prepoznaje razliite oblike spinalne
boli: lumbalnu spinalnu bol, sakralnu spinalnu bol ili lumbosakralnu bol, a svi se
svrstavaju kao bol donjeg dijela lea. Ove definicije eksplicitno lociraju bol koja
zahvaa lumbalnu i sakralnu regiju kraljenice, a podruje na kojem se ona
javlja omeeno je sljedeim imaginarnim linijama:
Superiorno imaginarna transverzalna linija koja prolazi kroz vrh zadnjeg
torakalnog trnastog nastavka.
Inferiorno imaginarna transverzalna linija koja prolazi kroz posteriorne
sakrokokcigealne zglobove.
Lateralno vertikalne linije koje su postavljene tangencijalno na lateralne
rubove lumbalnog dijela m. erectores spinae te se nastavljaju prema
posteriornim superiornim i inferiornim ilijakalnim trnovima.
5.2 Etiologija i prevalencija akutnih bolova u donjem dijelu lea
Akutni bolovi u donjem dijelu lea mogu imati mnogo moguih uzroka,
ukljuujui sve bolesti, ozljede i druga oteenja koja pobuuju nociceptivne
mehanizme u ovom podruju. U tablici 2 nalaze se neki mogui uzroci
akutne boli u donjeg dijelu lea, ali bol ne korelira uvijek s prisutnou
odreenog stanja. S izuzetkom ozbiljnih stanja, nije potrebno identificirati
specifini uzrok da bi se uinkovito tretirala akutna bol u donjem dijelu lea.
Tablica 2 Stanja koja se mogu povezati s pojavom akutnih bolova u donjem
dijelu lea
Ozbiljna patologija
Fraktura (traumatska ili osteoporotina)
Tumor: primarni (mijelom, tumori kotanog,
hrskavinog, ivanog ili miinog tkiva); sekundarni
(prostate, dojke, plua, tiroidne lijezde, bubrega,
gastrointestinalni, melanom i sl.)
Infekcija (osteomijelitis, epiduralni apsces)
Neuropatski
Pritisak na ivani korijen, radikularna bol
poremeaji
Mehaniki poremeaji Istegnua i oteenja miia, fascije, ligamenata,
zglobnih struktura ili diska
Visceralni poremeaji Porijeklom iz abdominalnih struktura, zdjelice ili
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razliita ispitivaa (McCombe i sur., 1989.). Ukoliko bol postoji na vie lokacija,
za svaku je potrebno uzeti anamnezu.
5.3.1.2 Distribucija boli
Bol donjeg dijela lea moe se prenositi prema zdjelinom obruu, donjem
ekstremitetu, preponi ili perineumu. Bol se moe javiti u donjem dijelu lea te
na bilo kojem od ovih podruja. Vano je biti svjestan da moe biti prisutno vie
poremeaja istovremeno. Mogue je da poremeaj lumbalne kraljenice
uzrokuje somatsku prenesenu bol i radikularnu bol istovremeno. Primjerice,
oteen disk moe uzrokovati spinalnu bol i prenesenu bol, a za prolaps diska
karakteristina je radikularna bol. Klinika distinkcija izmeu radikularne i
somatske boli lei u njenoj distribuciji i kvaliteti. Bol koja se nalazi distalno od
koljena nije nuno radikularna bol. Somatska bol porijeklom iz lumbalnih
zigapofizealnih zglobova (Mooney i Robertson, 1976.; Fairbank i sur., 1981.;
Fukui i sur., 1997.) moe se prenositi distalno od koljena.
5.3.1.3 Kvaliteta boli
Radikularna bol je sijevajue, lancinirajue kvalitete (Smyth i Wright, 1959.), a
somatska prenesena bol obino je mukla, duboka bol, nalik pritisku (Kellgren,
1939:; Feinstein i sur., 1954.). Razliita kvalitativna obiljeja boli mogu pomoi
prilikom utvrivanja radi li se o somatskoj, radikularnoj ili obje vrste boli
istovremeno. Kvaliteta boli koju pacijent osjea te njezina topografska
distribucija utjeu na njezin menadment.
Bol u donjem dijelu lea ne treba mijeati ili smatrati sinonimom radikularne
boli (iijasa). Bez obzira to se bol u donjem dijelu lea moe pojaviti zajedno
s radikularnom boli, njihovi uzroci i mehanizam nastanka nisu isti (Bogduk i
McGuirk, 2002.) (tablica 6). Menadment radikularne boli nije u djelokrugu ove
smjernice.
Tablica 6 Usporedba somatske prenesene i radikularne boli
Karakteristike
Somatska prenesena bol Radikularna bol
Porijeklo boli
irenje boli iz dubokih Zbog
kemijske
ili
spinalnih
tkiva mehanike
iritacije
(ukljuujui miie i ivanih struktura
intervertebralni disk)
Lokacija boli
Bol u leima veeg je Unilateralna
bol
u
intenziteta od boli u donjem ekstremitetu koja
donjem ekstremitetu koja je veeg intenziteta nego
moe biti bilateralna
bol u leima
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Distribucija boli
Kvaliteta boli
Bol
se
koncentrira
proksimalno
od
stranjice i bedra, ali
moe se iriti i distalno,
ispod koljena
Duboka, mukla bol nalik
pritisku
Bol
se
koncentrira
distalno,
u
donjem
ekstremitetu i obino se
iri ispod koljena
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Jutarnja ukoenost
spondilitisa.
moe
ukazivati
na
postojanje
ankilozantnog
5.4.4 Frakture
Podatci o veoj traumi u anamnezi mogu ukazivati na nastanak frakture
(Scavone i sur., 1981.). Manja trauma nije rizini imbenik za frakture ukoliko
pacijent nema osteoporozu ili je stariji od 50 godina. U literaturi se navodi da su
pacijenti s osteoporotinim frakturama nakon manje traume obino stariji od te
dobi (Scavone i sur., 1981.). Koritenje kortikosteroida takoer predstavlja
rizini imbenik za razvoj osteoporoze.
5.4.5 Infekcija
Najvaniji znak sistemske infekcije je poviena tjelesna temperatura. Podatci iz
anamneze o znojenju ili nonom znojenju zahtijevaju iskljuenje osteomijelitisa,
discitisa, epiduralnog apscesa i drugih infekcija. Ozljeda koe ili sluznice
poveava rizik postojanja infekcije. Drugi mogui rizini imbenici ukljuuju
nedavne kirurke ili druge invazivne medicinske zahvate te traumu. Drugi
rizini imbenici za nastanak infekcije ukljuuju profesionalnu izloenost (npr.
bruceloza), putovanja i imunosupresiju (npr. izloenost Mycobacterium
tuberculosis). Kone infekcije takoer mogu predstavljati izvor spinalne
infekcije. Urinarne infekcije ili hematurija zahtijevaju obradu urinarnog trakta
kao mogueg izvora boli u donjem dijelu lea.
5.4.6 Tumori
Karakteristike koje ukazuju na postojanje tumora ukljuuju gubitak tjelesne
teine, dob, podatak o prethodnom postojanju tumora, izostanak poboljanja
nakon provedene terapije te produeno trajanje boli. Najznaajniji prediktor
postojanja tumora je podatak o prethodnom postojanju tumorske bolesti (Deyo i
Diehl, 1988.; van den Hoogen i sur., 1995.; Scavone i sur., 1981.). Najznaajniji
negativni prediktori postojanja tumora su dob manja od 50 godina, nepostojanje
prethodne tumorske bolesti, izostanak gubitka na tjelesnoj teini te poboljanje
nakon provedene terapije (van den Hoogen i sur., 1995.; Scavone i sur., 1981.).
Kod ovakvih pacijenata nije vjerojatno da je tumor uzrok bolova u donjem dijelu
lea. Kaalj koji traje due vrijeme te simptomi urinarne retencije takoer se
smatraju rizinim imbenicima za postojanje spinalnih metastaza i karcinom
prostate.
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kroninim bolovima u donjem dijelu lea te onima ija se bol u leima moe
povezati sa specifinim stanjem (npr. osteoartritis).
Vano je primijetiti da nedostatak dokaza ne znai da odreena intervencija
nema mjesto u menadmentu akutne boli u donjem dijelu lea. Ipak, trebalo bi
preferirati koritenje intervencija za koje postoje dokazi o uinkovitosti gdje god
je to prikladno. Odluke o vrsti fizioterapije trebaju se temeljiti na znanju te
individualnim karakteristikama i potrebama odreenog pacijenta.
5.9.1 Savjetovanje o aktivnom ivotnom stilu
Velika veina istraivanja bavila se uinkom nastavljanja normalne aktivnosti na
ispitanicima koji su imali razliito trajanje bolova (akutno i kronino) te na
pacijentima sa specifinim stanjima (npr. osteoartritis).
Hagne i suradnici (2002.) te Waddell i suradnici (1997.) proveli su sustavne
preglede literature koji su ukljuili 11 randomiziranih kontroliranih studija.
etiri studije ukljuivale su jo neke intervencije (Indahl i sur., 1995.; Lidequist
i sur., 1984.; Lindstrom i sur., 1992.; Linton i sur., 1999.), a jedna je ukljuivala
samo populaciju s radikularnim bolovima (Vroomen i sur., 1999.). Istraivanje
koje su proveli Wiesel i suradnici (1980.) usporeivalo je mirovanje u krevetu s
kretanjem te koritenje analgetika kod profesionalnih vojnika. Zakljuak ovog
istraivanja bio je da odmor u krevetu smanjuje bol u odnosu na kretanje, ali ovo
istraivanje nema zadovoljavajuu kvalitetu te se ne moe primijeniti na opu
populaciju.
Ostale etiri studije ukljuile su pacijente s mijeanim trajanjem bolova
(akutnim i kroninim) sa ili bez irenja boli u donji ekstremitet. Dva istraivanja
(Philips i sur., 1991.; Malmivaara i sur., 1995.) izvjeuju o ishodima na bol za
grupe koje su dobile savjet da ostanu aktivne te onima kojima je preporueno
mirovanje. Nije pronaena statistiki znaajna razlika u intenzitetu boli
kratkorono (<3 tjedna) izmeu grupa, no Malmivaara i suradnici (1995.)
izvjeuju o maloj, ali statistiki znaajnoj redukciji intenziteta boli (0.8 boda na
ljestvici od 11) kod aktivne grupe u srednjoronom razdoblju (>3-12 tjedana).
Obje studije pronale su dokaze o brem oporavku kod grupe koja je ostala
aktivna. Malmivaara i suradnici (1995.) zakljuuju da je savjet o aktivnosti imao
mali koristan uinak na funkcionalni status i trajanje bolovanja u usporedbi s
dva dana leanja u krevetu te u usporedbi s ispitanicima koji su provodili
specifian reim tjelovjebe nadopunjen redovitim pokretima ekstenzije i
laterofleksije. Tree istraivanje (Fordyce i sur., 1986.) usporedilo je primjenu
analgetika, vjebi i aktivnosti koja se provodila kroz odreeno vrijeme s
primjenom istih mjera koje su se dozirale s obzirom na toleranciju pacijenata na
bol. Zakljuili su da postoji manja vjerojatnost progresije akutne u kroninu bol
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ispitanike samo kroz 4 dana pa nisu poznati dugoroni uinci ovakve primjene
topline. Ovakvo lijeenje ne koristi se rutinski i nisu provoena istraivanja o
intermitentnom koritenju topline.
5.9.3 Informiranje pacijenata putem pisanih broura
Pisane informacije za pacijente ukljuuju broure i letke koji sadre savjete
utemeljene na dokazima o etiologiji i tijeku akutne boli u donjem dijelu lea,
zajedno sa potporom i savjetom o aktivnom nainu ivota. Ove informacije
mogu se dodatno koristiti uz verbalnu komunikaciju sa zdravstvenim
djelatnikom.
etiri randomizirane kontrolirane studije istraivale su uinak pisanih
informacija za pacijente na akutnu bol u donjem dijelu lea (Cherkin i sur.,
1996.; Cherkin i sur., 1998.; Burton i sur., 1999.; Hazard i sur., 2000.; Roberts i
sur., 2002.). Format i nain davanja pisanih podataka u ovim studijama znaajno
je varirao.
