-

( )

, 1994.


......................................................................................................................... i
............................................................................................................................ i
1. ................................................................................... i
2. .............................................................................................. ii
2.1. .
(SI ) ................................................................................................................iii
2.2. ............................................... iv
2.3. .................................................. v
I .......................................................................................................... 1
1. ......................................................................... 2
1.1. ......................................................................................... 2
1.2. ........................................................................... 2
1.3. ........................................................................ 4
1.4. ..................................................................... 5
1.5. ................................................... 6
1.6. .......... 6
1.7. .......................................................... 8
2. .................................................................................. 11
2.1. ............................................................................................ 12
2.2. ......................................................................................... 13
2.3. ..................................... 14
3. ........................................................................... 15
3.1. ....................................................................................... 15
3.2. ........................................................................ 17

3.3. ............................................... 20
3.4. ................................................................................................. 23
3.5. ................................................................. 25
3.6. ........................................................................... 26
3.7 ....................................................................................................... 29
3.8. ........................................................................................................... 30
3.9. . ......... 30
3.10. ................................................................ 32
3.11. ...................................................................................................... 36
3.12. .............................................. 39
3.13. .............................. 40
4. ...................................................................................... 46
4.1. ................................................................................................ 46
4.2. ......... 48
5. .............................................................................................................. 57
5.1. ............................................. 57
3.2. ........................................................................................................ 57
6. ............................................................ 59
6.1. ()......................................... 60
6.2. ............................................................ 61
7. ............................................................................................. 63
7.1. .................................................................................................... 64
7.2. . ............................ 64
7.3. .................... 66
7.4. ................................................................................. 68
7.5. ....................................................... 69
ii

7.6. .............................................................................................. 71
7.7. .................................................................................... 73
7.8. ............................................ 75
7.9. ............................................................................................... 76
7.10. ................................................................... 78
7.11. .................................................................. 86
8. ...................................................................................... 89
8.1. ........................................................ 91
8.2. ...................................... 92
8.3. ..................................................... 94
8.4. .............................................................. 96
9. ............................................................................................... 98
9.1. ..................................................................................... 98
9.2. ............................................................. 103
9.3. ........................................................................... 105
9.4. () () .................. 107
9.5. () ................................................................ 111
9.6. ........................................................................................................... 112
II ............................................................................ 117
10. ................................................................................ 117
10.1. ........................................................................................... 117
10.2. .................................. 119
10.3. ................................................................................. 121
10.4. .................................................................. 123
10.5. ............................................ 125
11. .............................................................................. 127

11.1. .......................................................................................... 127

11.2. ............................................................ 130
11.3. - ............................ 132
11.4. ............. 136
11.5 ............................ 141
11.6. ...................................................... 142
12. .......................................................................... 144
12.1. ......................................................................... 144
12.2. .................................... 146
12.3. ................................. 148
12.4. ...................................................................................... 151
12.5. ........................................................................................ 151
13. ........................................................ 154
13.1. .................................................... 154
13.2. ( )......................................... 156
13.3. ..................................................................................... 158
13.4. ................................................................ 161
14. ..................................................................................... 165
14.1. ............................................................................... 165
14.2. .................................................................................. 167
........................................................................................................ 169
............................................................................................ 171

iv


1.
, .
, ,
. ,
, ,
. ,
(, , , , .), , . , ,
.
,
. ,
.

. , .
, .
: .
, , , . .
, , , , , .
, , , ,
, , .

2.
,
, .
: , , , , , , , , , .
() , .
,

( ). ,
. :
( ) .

, ().
()
.
()
(). ,
. . ,
s t ,

v=

v .

ii

s
t

(i)

, .

- ( ).
2.1. .
(SI )
, , . , ,
.
,
. l , m t . , , : ,
, ,
I.
, , .
( ) , (SI) .
I

m
kg
s
K
A
cd
mol

iii

,
. II .
1998. , SI .
2.2.

. ,
, A ,
L , M T l , m t

[ A ] = Lp M q T r ,

(ii)

p , q r .
(ii) A .
II

E
P
T
G
M
k
h
c
m

1018
1015
1012
109
106
103
10 2
102
103
106
109
10 12
10 15
10 18

n
p
f
a

iv

. ,
(ii),
1
s [s] L
[v ] = =
= 1 = L T 1 .
t [t ] T

(iii)

,
. .
s r , = s r ,
1
s [ s] L
[ ] = =
= 1 = L0 .
r [r ] L

(iv)

,
. .
(iii), SI m s 1 (

m s ).
,
.
2.3.
() , , .
m , t , A , E , T , .
() , . . v , a , F , .
,
( ) ,
i
v

, .
, a ( i),
| a | , , a .