Tri studije (Cherkin i sur., 1996.; Cherkin i sur., 1998.; Hazard i sur., 2000.)
utvrdile su da informiranje pacijenata putem pisanih materijala u usporedbi s
neinformiranjem pacijenata na ovaj nain nema utjecaja na bol, onesposobljenje
ili trajanje bolovanja. U usporedbi s McKenzijevim vjebama i spinalnom
manipulacijom, pisani materijali pokazali su se manje uinkoviti u smanjenju
boli i onesposobljenja (Cherkin i sur., 1998.). Ipak, dva istraivanja (Burton i
sur., 1999.; Roberts i sur., 2002.) koristila su pisani materijal koji se sastojao od
pozitivnog stava o ostajanju aktivnim u kombinaciji s verbalnim savjetovanjem.
Kod njih je dolo do poboljanja informiranosti i ponaanja pacijenata,
smanjenja strahova, boli i stupnja onesposobljenja u usporedbi s kontrolnom
skupinom koja nije dobivala dodatne pisane materijale ili je dobila tradicionalnu
pasivnu brouru.
Little i suradnici (2001.) usporeivali su uinak detaljne broure o samostalnom
rjeavanju problema u usporedbi s verbalnim savjetovanjem o redovitom
vjebanju, kombinacijom broure i savjeta te grupom koja nije dobivala nikakvu
intervenciju. Nakon tjedana dana korisni uinci pokazali su se u grupi koja je
dobivala verbalne savjete ili brouru, ali ne i u onoj koja je dobivala
kombinaciju ovih intervencija. Ipak, nakon tri tjedna nije bilo statistiki
znaajne razlike meu grupama ni tetnih posljedica.
Randomizirano kontrolirano istraivanje koje su proveli Linton i Andersson
(2000.) usporeivalo je utjecaj edukacijskog pamfleta, primanje tjednog,
detaljnijeg informacijskog paketa i pohaanje dvosatnih sastanaka koji su se
fokusirali na aktivaciju strategija suoavanja. Trajanje boli nije bilo definirano,
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ali opisano je da su subjekti imali akutne ili subakutne spinalne bolove i manje
od tri mjeseca bolovanja u prethodnoj godini. Nakon jedne godine nije bilo
nikakve razlike u razini boli meu ispitanicima. Ipak, koritenje bolovanja i
zdravstvenih usluga bilo je manje kod grupe koja je sudjelovala u sastancima o
strategijama suoavanja.
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korisne uinke. Ipak, samo jedna studija (Postacchini i sur., 1988.) izvjetava o
pozitivnim uincima kod pacijenata s akutnom, nespecifinom boli u donjem
dijelu lea; vjerojatno je da su ostala istraivanja ukljuivala pacijente s
radikularnom boli i ostalim specifinim stanjima. Sva istraivanja prethodno su
opisana u pregledima literature koje su proveli Koes i suradnici (1996.), van
Tulder i suradnici (1997.) te Shekelle i suradnici (1992.).
Clinical Evidence (2002.) izvjetava da su ozbiljne komplikacije spinalne
manipulacije kod bolova u donjem dijelu lea rijetke. O tome postoje tri
pregleda literature (Haldeman i Rubinstein, 1992.; Stevinson i Ernst, 2002.;
Assendelft i sur., 1996.). Iz ovih studija moe se zakljuiti da su ozbiljne
komplikacije spinalne manipulacije (primjerice sindrom caude equine) vrlo
rijetke kada manipulaciju obavlja kvalificirani strunjak, nakon procjene
potencijalnih kontraindikacija za izvoenje.
Pengel i suradnici (2002.) radili su pregled intervencija za subakutnu bol u
donjem dijelu lea. Dvije studije bavile su se uincima spinalne manipulacije na
pcijentima s nespecifinom boli donjeg dijela lea koja je trajala izmeu tri
tjedna i est mjeseci. Prvo istraivanje (Hsieh i sur., 1992.) usporeivalo je
uinke manipulacije, masae, koritenja korzeta i TENS-a na razinu
onesposobljenja te pronalo znaajnu razliku kod grupa koje su koristile
manipulaciju i TENS. Andersson i suradnici (1999.) nisu pronali nikakvu
razliku o razini boli i drugim mjerama ishoda meu pacijenatima koji su primali
spinalnu manipulaciju u usporedbi s ostalim pacijentima.
Randomizirano kontrolirano istraivanje koje je proveo Hsieh sa suradnicima
(2002.) usporeivalo je korisnost manipulacije u odnosu na ostale manualne
terapije i kolu za lea (na 200 ispitanika). Rezultati govore u prilog tome da
manipulacija nema bolje uinke od ostalih terapija za akutnu bol donjeg dijela
lea kod boli koja traje izmeu 3 tjedna i 6 mjeseci.
5.9.5 Akupunktura
Clinical Evidence (2002.) citira dva sustavna pregleda literature o korisnosti
akupunkture. Cochrane sustavni pregled literature koji je proveo van Tulder sa
suradnicima (2002.) sadri 11 randomiziranih kontroliranih istraivanja o
akupunkturi, ali samo istraivanje koje je proveo Garvey sa suradnicima (1989.)
ispunjava kriterije ove smjernice. Metaanaliza koju su proveli Ernst i White
(1998.) ukljuila je 12 randomiziranih kontroliranih istraivanja, a sva, osim
onog koje je proveo Garvey sa suradnicima (1989.), ukljuivala su ispitanike s
kroninim bolovima u donjem dijelu lea.
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tretmana kod pacijenata s akutnom boli u donjem dijelu lea sa ili bez irenja
bolova u donje ekstremitete. Nije pronaena nikakva znaajna razlika u razini
bolova ili mobilnosti. Lindstrom i suradnici (1992.) takoer su ukljuili
pacijente s akutnim bolovima u donjem dijelu lea sa ili bez isijavanja u donje
ekstremitete, usporeujui uobiajenu skrb s vjebama (aerobnim vjebama i
vjebama jaanja). Izvjestili su o znaajno nioj stopi bolovanja kod grupe
pacijenata koja je vjebala nakon 6 i 12 tjedana te nepostojanje razlika u
funkcionalnom statusu nakon 1 godine. Stankovic i Johnell (1990.) ukljuili su u
istraivanje pacijente kod kojih je trajanje boli u donjem dijelu lea trajalo krae
od 4 tjedna te usporedili jedan tretman kole za lea s McKenzijevim vjebama
za ponovno uspostavljanje i odravanje lumbalne lordoze. Izvijestili su o
znaajno manjoj razini boli nakon tri tjedna i godinu dana, manje ponovne
pojave bolova i manje izostanaka s posla kod grupe koja je provodila vjebe.
Davies i suradnici (1979.) potvrdili su da ne postoji znaajna statistika razlika u
poboljanju nakon 2 i 4 tjedna izmeu primjene kratkovalne dijatermije s
ekstenzijskim i izometrikim fleksijskim vjebama nasuprot primjene
kratkovalne dijatermije bez vjebi kod mijeane populacije s akutnim i
kroninim bolovima. Zylbergold i Piper (1981.) usporedili su pacijente koji su
dobili savjete o kunoj njezi s grupom koja je vjebala, primala termoterapiju i
manualnu terapiju te nije potvrena znaajna razlika intenziteta bolova nakon
jednog mjeseca kod populacije s poremeajem lumbalnog diska.
Dodatno, uz istraivanja koja je koristio Bigos sa suradnicima (1994.), van
Tulder i suradnici (1997.) identificirali su dodatnih 7 studija (Faas i sur., 1993.;
Malmivaara i sur., 1995.; Waterworth i Hunter, 1985.; Nwuga, 1982.; Nwuga i
Nwuga, 1985.; Farrell i Twomey, 1982.; Delitto i sur., 1993.). Ova istraivanja
ukljuivala su mijeanu populaciju s akutnom i kroninom boli sa ili bez
iradijacije ili istraivanja obavljena iskljuivo na enskoj populaciji (Nwuga,
1982.; Nwuga i Nwuga, 1985.).
Cochrane sustavni pregled literature koji je obavio van Tulder sa suradnicima
(2002.) izdvojio je samo jednu studiju (Underwood i Morgan, 1998.) koja je
ukljuivala pacijente s akutnim bolovima u donjem dijelu lea bez iradijacije
bolova od 12 randomiziranih kontroliranih studija na uinku vjebanja na pojavu
akutne boli u donjem dijelu lea. etiri od 12 studija dobile su ocjenu visoke
kvalitete (Cherkin i sur., 1998.; Malmivaara i sur., 1995.; Faas i sur., 1993.;
Nwuga i Nwuga, 1985.). Uinak vjebanja usporeivao se s uobiajenom skrbi,
manualnom terapijom, kolom za lea i koritenjem nesteroidnih antireumatika
u 8 istraivanja. Nisu pronaene razlike u rezultatima istraivanja koja su
usporeivala primjenu vjebi s uobiajenom skrbi (Faas i sur., 1993.; Seferlis i
sur., 1998.; Underwood i Morgan, 1998.) ili primjenu nesteroidnih antireumatika
(Waterworth i Hunter, 1985.). Dvije (Farrell i Twomey, 1982.; Nwuga, 1982.) od
pet studija koje su usporeivale utjecaj vjebi i manipulacije izvijestile su o
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sporijem oporavku i manje poboljanja kod grupe koja je vjebala. Ostale tri
studije nisu pronale nikakvu statistiki znaajnu razliku izmeu skupina. etiri
istraivanja usporedila su utjecaj vjebi s placebom koji se sastojao od
neaktivnog tretmana mirovanjem (Malmivaara i sur., 1995.; Gilbert i sur.,
1995.), placebo tretmana ultrazvukom (Faas i sur., 1993.) te davanja pisanog
edukativnog materijala (Cherking i sur., 1998.). Tri studije izvijestile su da nema
razlika u ishodu boli izmeu grupa, a jedna je izvijestila o boljem ishodu kod
placebo skupine (ona koja je mirovala u krevetu).
Postoje brojna istraivanja koja su usporedila ekstenzijske i fleksijske vjebe s
drugim terapijama. Pet ovakih studija istraivalo je ekstenzijske vjebe
provoene u skladu s McKenzijevim konceptom. Tri su usporeivale
McKenzijev koncept s drugim terapijama; jedna visokokvalitetna studija
(Cherking i sur., 1998.) nije pronala nikakvu razliku u openitom poboljanju
izmeu McKenzijeve terapije i manipulacije ili edukativne broure. Dva
istraivanja (Stankovic i Johnell, 1990.; Underwood i Morgan, 1998.) izvjeuju
o manjoj razini boli nakon McKenzijevih vjebi u usporedbi s jednim
tretmanom kole za lea te nepostojanje znaajne razlike u razini boli ili
funkcioniranju izmeu McKenzijevih vjebi i uobiajene skrbi. Malmivaara i
suradnici (1995.) koji nisu provodili ekstenzijske vjebe prema McKenzijevim
principima izvjeuju o znaajno boljem ishodu glede razine boli za kontrolnu
grupu (koja je odravala uobiajene aktivnosti) u odnosu na grupu koja je
provodila vjebe te grupu koja je 2 dana mirovala u krevetu nakon 3 i 12
tjedana. Williamsove fleksijske i McKenzijeve ekstenzijske vjebe usporeivale
su se u dvije studije (Nwuga i Nwuga, 1985.; Delitto i sur., 1993.). Nwuga i
Nwuga (1985.) izvjestili su o znaajno boljem ishodu na razinu bolova kod
skupine koja je provodila McKenzie vjebe, a Delitto i suradnici (1993.) o
boljem funkcionalnom ishodu kod pacijenata koji su provodili McKenzijevu
terapiju.
Pregled literature koji je proveo Faas (1996.) ukljuio je randomizirane
kontrolirane studije za bolove u donjem dijelu lea koje su objavljene izmeu
1991. i 1995. Ukljueno je 11 studija, a etiri od njih ukljuivale su pacijente s
akutnim bolovima u donjem dijelu lea (Faas i sur., 1993.; Malmivaara i sur.,
1995.; Stankovic i Johnell, 1990:, Delitto i sur., 1993.) te jednu koja je ukljuila
pacijente sa subakutnom boli u donjem dijelu lea (Lindstrom i sur., 1992.).
Njihovi rezultati opisani su u saetku pregleda koje su proveli van Tulder i
suradnici (2002.) te Bigos i suradnici (1994.).
Hides i suradnici (1996.) evaluirali su uinak reima vjebanja na oporavak mm.
multifidi nakon inicijalne epizode bolova u donjem dijelu lea, na temelju
saznanja da vjebe za mm. multifidi i m. transversus abdominis smanjuju bolove
kod pacijenata s kroninim bolovima u donjem dijelu lea. Istraivanje je
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1994.; Koes i van den Hoogen, 1994.; Evans i Richards, 1996.; Waddell i sur.,
1997.; van Tulder i sur., 1997.; Hagen i sur., 2002.).
Od etiri dostupne studije koje su identificirale 11 randomiziranih kontroliranih
istraivanja, 10 je ukljuivalo mijeane populacije. Sedam istraivanja (Gilbert i
sur., 1985.; Deyo i sur., 1986.; Postacchini i sur., 1988., Szpalsci i Hayez, 1992.;
Wilkinson, 1995.; Malmivaara i sur., 1995.; Wiesel i sur., 1980.) koja su
zadovoljila kriterije opisana su u ovoj smjernici.
Dvije od sedam studija ukljuenih u ovaj pregled literature usporeivale su
mirovanje u krevetu s kretanjem (Malmivaara i sur., 1995.; Wilkinson, 1995.).
Istraivanje koje je proveo Malmivaara sa suradnicima (1995.) uporedilo je dva
dana mirovanja u krevetu s vjebama za mobilizaciju i savjetovanjem o
nastavku kretanja u granicama tolerancije. Manja poboljanja razine boli
primijeena su kod grupe koja je odravala razinu pokretanja, ali nisu bila
kliniki relevantna. Istraivanje je potvrdilo da su funkcija, brzina oporavka i
trajanje bolovanja znaajno poboljani kod aktivne skupine nakon 3 i 12 tjedana.
Wilkinson (1995.) nije pronaao nikakvu statistiki znaajnu razliku u funkciji
ili brzini oporavka kod pacijenata koji su mirovali dva dana i onih koji su ostalih
aktivni.
etiri od sedam studija usporeivalo je mirovanje u krevetu s ostalim
tretmanima. Gilbert i suradnici (1985.) usporeivali su etverodnevno mirovanje
u krevetu s etiri dana mirovanja s primjenom vjebi i edukacijom s grupom
koja je dobivala samo vjebe i edukaciju te grupom koja nije dobivala nikakav
tretman. Malmivaara i suradnici (1995.) usporeivali su dva dana mirovanja u
krevetu s uobiajenom aktivnou s dodatkom mobilizacijskih vjebi te grupu s
uobiajenim aktivnostima bez mirovanja. Nije pronaena nikakva statistiki
znaajna razlika ni u jednom istraivanju. Postacchini i suradnici (1988.)
analizirali su podgrupu pacijenata s akutnom, nespecifinom boli te usporedili
mirovanje u krevetu s manipulacijama, nesteroidnim antireumaticima,
fizioterapijom koja se sastojala od lagane masae, elektroanalgezije i dijatermije
te placebom i nisu pronali nikakvu statistiki znaajnu razliku razine boli i
funkcionalnih rezultata. Wiesel i suradnici (1980.) su utvrdili da mirovanje u
krevetu smanjuje bolove za oko 60% u usporedbi s pacijentima koji su se kretali,
u istraivanju na profesionalnim vojnicima. Bol se dodatno smanjila nakon
koritenja analgetika.
Dva istraivanja usporeivala su trajanje mirovanja u krevetu. Deyo i suradnici
(1986.) usporedili su sedam dana s dva dana mirovanja. Nisu pronaene
statistiki znaajne razlike razine bolnosti, funkcije ili brzine oporavka nakon tri
i 12 tjedana, ali dvodnevno mirovanje rezultiralo je znaajno kraim bolovanjem
od sedmodnevnog mirovanja. Szpalski i Hayez (1992.) usporedili su uinke
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izostankom intervencije, ali nije opisalo trajanje boli. Druge studije koje su se
bavile akutnim, nespecifinim bolovima donjeg dijela lea nisu pronaene.
Doran i Newell (1991.) usporedili su koritenje korzeta u trajanju od 3 tjedna s
manipulacijom dva puta tjedno, terapijom koja se sastojala od raznih
intervencija (osim manipulacije) te se provodila dva puta tjedno i redovitog
koritenja paracetamola. Hsieh i suradnici (1992.) usporedili su koritenje
vrstog korzeta i spinalnu manipulaciju koja se provodila tri puta tjedno, masau
mekih tkiva tri puta tjedno te koritenje TENS-a u trajanju od 8h. Valle-Jones i
suradnici (1992.) usporedili su koritenje elastine potpore za lea sa
savjetovanjem o aktivnostima.
Doran i Newell (1975.) te Hsieh i sur., (1992.) nisu izvijestili o statistiki
znaajnim razlikama u ishodu izmeu koritenja lumbalnih ortoza i ostalih
tretmana. Doran i Newell (1975.) nisu pronali nikakvu razliku u prosjenom
poboljanju izmeu razliitih intervencija. Hsieh i suradnici (1992.) nisu
pronali nikakvu znaajnu razliku u funkcionalnom ishodu izmeu grupa nakon
etiri tjedan praenja. Valle-Jones i suradnici (1992.) izvjeuju da koritenje
lumbalne potpore znaajno smanjuje bol, poboljava oporavak i sposobnost
povratka na posao nakon tri tjedna u usporedbi samo sa savjetovanjem o
aktivnostima.
Produeno koritenje lumbalne ortoze povezano je sa tetnim uincima, kao to
su smanjena miina jakost, ali ne postoje jasni dokazi da se ovo odnosi na
bolove u donjem dijelu lea. Lani osjeaj sigurnosti, iritacija koe i generalna
neugoda mogu se povezati s koritenjem lumbalnih ortoza (Bigos i sur., 1994.).
5.9.12 Masaa
Masaa je esto koriten oblik terapije kod akutnih i kroninih bolova u leima.
Clinical Evidence (2002.) sadri dva sustavna pregleda literature (Furlan i sur.,
2000.; Ernst, 1999.) koji nisu pronali nikakvu razliku u koritenju masae u
usporedbi sa spinalnom manipulacijom te koritenjem TENS-a u odnosu na
razinu bolova, funkcionalni status te mobilnost.
Tri randomizirana kontrolirana istraivanja bila su ukljuena u oba pregleda
literature, a sva su imala metodoloka ogranienja. Istraivanje koje je proveo
Godfrey sa suradnicima (1984.) jedino je koje je specifino ukljuivalo pacijente
s akutnim bolovima donjeg dijela lea (u trajanju kraem od 2 tjedna). Rezultati
su pokazali da je kod sve tri grupe ispitanika (onih koji su dobivali masau,
spinalnu manipulaciju i elektrinu stimulaciju) dolo do poboljanja u odnosu na
inicijalno stanje te nisu pronaene nikakve znaajne razlike izmeu skupina
ispitanika nakon dva do tri tjedna praenja. Hoehler i suradnici (1981.) ukljuili
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zbog bolova izmeu lopatica ili na dorzumu, a 11% prezentiralo ih se s boli koja
se protezala pojasno ili sijevajue interkostalno zbog zahvaenosti interkostalnih
ivaca. 7% imalo je bolove u prednjem dijelu prsnog koa, a 39% znakove
neurolokog deficita. Prosjeni interval izmeu javljanja boli i poetka lijeenja
bio je 4 mjeseca.
Informacije o karakteristikama bolova kod bolesnika s primarnim tumorom
podruja prsne kraljenice ograniene su. U jednom istraivanju provedenom na
29 bolesnika s malignom boleu, njih 9 imalo je tumor podruja torakalne
kraljenice, a kod svih je bol trajala due od 3 mjeseca te je dolo do
zahvaenosti spinalnih korijenova i/ili spinalne modine (Delamarter i sur.,
1990.). U jednom drugom istraivanju, provedenom na 22 bolesnika sa
spinalnim osteoidnim osteomom i osteoblastomom, njih 6 imalo ga je na
podruju prsne kraljenice (Ozaki i sur., 2002.). Kod samo dvoje od ovih
bolesnika bol je trajala tri mjeseca ili krae. Kod jednog se osteoidni osteom
prezentirao sa skoliozom, a kod drugog s paralizom. Bolesnici koji su due
vrijeme trpili bolove javljali su se zbog bolova, skolioze, spastine diplegije i
bolova u nogama. Iako je uzorak bio mali, rezultati istraivanja sugeriraju da se
bolna skolioza i neuroloki znakovi u donjim ekstremitetima povezani s
bolovima u prsnoj kraljenici mogu smatrati znakovima upozorenja na primarni
malignitet prsne kraljenice.
6.2.1.1.2 Upalne bolesti zglobova
Ankilozantni spondilitis moe zahvatiti diskovertebralne, zigapofizealne,
kostovertebralne i kostotransverzalne zglobove te paravertebralne ligamentarne
strukture prsne kraljenice (Khan, 1994.). Ankiloza ovih struktura moe dovesti
do smanjenja mogunosti prsne ekspanzije (Stewart i sur., 1976.). Ipak, vrlo je
malo vjerojatno da e kod ovih osoba jedini simptom biti prsna spinalna bol.
Dijagnoza se obino potvruje radiolokim nalazom sakroileitisa (Calin, 1993.).
Reumatoidni artritis rijetko zahvaa podruje prsne kraljenice (Hastings,
1994.). Moe zahvatiti kostotransverzalne i kostovertebralne zglobove te
intervertebralne diskove prsne kraljenice (Weinberg i sur., 1972.; Bywaters,
1974.). Rijetko se, u epiduralnom podruju, javi zigapofizealni sinovitis
(Hastings, 1994.). Kod reumatoidnog artritisa ee se javlja osteoporoza s
pridruenim kompresivnim frakturama torakalne kraljenice.
6.2.1.1.3 Infekcije
Vjerojatnost da infekcija uzrokuje bolove u leima manja je od 0.01% (Khan,
1994.). U infekcije koje mogu uzrokovati bolove u podruju prsne kraljenice
ubrajamo osteomijelitis, discitis te epiduralne infekcije.
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vei rizik za razvoj umjerenih do teih bolova u leima te 2.6 (95% CI 2.0, 3.2)
puta vei rizik od onesposobljenja (Huang i sur., 1994.).
6.2.1.1.5 Protruzija intervertebralnog diska
Protruzija intervertebralnog diska morfoloko je stanje prsne kraljenice koje ne
treba mijeati s pojmom diskogene boli. Torakalna protruzija diska nije esto
stanje te sudjeluje sa samo 0.15-1.8% svih kirurki lijeenih abnormalnosti
intervertebralnih diskova (Love i Schorn, 1965.; Otani i sur., 1983.; Bhole i
Gilmer, 1984.). Zahvaa oba spola podjednako, a ee se javlja izmeu etvrtog
i estog desetljea ivota (Otani i sur., 1982.; Bhole i gilmer, 1984.). Iako su
torakalne protruzije diska opisane na svim razinama, njih 75% dogodi se ispod
razine Th8, a najee se dogode na segmentu Th11-12 gdje je najvea
mobilnost prsne kraljenice (Love i Schorn, 1965.; Haley i Perry, 1950.; Arce i
Dohrmann, 1985.). Najee se radi o centralnim protruzijama (Love i Schorn,
1965.).
Protruzije diska u prsnoj kraljenici sa ili bez hipertrofije fasetnog zgloba mogu
uzrokovati spinalnu stenozu te kompresiju spinalne modine sa znakovima
mijelopatije (Skubic, 1993.). Ovo ukljuuje slabost u nogama, spasticitet,
ataksiju, parestezije te poremeaje mikcije i defekacije s pridruenom
disfunkcijom sfinktera. Treba ih diferencirati od drugih uzroka neurolokog
deficita kao to su maligne bolesti spinalne modine i multipla skeroza.
Kod protruzije diska prsne kraljenice mogu se pojaviti radikularni simptomi. U
istraivanju koje je obuhvatilo 67 bolesnika s radikularnim simptomima,
najee bolovima i disestezijama, njih 93% imalo je simptome koji se mogu
pripisati mijelopatiji, a 42% je imalo simptome koji se mogu pripisati
mijelopatiji i radikulopatiji (Russel, 1989.). Kod onih s mijelopatijom jednako
su bili zastupljeni senzoriki i motoriki ispadi, a kod njih 57% nain javljanja
bio je postepen. Kod 13% bolesnika simptomi su nastupili naglo, a kod 24%
bolesnika poetak je bio intermitentan s tendencijom pogoravanja. Dakle,
mijelopatija uglavnom ima postepen nain javljanja simptoma.
Nema podataka koji bi povezivali protruziju diska prsne kraljenice s bolovima
ukoliko su neuroloki znakovi odsutni.
6.2.1.2 Mehaniki uzrokovana bol prsne kraljenice
Strukture koje mogu uzrokovati mehaniku bol prsne kraljenice ukljuuju
intervertebralne diskove, fasetne, kostovertebralne i kostotransverzalne
zglobove, ali je vrlo teko odrediti specifinu strukturu koja uzrokuje bol.
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Neki autori izvjestili su da je do 40% uzroka boli u donjem dijelu lea zapravo
izazvano poremeajima na prsnom dijelu kraljenice i torakolumbalnom
prijelazu (Maigne, 1980.). No, dijagnostike tehnike na kojima se temelje ove
tvrdnje nisu dokazane valjanosti.
6.2.2 Prevalencija stanja koja uzrokuju akutnu torakalnu spinalnu bol
Nizozemska klinika za bol izvjetava o relativnoj incidenciji cervikalne,
torakalne i lumbalne spinalne boli u omjeru od 5:2:20 (Stokler i sur., 1993.).
Istraivanjem na 1975 pacijenata potvreno je da se kod 16% pacijenata radilo o
bolovima podruja prsne kraljenice (Deyo i Diehl, 1988.). U havajskom
istraivanju provedenom na 645 postmenopauzalnih ena, prevalencija bolova u
prethodne 4.3 godine bila je 7.6% za bolove u vratu i iznad lopatica te 4.8% za
bolove u podruju omeenom lopaticama i najniim rebrima (Huang i sur.,
1994.). Podatci o relativnoj prevalenciji odreenih stanja koja su u podlozi
torakalnih bolova nalaze se u tablici 13.
Tablica 13 Relativna prevalencija lokalnih uzroka torakalne boli
Frekvencija
Lokalni uzroci
Prevalencija
Rijetka stanja Primarni
i 0.63% (Deyo i sur., 1988.)
sekundarni tumori
Protruzija diska
0.15%
svih
kirurki
lijeenih
abnormalnosti diska (Love i Schorn,
1965.)
Reumatoidni artritis Nepoznata
Spinalna infekcija
<0.1% (Liang i Komaroff, 1982.)
Neuobiajena Traumatske frakture Nepoznata
stanja
Uobiajena
Somatska bol
16% svih pacijenata koji se javljaju u
stanja
primarnu zdravstveni zatitu (Deyo i
Diehl, 1988.)
Osteoporotine
6.5% u dobi izmeu 50-59 godina
frakture
starosti te 77.8% kod starijih od 90
godina (Melton i sur., 1989.)
Izvor: Evidence-based Menadment of Acute Musculoskeletal Pain, Australian
Acute Musculoskeletal Pain Guidelines Group, 2003.
6.3 Uzimanje anamneze
Trenutno ne postoje univerzalno prihvaene metode za uzimanje anamneze ni
znanstveno validirani elementi anamneze povezani s akutnom torakalnom
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Infekcija
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Nono znojenje
Postojanje rizinih faktora za infekciju
(postojanje neke bolesti u podlozi,
imunosupresija, penetrantna rana)
Maligna bolest u povijesti bolesti
Tumor
ivotna dob > 50
Izostanak poboljanja usprkos terapiji
Neobjanjiv gubitak tjelesne teine
Istovremena bol na vie mjesta
Bol u mirovanju
Nona bol
Bol ili teina u prsima
Ostala ozbiljna stanja
Promjena poloaja ili pokreta nema
uinka na bol
Abdominalna bol
Kratkoa daha, kaalj
Izvor: Evidence-based Menadment of Acute Musculoskeletal Pain, Australian
Acute Musculoskeletal Pain Guidelines Group, 2003.
6.4 Fizioterapijski pregled
Tehnike fizioterapijskog pregleda prsne kraljenice temelje se na opim
principima fizioterapijskog pregleda, s naglaskom na prilagodbu tehnika koje se
koriste za pregled lumbalne kraljenice. Podatci o pouzdanosti fizikalnih
znakova prilikom pregleda prsne kraljenice ogranieni su.
6.4.1 Inspekcija
Svrha inspekcije je identifikacija vidljivih abnormalnosti. U kontekstu prsne
kraljenice to oznaava detekciju posturalnih abnormalnosti ili deformiteta.
Postura kraljenice moe utjecati na mogui opseg pokreta (Magarey, 1994.).
bol utjee na posturu, a posturalne abnormalnosti mogu utjecati na razvoj
spinalnih bolnih sindroma (Enwemeka i sur., 1986.). Ipak, uzrono posljedina
povezanost nije utvrena.
U jednoj studiji koja je istraivala koliko je slaganje u nalazima izmeu 3
razliita ispitivaa prilikom procjene posture cervikotorakalnog i ramenog
podruja kod 10 ispitanika, utvren je kappa koeficijent od 0.825 (GriegelMorris i sur., 1992.). Za slaganje nalaza istih ispitivaa na 5 ispitanika kappa
koeficijent bio je 0.611. Povezanost teih odstupanja od normalne posture poput
protrakcije glave, jako poveane prsne kifoze, okruglih ramena te jaine i
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Pasivna
fizioloka 46
Th3-4
intervertebralna
ekstenzija
Izvor: Evidence-based Menadment of Acute Musculoskeletal Pain, Australian
Acute Musculoskeletal Pain Guidelines Group, 2003. (temeljeno na Minucci,
1987.)
Osjetljivost na bol esto prati bolove u prsnoj kraljenici. Prilikom istraivanja
na 60 ispitanika dolorimetrom je utvren prag od 50N pritiska na transverzalne
nastavke prsnih kraljeaka. Zabiljeene su znaajne prosjene i individualne
razlike (p<0.001) izmeu onih s torakalnom spinalnom boli i asimptomatskih
pojedinaca (Bryner i sur., 1989.). Ipak, nijedno istraivanje nije se bavilo
procjenom valjanosti bilo kojeg palpatornog testa za prsnu kraljenicu te jo
uvijek nisu uspostavljeni standardni kriteriji.
6.4.3 Pokretljivost
U literaturi nema podataka o pouzdanosti procjene ogranienja pokretljivosti
prsne kraljenice. Dostupni podatci ogranieni su na pokrete trupa kao cjeline
tijekom pokreta lumbalne kraljenice (McCombe i sur., 1989.), ali nema
podataka o intrinzinim pokretima prsne kraljenice.
Jedno istraivanje potvrdilo je da je segment Th9-10 najvie hipomobilan (Love
i Brodeur, 1987.). Ipak, pouzdanost tehnike koritene za odreivanje
hipomobilnosti mala je. Korelacijski koeficijenti za slaganje nalaza izmeu
viestrukih mjerenja istih ispitivaa bili su vei od 0.300 (p<0.05), no za
slaganje nalaza izmeu razliitih ispitivaa kretali su se samo od 0.023 do 0.852
(Love i Brodeur, 1987.).
Christensen i suradnici (2002). takoer su testirali poudzanost palpacije
pokretljivosti u sjedeem i proniranom poloaju. Kappa koeficijenti za slaganje
nalaza izmeu razliitih ispitivaa bili su 0.22 za sjedei poloaj, te 0.24 za
pronirani poloaj. Ipak, za slaganje nalaza istog ispitivaa koeficijent je bio
zadovoljavajui, 0.59-0.68.
6.4.4. Upozoravajui znakovi
Kao to je ve spomenuto, klinikoj procjeni nedostaje pouzdanosti i valjanosti,
ali omoguava zdravstvenom djelatniku utvrivanje glavne potekoe pacijenta
te identifikaciju potencijalno ozbiljnih stanja. U tablici 14 navedeni su znakovi
upozorenja koji mogu biti povezani s ozbiljnim stanjima, kao to su maligne
bolesti, infekcije i frakture. Prisutnost ovih upozoravajuih znakova kod akutne
boli u prsnoj kraljenici zahtijeva daljnju obradu.
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ozljedu
Odsutnost
55
0
0
klinikih
simptoma koji
10**
8
3-12%
upuuju
na 128
ozljedu
Nejasni
20
1
5
0-15%
kliniki
simptomi ili
29
5
17
13-46%
izmijenjeno
stanje svijesti
* 19 pacijenata zahtijevalo je tretman, kod 13 se radilo o starim ili manjim
frakturama; **nijedan pacijent nije zahtijevao tretman
Izvor: Evidence-based Menadment of Acute Musculoskeletal Pain, Australian
Acute Musculoskeletal Pain Guidelines Group, 2003. (temeljeno na Samuels i
Kerstein (1993.); te Durham i sur. (1995.)
6.4.5.2 Kompjuterizirana tomografija
CT snimke nemaju znaajnu ulogu prilikom evaluacije torakalne spinalne boli
nepoznatog porijekla. Njihova uloga u evaluaciji poremeaja intervertebralnih
diskova prsne kraljenice je takoer ograniena zbog slabe mogunosti prikaza.
Prilikom evaluacije vee traume nakon potvrde fraktura nativnim RTG
snimkama, CT snimke se mogu koristiti za definiranje oteenja posteriornih
elemenata, utvrivanje impingementa neuralnog kanala te za prikaz ozljeda
ostalih organskih sustava (Keene i sur., 1982.).
6.4.5.3 Magnetska rezonancija
Prilikom interpretacije MR nalaza protruzija diska potreban je oprez. U jednom
istraivanju MR-om je utvrena prevalencija hernijacije diska kod 14.5% od
ukupno 48 pacijenata s malignom bolesti (Williams i sur., 1989.). Takoer,
postmijelografskim CT snimanjem utvrena je prevalencija od 11.1% do 13.4%
kod asimptomatskih pojedinaca (Anwad i sur., 1991.). Ova prevalencija penje se
do ak 37% ukoliko se koristi pretraga magnetskom rezonancijom (Wood i sur.,
1997.). Kontrolni pregled ove zadnje skupine nakon prosjenog razdoblja od 26
mjeseci pokazao je da postoji trend da se manje hernijacije diska poveavaju ili
ostaju nepromijenjene, a vee hernijacije diska se esto smanjuju. Nijedan od
ispitanika u tom periodu nije imao simptome.
Dostupni podatci, dakle, upuuju da su protruzije diskova prsne kraljenice
uobiajene kod pojedinaca bez simptoma, a kada postanu simptomatine,
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Baardboe, 1993.
Westgard i Jansen, 1992.
Westgard i Jansen, 1992.
Westgard i Jansen, 1992.
Makela i sur., 1991.
ivotno okruenje
Fizika aktivnost
Koliina posla kod kue
Puenje
Profesionalni imbenici rizika
Produljeno sjedenje na poslu
Kamwendo i sur., 1991.
Ergonomski uvjeti radnog mjesta
Kamwendo i sur., 1991.
Izvor: Evidence-based Menadment of Acute Musculoskeletal Pain, Australian
Acute Musculoskeletal Pain Guidelines Group, 2003.
U sustavnim pregledima literature (Ariens i sur., 1999.; Borghouts i sur., 1998.)
koji su se bavili fizikim imbenicima rizika za pojavu boli u vratu nije
pronaeno puno studija visoke kvalitete. Poneto dokaza ukazivalo je da se bol u
vratu moe povezati s trajanjem produljenog sjedenja te savijanjem i rotiranjem
trupa na poslu. imbenici poput fleksijskog poloaja vrata, jakosti gornjih
ekstremiteta, posture ruke, vibracija i dizajna radnog mjesta mogli bi se smatrati
imbenicima rizika jedino ukoliko se prihvate nii standardi prihvaanja
znanstvenih dokaza.
imbenici koji su slabo povezani s idiopatskim bolovima u vratu navedeni su u
tablici 22. Vjerojatnost da izazivaju bolove za ove imbenike procijenjena je
izmeu 1.0 i 2.5. Komorbiditeti, kao to su bolovi u leima, glavobolja, bolesti
kardiovaskularnog i probavnog sustava predstavljaju imbenike rizika za
idiopatske bolove u vratu, ali samo kod pacijenata koji su zahvaeni ovim
poremeajima u srednjoj ili teoj mjeri (Cote i sur., 2000.).
Tablica 22 Medicinski socijalni i profesionalni imbenici rizika za koje je
dokazano da slabo povezani s razvojem boli u vratu
Medicinski imbenici rizika
Prethodna ozljeda
Makela i sur., 1991.
Socijalni imbenici rizika
enski spol
van der Donk i sur., 1991.
Manje od 8 godina obrazovanja
Makela i sur., 1991.
8-12 godina obrazovanja
Makela i sur., 1991.
Vrsta radnog mjesta kao imbenik
rizika
Slubeniko zanimanje
Makela i sur., 1991.
Rad u industriji
Makela i sur., 1991.
Rad u poljoprivredni
Makela i sur., 1991.
Profesionalni imbenici rizika
Fiziki naporan posao
Makela i sur., 1991.
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Sturzenegger, 1994.); nastanak ovih ataka nakon pojave boli u vratu moe
upuivati na postojanje aneurizme.
Koritenje antikoagulantne terapije predstavlja imbenik rizika za
cerebralno ili spinalno krvarenje (Schattner, 1996.; Hurst i sur., 1989.;
Mustafa i Gallino, 1988.; Krolick i cintrom, 1991.; Rose i sur., 1990.).
Hiperparatiroidizam moe uzrokovati fibrozni osteitis koji moe
uzrokovati spinalnu bol bez drugih klinikih simptoma.
7.5. Fizioterapijski pregled
Fizioterapijski pregled vrata moe se podijeliti na tri glavna dijela:
Opa procjena
Neuroloka procjena
Miino kotana procjena
7.5.1 Opa procjena
Opa procjena relevantna je za procjenu zdravstvenih poremeaja koji nisu
miino kotane naravi, ali mogu uzrokovati bolove u vratu. Pouzdanost i
valjanost testova koji se koriste u ovoj procjeni nije formalno ustanovljena. Oni
ukljuuju:
Kernigov znak za meningitis
Palpaciju grla u sluajevima anteriorne boli u vratu
Palpaciju vratnih limfnih vorova za procjenu limfadenopatije
Identifikaciju ptoze i mioze, to ukazuje na Hornerov sindrom
Prepoznavanje pigmentacije koja ukazuje na neurofibrimatozu
Vano je provjeriti ima li pacijent povienu temperaturu kako bi se iskljuila
spinalna infekcija. Ipak, iako je poviena tjelesna temperatura visoko specifina
za postojanje infekcije, ima malu osjetljivost. Samo 42% pacijenta sa spinalnom
infekcijom ima povienu tjelesnu temperaturu (Goodman, 1988.).
7.5.2 Neuroloka procjena
Postojanje neurolokih simptoma zahtijeva detaljan neuroloki pregled. Bol u
vratu ne bi trebalo mijeati s cervikularnom radikularnom boli. Indikacije za
neuroloki pregled na koji treba uputiti osobu s radikularnim bolovima ne
vrijede za somatsku bol. Jedina iznimka ovog pravila je prisutnost bolova u
vratu i glavobolje bez neurolokih simptoma. U tom sluaju mogue je da je
uzrok bolova intrakranijalna lezija i potrebno je ustanoviti postoje li znakovi
povienog intrakranijalnog tlaka.
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Ne
2. Prisutnost faktora niskog rizika koji
dozvoljava sigurnu procjenu pokretljivosti?
Jednostavni sudar motornog vozila odostragab
ili
Sjedei poloaj u odjelu hitne slube
ili
Sposobnost hodanja
ili
Odgoena pojava bolova u vratu (npr. ne odmah)
ili
Odsustvo osjetljivosti vratne kraljenice u sredinjoj
liniji
Da
Ne
RTG
Ne
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Sustavni pregledi literature (Spitzer i sur., 1995.; Peeters i sur., 2001.; Verhagen i
sur., 2002) naglaavaju prednosti nastavka s uobiajenim ivotnim aktivnostima
u usporedbi s podvrgavanjem pasivnim tretmanima. Ipak, ove preporuke
uglavnom se temelje na uspjehu takvog reima kod osoba s akutnim bolovima u
donjem dijelu lea.
U kontekstu bolova u vratu neki sustavni pregledi literature (Spitzer i sur.,
1995.) potvrdili su da su aktivni tretmani uinkovitiji od pasivnih. Drugi
pregledi (Peeters i sur., 2001.; Vergahen i sur., 2002.) potvrdili su da je aktivan
pristup korisniji od mirovanja. Nijedan od ovih pregleda literature nije se
eksplicitno bavio zadravanjem aktivnog naina ivota kao jedinom
intervencijom. Uglavnom su razmatrali razliite aktivne intervencije poput
terapijskih vjebi. Ipak, ustanovljena je vanost nastavka aktivnog naina ivota.
Istraivanje koje su proveli Borchgrevink i suradnici (1998.) eksplicitno je
procjenjivalo uinkovitost savjetovanja pacijentima da ostanu aktivni kao jedinu
intervenciju. 201 pacijent s akutnim bolovima u vratu dobio je upute o
samostalnom zbrinjavanju boli i recept za uzimanje nesteroidnog antireumatika
u trajanju od 5 dana. Nakon toga su pacijenti randomizirani u dvije skupine od
kojih je jedna dobila bolovanje u trajanju od 14 dana i meki ovratnik, a druga
nije dobila ni bolovanje ni ovratnik. Nakon est tjedana dolo je do smanjenja
simptoma kod obje skupine. Ishod je bio znaajno bolji kod grupe koja je
nastavila s uobiajenim aktivnostima. Njih 48% nije imalo nikakve bolove, a
11% imalo je tee simptome. U grupi koja je bila na bolovanju i koristila meki
ovratnik, 34% pacijenta nije imalo nikakve bolove, a 15% imalo je vrlo izraene
simptome.
Uloga savjetovanja o aktivnom nainu ivota moe se primijeniti kao dobar
temelj na koji se mogu nadovezati ostale uinkovite intervencije kako bi se to
vie ubrzao oporavak.
7.8.2 Terapijske vjebe
Procjenom uinkovitosti terapijskih vjebi kod akutnih bolova u vratu bavili su
se mnogi sustavni pregledi literature (Harms-Ringdahl, 2002.; Gross i sur.,
2002.; Kjellman i sur., 1999.; Verhagen i sur., 2002.). Identificirano je sedam
istraivanja (Goldie i Landquist, 1970.; Levoska i Keinanen-Kiukaanniemie,
1993.; Takala i sur., 1994.; Mealy i sur., 1986.; McKinney i sur., 1989.;
Provinciali i sur., 1996.; Karlberg i sur., 1996.) koja su provedena na mijeanoj
populaciji. Veina istraivanja bavila se uinkovitou multimodalnih
intervencija koje su ukljuivale terapijsko vjebanje, no samo jedno istraivanje
(McKinney i sur., 1989.) bavilo se specifinim uinkom terapijskog vjebanja.
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Nona bol
0.88
0.20
1.10
Izvor: Evidence-based Menadment of Acute Musculoskeletal Pain, Australian
Acute Musculoskeletal Pain Guidelines Group, 2003. (temeljeno na Litaker i
sur., 2000.)
8.3.3 Psihosocijalna anamneza
Crte osobnosti, raspoloenje, vjerovanja i stavovi vjerojatno utjeu na tijek
poremeaja te je vano prepoznati postoje li psihosocijalni imbenici koji mogu
oteavati oporavak. U svakom sluaju, poznavanje psihosocijalnog odgovora na
poremeaj omoguuje zdravstvenom radniku bolje suosjeanje i skrb za
pacijenta. Psihosocijalna anamneza ukljuuje:
Ope raspoloenje (npr. postojanje anksioznosti ili depresije)
Razumijevanje i reakciju na poremeaj te pridruene strahove
Relevantna vjerovanja i stavove, osobne i sociokulturalne
Strategije suoavanja, odnosno nedostatak istih
8.4 Fizioterapijska procjena
Fizikalna procjena ramena moe ukljuiti inspekciju, palpaciju i specifine
testove.
8.4.1 Inspekcija
Opservacija ramena moe ukljuiti otkrivanje osobitosti posture ili anatomska
odstupanja koja mogu upuivati na strukturalnu abnormalnost. Naticanje
upuuje na mogunost postojanja frakture. Ukoliko je prisutan izljev, treba
razmotriti postojanje upalne artropatije. Ne postoje podatci o pouzdanosti i
valjanosti inspekcije.
8.4.2 Palpacija
Palpacija otkriva osjetljivost na pritisak koja moe biti fokalna ili difuzna.
Fokalna osjetljivost na pritisak smatra se znaajnijim simptomom, posebno
ukoliko reproducira pacijentovu tipinu bol. Ukoliko se otkrije, konvencionalni
pristup je pokuati tono odrediti anatomsku strukturu koja je osjetljiva na
pritisak. Drugi znakovi koje je mogue otkriti palpacijom ukljuuju promjene
osjetljivosti koe poput hipoestezije, to upuuje na neuroloki deficit,
hiperestezije, to upuuje na alodiniju te oita odstupanja anatomskih struktura,
poput promjene tonusa miia. Palpabilni deformiteti kostiju ili drugih tkiva
mogu biti znakovi upozorenja za maligne bolesti.
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poloaja (drop
arm test)
Bol u ramenu 37%
86%
2.64
prilikom
supinacije
podlaktice
s
otporom
(Yergasonov test)
Bol na fleksiju 69%
56%
1.57
nadlaktice
s
otporom (Speedov
test)
Pozitivan
nalaz 4%
97%
1.57
kod svih 7 testova
za sraz
Izvor: Evidence-based Menadment of Acute Musculoskeletal Pain, Australian
Acute Musculoskeletal Pain Guidelines Group, 2003. (temeljeno na Calis i sur.,
2000.)
I druga istraivanja bavila su se valjanou znakova za sraz. MacDonald
isuradnici (2000.) istraivali su valjanost Neerovog i Hawkinsovog testa u
usporedbi s artroskopijom. Usporedili su specifine artroskopske nalaze
subakromijalnog burzitisa s preoperativnim klinikim nalazima koje je postavio
isti ortoped. Naredo je sa suradnicima (2002.) istraivao valjanost fizikalnog
pregleda u usporedbi s dijagnostikim ultrazvukom. Rezultati oba istraivanja
nalaze se u tablici 34.
Tablica 34 Valjanost fizikalnih testova za sindrom sraza
Fizikalni test
Osjetljivost
Specifinost
Bol na pasivnu 75%
48%
fleksiju nadlaktice
(Neerov test) (M)
Bol na unutarnju 92%
44%
rotaciju iz 90
fleksije nadlaktice
(Hawkinsov test)
(M)
Pozitivni rezultat 71%
51%
Neerovog
i
Hawkinsovog
testa (N)
Pozitivni rezultat 43%
88%
Vjerojatnost
1.44
1.64
1.45
3.6
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Neerovog,
Hawkinsovog,
Yocumovog
i
drugih testova (N)
Izvor: Evidence-based Menadment of Acute Musculoskeletal Pain, Australian
Acute Musculoskeletal Pain Guidelines Group, 2003. (temeljeno na McDonald i
sur., 2000. (M) i Naredo i sur., 2002. (N))
MacDonald je sa suradnicima (2000.) takoer usporedio pozitivni Neerov i
Hawkinsov test s artroskopskom potvrdom lezije rotatorne manete. Naredo je
sa suradnicima (2002.) proveo slino istraivanje koristei ultrazvuni nalaz za
usporedbu. Itoi i suradnici (1999.) prouavali su dva klinika testa, test pune
limenke (full can test) (Jobe i Moynes, 1982.) i test prazne limenke
(empty can test) (Kelly i sur., 1996.) za rupture rotatorne manete u usporedbi
sa MRI nalazom. Rezultati su prikazani u tablici 35.
Tablica 35 Valjanost fizikalnih testova za lezije rotatorne manete
Fizikalni test
Osjetljivost
Specifinost
Vjerojatnost
Bol na pasivnu 83%
51%
1.69
fleksiju nadlaktice
(Neerov test) (M)
Bol na unutarnju 88%
43%
1.54
rotaciju iz 90
fleksije nadlaktice
(Hawkinsov test)
(M)
Pozitivni rezultat 83%
56%
1.89
Neerovog
i
Hawkinsovog
testa (M)
Pozitivni rezultat 79%
50%
1.58
Neerovog,
Hawkinsovog,
Yocumovog
i
drugih testova (N)
Bol na vanjsku 66%
64%
1.83
rotaciju
iz
elevacije
nadlaktice (full
can test) (I)
Bol na unutarnju 63%
55%
1.40
rotaciju
iz
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elevacije
nadlaktice
(empty can test)
(I)
Izvor: Evidence-based Menadment of Acute Musculoskeletal Pain, Australian
Acute Musculoskeletal Pain Guidelines Group, 2003. (temeljeno na MacDonald
i sur., 2000. (M), Naredo i sur. (2002.) (N) i Itoi i sur., (1999.) (I)
Naredo je sa suradnicima (2002.) prouavao fizikalni pregled za otkrivanje
lezije tetive bicepsa u usporedbi s nalazom ultrazvunog pregleda. Bennett
(1998.) je prouavao Speedov test za otkrivanje lezije tetive duge glave bicepsa i
usporedio rezultate s nalazom artroskopije. Rezultati su prikazani u tablici 36.
Tablica 36 Valjanost fizikalnih testova za otkrivanje lezija tetive bicepsa
Fizikalni test
Osjetljivost
Specifinost
Vjerojatnost
Pozitivni Neerov, 74%
58%
1.76
Hawkinsov,
Yocumov i drugi
testovi (N)
Bol na fleksiju 90%
14%
1.05
nadlaktice
s
otporom (Speedov
test) (B)
Izvor: Evidence-based Menadment of Acute Musculoskeletal Pain, Australian
Acute Musculoskeletal Pain Guidelines Group, 2003. (temeljeno na Naredo i
sur., 2002. (N) i Bennett, 1998. (B)
Palmer je sa suradnicima (2000.) istraivao slaganje nalaza izvoenja testova za
rameni zglob izmeu ispitivaa. Testirano je 43 ispitanika, a testove su izvodila
2 ispitivaa, specijalizirana medicinska sestra te reumatolog (tablica 37). Calis i
suradnici (2000.) prouavali su sedam fizikalnih testova za rameni zglob.
Testove su obavljala dva iskusna lijenika i izvijeteno je da je njihovo slaganje
u nalazima preko 98%.
Tablica 37 Pouzdanost fizikalnih znakova
Fizikalni znak
Kappa
Bolni luk
0.93
Bol prilikom vanjske rotacije s
otporom
0.90
Bol prilikom unutarnje rotacije s
otporom
0.54
Standardna
pogreka
0.11
0.11
0.11
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ivotna dob
Parcijalne rupture Totalne rupture
Sve rupture
19-39
4%
0%
4%
40-60
24%
4%
28%
>60
26%
28%
54%
Ukupno
20%
15%
34%
Izvor: Evidence-based Menadment of Acute Musculoskeletal Pain, Australian
Acute Musculoskeletal Pain Guidelines Group, 2003. (temeljeno na Sher i sur.,
1995.)
Tablica 46 Nalazi MR dijagnostike rupture rotatorne manete kod 100 ispitanika
koji nisu imali simptome
ivotna dob
Parcijalne rupture Totalne rupture
Sve rupture
19-39
8%
0%
8%
40-60
27%
4%
31%
>60
27%
27%
54%
Ukupno
22%
14%
36%
Izvor: Evidence-based Menadment of Acute Musculoskeletal Pain, Australian
Acute Musculoskeletal Pain Guidelines Group, 2003. (temeljeno na Needell i
sur., 1996.)
Miniaci je sa suradnicima (1995.) proveo istraivanje na skupini ispitanika koji
nisu imali simptome, a 39 ih je bilo mlae od 40 godina. Kod 23% ispitanika
utvrene su parcijalne rupture tetiva m. supraspinatus, a kod 13% parcijalne
rupture tetive m. infraspinatus. Zbog toga je mogue zapitati se na koji nain
interpretirati nalaz rupture. Prevalencija radiolokih abnormalnosti kod
asimptomatskih osoba dovodi u pitanje kliniki znaaj ovakvih nalaza i
valjanost radioloke dijagnostike prilikom planiranja menadmenta.
Chandnani i suradnici (1992.) proveli su istraivanje nad 20 pacijenata i 20
asimptomatskih ispitanika ivotne dobi izmeu 25 i 55 godina. Rezultati koji
prikazuju relativnu prevalenciju razliitih abnormalnosti prikazani su tablici 47.
Ovi podatci takoer dovode u sumnju kliniki znaaj mnogih dijagnoza
postavljenih na temelju MR nalaza, ukljuujui akromioklavikularne osteofite,
abnormalnosti labruma, nalaz izljeva u zglobu, odsudstvo subakromijalnog ili
subdeltoidnog masnog tkiva, tendinitis te parcijalne rupture rotatorne manete.
Zdravstveni djelatnik trebao bi paljivo interpretirati nalaze MR dijagnostike.
___________________________________________________________________________
Akromioklavikularni
11
7
ostefiti
Anteriorna nestabilnost
4
0
Posteriorna nestabilnost 1
0
Abnormalna morfologija 4
0
labruma
Abnormalni
signal 11
10
labruma
Defekt glenoida
3
0
Izljev u zglobu
7
10
Odsutnost
4
1
subakromijalnog masnog
tkiva
Odsutnost subdeltoidnog 2
1
masnog tkiva
Depresija
m. 13
6
supraspinatus
Abnormalna morfologija 7
1
tetive
Abnormalni signal tetive 13
6
Sraz
0
0
Tendinitis
3
4
Parcijalna
ruptura 3
1
rotatorne manete
Diskontinuitet tetive
7
0
Totalna ruptura rotatorne 6
0
manete
Izvor: Evidence-based Menadment of Acute Musculoskeletal Pain, Australian
Acute Musculoskeletal Pain Guidelines Group, 2003. (temeljeno na Chandnani
i sur., 1992.)
MR dijagnostika predstavlja koristan nain procjene ramena jer osigurava dobar
prikaz svih tkiva. Moe se koristiti za dijagnostiku miia i tetiva rotatorne
manete, subdeltoidnog i subakromijalnog prostora, ahure i ligamenata
glenohumeralnog zgloba, labruma, tetive bicepsa i kotanih struktura ramenog
obrua. Frakture i tumori ne prikazuju se dobro kao pomou nativne radiografije
i CT-a. Ipak, nalaze MR dijagnostike potrebno je paljivo interpretirati, u skladu
s klinikom slikom pacijenta.
8.4.5.5 Kompjuterizirana tomografija
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8.4.5.6 MR artrografija
Intravenska ili intraartikularna primjena gadolinija prije provoenja dijagnostike
magnetskom rezonancijom poboljava prikaz i mogunost otkrivanja parcijalnih
ruptura rotatorne manete (Flannigan i sur., 1990.) te upalnih promjena ovojnice
tetive bicepsa (Gueckel i Nidecker, 1998.). Trenutno ne postoje podatci o
pouzdanosti i valjanosti primjene MR artrografije kod akutne boli u ramenu. Za
interpretaciju nalaza vrijede ista pravila kao i kod interpretacije nalaza obinog
MR nalaza.
8.4.5.7 Scintigrafija
Scintigrafija se koristi za dijagnostiku okultnih fraktura (Matin, 1979.), tumora
(McNeil, 1984.) i upalnih artropatija (Weissberg i sur., 1978.). Takoer, moe se
koristiti i za prikaz mehaniki uzrokovanih poremeaja (Clunie i sur., 1997.). Ne
postoje podatci o pouzdanosti ni valjanosti ove dijagnostike metode kod akutne
boli u ramenu. Ovakva pretraga preporuuje se samo za dijagnostiku kod sumnje
na ozbiljna stanja.
8.4.5.8 Zakljuak
Literatura upuuje da simptomi i fizikalni znakovi ne koreliraju u dovoljnoj
mjeri za postavljanje definitivne dijagnoze boli u ramenu. S obzirom da se, u
veini sluajeva, ne moe identificirati uzrok akutnih bolova u ramenu (Phillips i
Polisson, 1997., Solomon, 2000.), lijenici se esto odluuju uputiti pacijenta na
dodatne pretrage. U tablici 48 prikazani su rezultati pet istraivanja o
pouzdanosti kliniki postavljene dijagnoze. Iako se ne moe osporiti njihova
korisnost za prepoznavanje ozbiljnih stanja, upitna je njihova korisnost kod
akutnih mehaniki uzrokovanih poremeaja jer rezultati ne mijenjanju lijeenje
ni ishod.
Tablica 48 Pouzdanost kliniki uspostavljene dijagnoze boli u ramenu
Autori
Zdravstveni
djelatnici Pouzdanost
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enskog spola
Puenje
Radnici mukog spola
Bergenudd i Nilsson (1994.)
Komercijalisti
Skov i sur. (1996.)
Korisnici kompjutora s Marcus i Gerr (1996.)
monitorom na radnom
mjestu
enske osobe koje rade Kaergaard
i
Andersen
za ivaim strojevima
(2000.)
Konzumacija kofeina Korisnici kompjutora s Marcus i Gerr (1996.)
monitorom na radnom
mjestu
enski spol
Stanovnici malih sredina Ekberg i sur. (1995.)
Komercijalisti
Skov i sur. (1996.)
enske osobe koje rade Kaergaard
i
Andersen
za ivaim strojevima
(2000.)
Izvor: Evidence-based Menadment of Acute Musculoskeletal Pain, Australian
Acute Musculoskeletal Pain Guidelines Group, 2003.
I intrinzini i ekstrinzini imbenici, mogu biti etioloki imbenici rizika te
mogu utjecati na progresiju akutnog stanja u kronino (prognostiki imbenici
rizika). Zbog njihovog potencijala da djeluju na oba naina, potrebno je prilikom
inicijalne procjene razmotriti bioloke imbenike rizika.
Psihosocijalni imbenici rizika ukljuuju intrapsihike, interpersonalne i
sociokulturalne imbenike (tablica 54). Psihosocijalni imbenici imaju
prognostiku ulogu jer predviaju pojavu kroniciteta. Za opis psihosocijalnih
imbenika rizika koristi se termin yellow flags.
Tablica 54 Psihosocijalni imbenici rizika za bol u ramenu
imbenik
(yellow Subjekti
Autori
flags)
Nezadovoljstvo poslom
Radnici
mukog
i Bergenudd i Nilsson,
enskog spola
(1994.)
Korisnici kompjutora s Marcus i Gerr, (1996.)
monitorom na radnom
mjestu
Nedovoljno
poznati Stanovnici malih sredina Ekberg i sur. (1995.)
zahtjevi
na
radnom Komercijalisti
Skov i sur. (1996.)
mjestu
Novozaposleni radnici
Nahit i sur. (2001.)
Loa potpora na radnom Korisnici kompjutora s Marcus i Gerr, (1996.)
mjestu
monitorom na radnom
mjestu
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Kaergaard i Andersen
(2000.)
Fredriksson i sur. (1999.)
Pope, (2001.)
Macfarlane i sur. (1998.)
Radnici
u
sredinama
Izvor: Evidence-based Menadment of Acute Musculoskeletal Pain, Australian
Acute Musculoskeletal Pain Guidelines Group, 2003.
8.7. Fizioterapijske intervencije
Iako postoje mnogi konzervativni naini lijeenja akutne boli u ramenu, nije
dobro istraena njihova uinkovitost. Vano je uzeti u obzir injenicu da
nedostatak dokaza ne znai nuno da odreena intervencija nema mjesto u
lijeenju. Ipak, preporuuje se koristiti na dokazima utemeljene intervencije.
Odluka o nainu terapije ovisi o znanju o postojeem poremeaju, stanju i
potrebama pacijenta te klinikom zakljuivanju.
8.7.1 Terapijske vjebe
Sustavni pregledi literature o kratkoronom i dugoronom utjecaju terapijskih
vjebi kod osoba mijeanog trajanja boli nali su slabe dokaze o njihovoj
uinkovitosti kod poremeaja rotatorne manete (Green i sur., 2002.). Jedno
placebom kontrolirano istraivanje o utjecaju nadziranih vjebi na stanje 56
ispitanika s razliitim poremeajima ramena ukazuje na znaajno bolji oporavak
(RR 7.4; 95%CI 1.97, 30.32), funkciju (RR 1.53; 95% CI 0.98, 2.39) te opseg
pokreta abdukcije (RR za pogoranje opsega 0.33; 95% CI 0.11 0.96) nakon
mjesec dana primjene (Ginn i sur., 1997.). Drugo istraivanje, koje je ispitanike
pratilo 2.5 godine potvruje zadravanje korisnog uinka vjebanja u usporedbi
s placebom kod pacijenata s poremeajem rotatorne manete (RR za dobru ili
odlinu funkciju 2.45; 95% CI 1.24-4.86) (Brox i sur., 1997.).
8.7.2 Terapijski ultrazvuk
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8.7.3 Akupunktura
Jedno randomizirano kontrolirano istraivanje uinka akupunkture kod
populacije s poremeajem rotatorne manete provedeno je na 52 sportaa
(Kleinhenz i sur., 1999.). Provedeno je 8 terapijskih tretmana unutar 4 tjedna te
usporeeno s identinim brojem tretmana placebo ultrazvukom. Nakon etiri
tjedna zabiljeena je statistiki znaajna razlika u bolovima, funkciji i opsegu
pokreta, no ona se nije odrala nakon 4 mjeseca. Nije bilo kratkorone razlike
izmeu skupina. Kad se podatci iz ovog istraivanja kombiniraju s podatcima
drugog istraivanja koje je provedeno nad pacijentima s mijeanim trajanjem
bolova (Berry i sur., 1980.), ne moe se utvrditi vea korisnost akupunkture u
usporedbi s placebom.
8.7.4 Ekstrakorporealna shock wave terapija
Ne postoje randomizirana kontrolirana istraivanja o uinkovitosti
ekstrakorporealne shock wave terapije (ESWT) za akutne bolove u ramenu.
Sustavni pregled literature za ESWT kod boli u ramenu mijeanog trajanja
identificirao je 4 studije, dvije o tendinitisu s kalcifikatima (jedna se bavila
ispitanicima s nespecifinim trajanjem boli, a druga je ukljuivala ispitanike koji
su imali simptome due od 6 mjeseci) te dvije o tendinitisu rotatorne manete
(trajanje simptoma bilo je najmanje 3-6 mjeseci) (Buchbinder i sur., 2003.).
Rezultati dviju studija o uinku ESWT-a kod tendinitisa rotatorne manete nisu
potvrdili nikakvu znaajnu korist u usporedbi s placebom na razinu boli ili
funkciju unutar 12 tjedana od terapije (Buchbinder i sur., 2003.). Druga dva
istraivanja o tendinitisu s kalcifikatima izvjeuju o korisnosti razliitih doza
ESWT-a. Mogue su nuspojave poput prolaznog hematoma i petehijalnog
krvarenja.
8.7.5 Manualna terapija
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8.7.6 TENS
Jedno istraivanje usporedilo je uinak TENS-a i terapijskog ultrazvuka na
uzorku od 50 enskih osoba s akutnim bolovima u ramenu (Shehab i Adham,
2000.). Nakon perioda od 13 intervencija s frekvencijom od 3-5 puta tjedno
primijeena je statistiki znaajna razlika u korist pacijenata koji su podvrgnuti
terapijskom ultrazvuku s obzirom na razinu boli i opseg pokreta. Ne postoje
izvjetaji o nuspojavama primjene TENS-a kod akutnih bolova u ramenu.
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sinovije (Dye i sur., 1998.), infrapatelarni masni jastui (Aynaci i sur., 2001;
Morini i sur., 1998.) i retinakulum (Kasim i Fulkerson, 2000.; Sanchis-Alfonso i
Rosello-Sastre, 2000; Sanchis-Alfonso i sur., 2001.). esto se kao potencijalni
uzrok spominje i subhondralni kotani mehanizam, ali provedena istraivanja
vie su se koncentrirala na povezanost boli subhondranog dijela kosti i
osteoartritisa.
Patogeneza patelofemoralne boli nije potpuno jasna (Crossley i sur., 2002.).
esto se prostorni poremeaj odnosa (malalignment) koji poveava
optereenje patelofemoralnog zgloba spominje kao etioloki imbenik,
meutim, ovakvu hipotezu ne potvruju rezultati svih istraivanja (Fulkerson,
1989.; Grelsamer i Klein, 1998.; Grelsamer, 2000.; Outerbridge, 1961.). Iako se
pretpostavlja da je izvor boli patelofemoralni mehanizam, ova hipoteza nije
formalno potvrena. Mogu postojati i drugi uzroci boli. Istraivanja o
mehanizmu pategeneze ukljuila su:
Miinu neravnoteu (Crossley i sur., 2002.; Lee i sur., 2002.)
Poremeaj prostornih odnosa zgloba (Biedert i Warnke, 2001.; Jones i
sur., 1995.; Sanchis-Alfonsi i Rosello-Sastre, 2000.; Thomee i sur., 1995.;
Witonski, 2002.)
Optereenje patelofemoralnog zgloba (Brechter i Powers, 2002.)
Spol, miinu jakost i pokretljivost zgloba (Csintalan i sur., 2002.)
Preoptereenje i traumu (Thompson i sur., 1992.)
Poremeaj prostornog odnosa i napetost tractusa iliotibialisa (Winslow i
Yoder, 1995.)
9.2.1 Chondromalacia patellae
Chondromalacia patellae je poremeaj patelarne zglobne hrskavice. Termin se
naizmjenino koristio s patelofemoralnom boli (Kivimaki i sur., 1994.). U
ranijim klasifikacijama, artroskopska potvrda oteenja hrskavice kod pacijenata
s patelofemoralnom boli automatski je znaila dijagnozu chondromalaciae
patellae (Bentley i Dowd, 1984.; Carson i sur., 1984.; Fulkerson i Hungerford,
1990.; Insall, 1979.; Kivimaki i sur., 1994.). Ipak, u nekoliko istraivanja niije
utvrena pozitivna korelacija izmeu oteenja zglobne hrskavice i
patelofemoralne boli (Darracott i Vernon-Roberts, 1971.; DeHaven i Collins,
1975.; DeHaven i sur., 1979.; Hvid i sur., 1981.; Insall, 1980.; Leslie i Bentley,
1978., Shino i sur., 1993.). Opisani su brojni sluajevi artroskopski dokazanih
promjena zglobne hrskavice kod pacijenata koji nisu imali simptome, ali i brojni
sluajevi gdje je postojala bol, ali nije bilo oteenja hrskavice (Carson i sur.,
1984.; Fairbank i sur., 1984.).
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tkiva anteriornog dijela koljena ee su kod osoba koje esto klee (Tanaka i
sur., 1989.; Thun i sur., 1987.; Watkins i sur., 1958.). Najee lezije kod radnika
koji puno klee su lezije meniska (Holibkov i sur., 1985.), osteoartritis (Kasch i
Enderlein, 1986.) te prepatelarni burzitis (Sharrad, 1964.). Kod navedenih
zanimanja ee dolazi do atrofije ekstenzora potkoljenice, no nije poznato radi
li se o uzroku ili posljedici (Kivimaki i sur., 1994.). Radnici koji obavljaju
zanimanja koja zahtijevaju este fleksije koljena imaju vei rizik od razvoja
bolova u prednjem dijelu koljena i razvoj osteoartritisa koljena, pogotovo
radnici mukog spola (Hunter i sur., 2002.).
Jedno prospektivno randomizirano istraivanje potvrdilo je da koliina napornog
treniranja moe predstavljati etioloki imbenik za ozljede povezane s tjelesnom
aktivnou. Vrsta treninga, posebno tranje te nagla poveanja opsega i
intenziteta treninga mogu doprinjeti rizik od ozlijeivanja (Almeida i sur.,
1999.).
9.3. Uzimanje anamneze
Detaljna anamneza kljuna je za uspjenu procjenu osobe s bolovima u
prednjem dijelu koljena. Na taj nain mogue je prepoznati znakove upozorenja
za ozbiljne bolesti. Anamneza se sastoji od anamneze boli, medicinske povijesti
bolesti te psihosocijalne anamneze. Ukoliko se postavi sumnja na ozbiljno
stanje, pacijenta se upuuje lijeniku na daljnju dijagnostiku.
9.3.1 Anamneza bolova
9.3.1.1 Glavna potekoa
Vano je utvrditi glavnu potekou, odnosno radi li se stvarno o bolovima u
prednjem dijelu koljena. Uobiajeno se uz bolove u prednjem dijelu koljena
mogu javiti i drugi simptomi, ukljuujui blokiranje, poputanje, krepitacije te
naticanje. Zbog toga je potrebno ispitati ostale relevantne simptome.
9.3.1.2 Lokacija, distribucija i intenzitet boli
Iako je mogue irenje patelofemoralne boli, prisutnost boli izvan granica
anteriornog dijela koljena treba upozoriti zdravstvenog djelatnika na druge
mogue uzroke bolova u prednjem dijelu koljena - lokalne ili udaljene. Mjesto
boli koje oznai pacijent najvjerojatnije predstavlja i izvor boli. Intenzitet boli
mogue je izmjeriti vizualno analognom skalom.
9.3.1.3 Nain nastanka boli
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9.4.2 Palpacija
Palpacijom se procjenjuje sukladnost zglobnih tijela, temperatura, oteenost i
osjetljivost na pritisak (Feagin i Cooke, 1989.). Izljev u zglobu moe biti
posljedica traume, prenaprezanja ili sustavne bolesti. Predstavlja znak
upozorenja za ozbiljnu patologiju. Najei traumatski uzroci izljeva u zglobu su
ligamentarne, kotane i meniskalne ozljede te sindromi prenaprezanja.
Netraumatska etiologija izljeva ukljuuje artritis, infekciju, taloenje kristala i
tumor (Johnson, 2000.). Kljuni elementi ovog aspekta procjene ukljuuju
odreivanje:
Radi li se o artikularnoj oteenosti (unutar zglobnog prostora) ili
ekstraartikularnoj oteenosti (meka tkiva oko zgloba)
Postoji li mogunost infekcije
Postoje li dokazi poliartikularnog poremeaja
Ukoliko oteenost nije povezana s traumom potrebno je provesti opi fizikalni
pregled s naglaskom procjene znakova infekcije, regionalne limfadenopatije i
pregledom drugih zglobova i burzi (Brand i Muirden, 1987.). Ekstraartikularno
oticanje moe biti posljedica problema s burzom, meniskom, cistom ili drugim
problemima kotanog ili mekog tkiva. Ukoliko je oticanje artikularno i
posttraumatsko, najvjerojatniji uzrok je serozni izljev ili hemartros.
Hemartros se najee povezuje sa znaajnom traumom unutranjosti zgloba.
Uglavnom se prezentira kao bolno, napeto, generalizirano oticanje zgloba do
kojeg dolazi unutar nekoliko sati od ozljede. Zglob je esto topao. Stanje je
esto prilikom oteenja prednjeg krinog ligamenta i dislokacije patele.
Incidencija rupture prednjeg krinog ligamenta kod akutnog traumatskog
hemartrosa iznosi izmeu 62% i 85% (Adalberth i sur., 1997.; Butler i Andrews,
1998.; Daniel i sur., 1994.; Hardacker i sur., 1990.; Noyes i sur., 1980.; Woods i
Chapman, 1984.).
Djeca kod koje se javi hemartros imaju manju incidenciju rupture prednjeg
krinog ligamenta te veu incidenciju osteohondralne frakture lateralnom
femoralnog kondila ili patele (od ega oko polovica nije vidljiva na nativnoj
RTG snimci) (Maffulli i sur., 1997.; Matelic i sur., 1993.).
Za utvrivanje izljeva koristi se balotman patele. Sinovijalni nabori mogu se
palpirati u podruju koje se protee superiorno od anteromedijalne zglobne linije
(Hardacker i sur., 1980.). Palpaciju je potrebno provoditi sustavno i paljivo
procjenjivati svaku od struktura i tkiva oko zgloba. Ukoliko se utvrdi osjetljivost
na pritisak, uvijek se biljei:
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Aktivni i pasivni pokreti koljena te krajnji osjet tih pokreta takoer se trebaju
zabiljeiti. Prilikom testiranja pokretljivosti mogu se javiti i neki drugi
pridrueni znakovi, poput blokiranja ili krepitacija. Ove informacije treba
interpretirati s oprezom zbog nedokazane pouzdanosti i valjanosti klinikih
testova.
Opseg pokreta moe se testirati po razliitim protokolima, no nije utvrena
njihova pouzdanost i valjanost (Russe i sur., 1976.). Blokiranje je nedostatak
pokretljivosti te je utvrena pozitivna korelacija s unutarnjim mehanikim
problemima, posebice postojanjem meniskalne patologije (Shakespeare i Rigby,
1983.). Blokiranje moe biti posljedica djelovanja mehanikih imbenika, kao
to je interpozicija osteohondralnih slobodnih zglobnih tijela, fragmenata
meniska ili ligamenata koji se nau izmeu kondila i platoa tibije ili nemehanikih imbenika, kao to je bol povezana s ozljedama ahure, ligamenata
ili kotanog tkiva (Perin i sur., 1997.).
Krepitaciju definiramo kao zvuni fenomen koji se primjeuje prilikom
pokretanja zgloba. To je jedna od glavnih karakteristika osteoartritisa (Altman i
sur., 1986.). Ipak, procjeni krepitacije nedostaje pouzdanosti (Bergquist i sur.,
1993.; Cushnaghan i sur., 1990.; Ike i O'Rourke, 1995.; Jones i sur., 1992.).
Jedan od specifinih testova je i test straha koji se obavlja primjenom
lateralnog stresa na patelu u 0 ekstenzije te potom u 30 fleksije. Test je
pozitivan ukoliko prilikom guranja patele u stranu pacijent iz straha od
dislokacije prui otpor. Test je indikator nestabilnosti patele. Prethodna iskustva
bolova zbog subluksacije ili dislokacije zgloba uzrokuju strah kada ispitiva
pomie zglob u nestabilan smjer. Ovaj nalaz esto se povezuje s nestabilnosti, ali
ne postoje formalni dokazi za to.
Q kut definira se kao kut izmeu linije koja povezuje prednji gornji ilijani trn i
sredinu patele te linije koja povezuje tuberositas tibiae sa sredinom patele
(Horton i Hall, 1989.). On je najee manji od 10 kod mukaraca te 15 kod
ena (Millbauer i Patel, 1986.). Pouzdanost Q kuta je dobra (Horton i Hall,
1989.; Caylor i sur., 1993.)., no nedostaje mu valjanosti za detekciju
patelofemoralne boli (Biedert i Warnke, 2001.; Caylor i sur., 1993.; Thomee i
sur., 1995.).
etiri testa za utvrivanje poremeaja prostornog odnosa patelofemoralnog
kompleksa medijalno i lateralno pomaknue, medijalni i lateralni nagib,
medijalna i lateralna rotacija te anteriorni nagib nisu se pokazala pouzdanima s
kapa koeficijentom izmeu 0.10 i 0.36 (Fitzgerald i McClure, 1995.). Dodatno,
test lateralnog povlaenja i test patelarnog nagiba imaju nisku stopu slaganja
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1996.). Prema pravilu, nativna RTG snimka indicirana je nakon akutne ozljede
koljena ukoliko je prisutan bilo koji od sljedeih imbenika:
ivotna dob od 55 godina ili vie
Izolirana osjetljivost patele na pritisak
Osjetljivost glavice fibule na pritisak
Nemogunost fleksije potkoljenice do 90
Nemogunost optereivanja noge nakon ozljede (odmah nakon ozljede ili
prilikom pregleda), odnosno nemogunost prebacivanja teine dva puta na
svaki donji ekstremitet bez obzira na epanje
Ukoliko je klinika procjena nepouzdana, primjerice u sluajevima ozljeda
glave, intoksikacije alkoholom ili drogama, paraplegije ili smanjene osjetljivosti
na dodir, ovo pravilo se ne moe primijeniti.
Ottawa Knee Rule istraeno je na uzorku 234 djece u dobi od 2 do 18 godina.
Otkriveno je 12 od 13 fraktura (osjetljivost 92%, 95% CI 64%, 99%)
koritenjem ovog skupa pravila. Ukoliko bi se primijenio taj skup pravila,
smanjilo bi se izlaganje RTG zrakama za 46%. Ipak, preporuene su
modifikacije prije nego to se pone koristiti na djejoj populaciji (Khine i sur.,
2001.).
U jednom istraivanju procijenjena je sposobnost trijanih medicinskih sestara
prilikom interpretacije Ottawa Knee Rulea te je usporeena pouzdanost
nalaza s lijenikim nalazom. Osjetljivost interpretacije sestara bila je 70%,
specifinost 33%, a vjerojatnost 1.04. Osjetljivost lijenikog nalaza bila je
100%, specifinost 25%, a vjerojatnost 1.33. Zakljueno je da postoji dovoljno
slaganje lijenikog i sestrinskog nalaza. Ipak, za sestre se preporuuje
specifina edukacija za procjenu pacijenata s akutnom traumom koljena (Kec i
sur., 2003.).
Algoritam Pittsburgh Knee Rule (Seaberg i Jackson, 1994.) je sljedei:
Konvencionalna RTG radiografija za osobe svih ivotnih dobi koristi se
kad je ozljedu uzrokovao pad ili tupa trauma (bilo koja ozljeda koja
ukljuuje direktan udarac ili mehaniku silu koja je djelovala na koljeno).
Pri tome se primjenjuju sljedea pravila:
o Svi pacijenti ivotne dobi od 11 godina ili manje te oni ivotne dobi
od 51 godine ili vie upuuju se na RTG slikanje.
o Od ostalih se na RTG slikanje upuuju samo oni koji ne mogu
napraviti etiri koraka; sposobnost optereivanja definira se kao
sposobnost podnoenja teine na punom stopalu tijekom 4 puna
koraka.
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9.5 Terminologija
Patelofemoralna bol izraz je kojim se opisuje prednja koljenska bol nepoznate
etiologije. To je opisni termin koji oznaava mjesto boli (odnosno bol koja se
nalazi u blizini patelofemoralnog kompleksa), ali ne govori nita o prirodi i
okolnostima patolokog procesa koji uzrokuje bol. Sinonimi za izraz
patelofemoralne boli su retropatelarna bol i bol patelofemoralnog zgloba.
Ne postoje standardni kriteriji za postavljanje dijagnoze patelofemoralne boli, no
mogue je da e u budunosti biti otkrivene specifine kliniko-patoloke
korelacije. Za sada su otkrivena brojna stanja koja su povezana s bolovima u
prednjem dijelu koljena. Mogue je postavljati specifine dijagnoze, poput
prepatelarnog ili infrapatelarnog burzitisa, patelarne tendinopatije, sindroma
sinovijalnih nabora i sl.
9.6 Prognoza
Istraivanja o ishodu patelofemoralne boli potvruju da se radi o benignom
stanju koje se moe poboljati ili perzistirati tijekom vremena. Ozbiljno
onesposobljenje nije uobiajeno. Ipak, dostupna istraivanja imaju metodoloka
ogranienja.
Nimon i suradnici (1998.) pratili su skupinu adolescentica (prosjene dobi 15.5
godina) u prosjenom trajanju od 16 godina (14-20) te potvrdili poboljanje kod
73% sluaja tijekom vremena. Ranijim istraivanje (Karslon, 1939.) utvreno je
poboljanje kod 79% pacijenata u razdoblju od 3 do 20 godina nakon epizode
bolova.
Neki autori izvjeuju o perzistiranju bolova: kod 35% pacijenata bol perzistira i
nakon 6 godina (Milgrom i sur., 1996.); kod 71% pacijenata bol perzistira nakon
1-4 godine (vojnici) (Robinskon i Darracott, 1970.); kod 86% bol perzistira
nakon 2-8 godina (Sandow i Goodfellow, 1985.). Potpuni ili skoro potpuni
oporavak zabiljeen je kod 22% pacijenata nakon 16 godina (Nimon i sur.,
1998.), 70% pacijenata nakon 3 godine (Kannus i Nittymaki, 1994.), 81%
pacijenata nakon 12 godina (Jensen i Albrektsen, 1990.) i 85% pacijenata nakon
11 godina (Karlsson i sur., 1996.). Jaka dugotrajna bol zabiljeena je kod 6%
pacijenata i nakon 12 godina (Jensen i Albrektsen, 1990.) te kod 8% pacijenata
nakon 6 godina (Milgrom i sur., 1996). Podatci se nalaze u tablici 58.
Prognoza prednje koljenske boli nije jasna zbog metodolokih ogranienja
provedenih istraivanja koja razliito interpretiraju izraz patelofemoralne boli,
neusporedivosti grupa ispitanika i mjera ishoda.
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