, ( )
. , ii a , b c , ( a = b = c ), : a = b = c .
-

ii

, (
), .
iii

, iii d e , d = e , d = e .

( ).
,
.

. , f g h ,
,
( iv).

iv

, f g h
f g
, h ( ivb).
,

vi

h = f +g;

(v)

, h
h 2 = f 2 + g 2 + 2 f g cos ,

(vi)

f g .
(. i , j , k , l m ,
v) ( , ). , j
i ; k
j , .

,
i ,
v

m . R ,
R = i + j +k +l +m .

(vii)

, n , , o
p = n o = n + ( o ) .

vi (viii)

vi.

, .
vii
vii

.
,
. ,
, s vii s1 s2 e1 e2 .

s = s1 + s2 .

(ix)

s x y
, , viii
s = sx + s y ,

(x)

s 2 = sx2 + s y2 .

viii

(xi)

s n ( ix)
sn ,
sn = s cos ,

(xii)

n s .
A ( x) r

ix

x, y, z ,

(xiii)

A ,
r 2 = x2 + y 2 + z 2 .

viii

(xiv)

x
r x e x , y e y , z e z
,
r = x ex + y e y + z ez .

(xv)

t k ,

u =kt ,

(xvi)

u = | k |t .

(xvii)

t u k > 0 , k < 0 .
(xvi) (xvii) ,
w ( xi) xi

w () ew
w ,

w = w ew , | ew | = 1 .

(xviii)

a e ( xii),
a e ,
ix

xii

c = a e cos ,

(xix)

a e .
(xix) ,
a e = e a ,

(xx)

.
a e1 + e2 + ,


a (e1 + e2 + ) = a e1 + a e2 + ,

(xxi)

.
a b
( xiii)

c = a b ,

(xxii)

a
e
xiii

| a b | = c = a b sin .

(xxiii)

c a b ,
( a
b ,
c ). , (xxiii)

a b = b a .

(xxiv)

a e1 + e2 + ,
a (e1 + e2 + ) = a e1 + a e2 +

(xxv)

I

.
. (
) .
, , , .
. , . ,
.

, , .

, ,
. ,
.
.
. .
.

1.
1.1.
, ,
l t .
.
, :
1. ( ).
;
2. .
, , j, .
()
(
1.1). ,
, j -

1.1

.
( ), s ( 1.1).
1.2.

1.2.
, A r ,
r = r (t ) .

(1.1)

t s ,
A' , r + r .
r t ,
. r t .
r t

vsr =

r
,
t

(1.2)

r , .

t A'
A ,
s r ,
vsr
.
1.2

r t t 0
( t )
r dr
=
=r .
t 0 t
dt

v = lim

(1.3)

(1.3)
, , . , (1.3),
| r |
s ds
= lim
=
= s ,
t 0 t
t 0 t
dt

v = | v | = lim

(1.4)

v t , s
t1 t2 ,
(1.4)
ds
v(t ) =
dt

ds = v(t ) dt

t2

t2

ds = v(t ) dt

s = v(t ) dt .

t1

t1

(1.5)

(iii),
[v ] =

[ s]
= L T 1 ,
[t ]

(1.6)

SI , , m s .
1.3.
. v t A , v + v
t + t A' , 1.3. v
t .
v -

1.3

t ,
asr =

v
t

(1.7)

v ,
. v t t 0
( t )
v dv
=
=v,
t 0 t
dt

a = lim

(1.8)

, (1.3),

dv d dr d 2 r
a=
= =
=r ,
dt dt dt dt 2

(1.9)

.
, (1.8),
v [v ]
[a] = =
= L T 2 ,
t [t ]

(1.10)

, SI , , m s 2 .
1.4.
1.2.,

(1.1), -

x = x(t ) , y = y (t ) , z = z (t ) .

(1.11)

(1.1) (1.11) .

s = s (t ) ,

(1.12)

. (1.12)
.


r = r (t ) , v = v (t ) , a = a (t ) ,

(1.13)

( v = dr dt , a = dv dt ).

, :
5

, : / /.
,
. ,
.
1.5.
,
v = const.

(1.14)

(1.5), v = const. , t1 = 0 t2 = t
t

s = v dt = v dt = v t 0 = v t .
t

(1.15)

s
v= .
t

(1.16)

1.4
1.4

1.6.

a = const.

(1.17)

(1.8)
dv = a dt .

(1.18)

( t = 0 ) v0 ( ),
t v , (1.18)
6

v0

dv = a dt .

(1.19)

(1.17), ,

v v0 = a t ,

(1.20)

,
v = v0 + a t .

(1.21)

, , (1.21) , (1.21)
v = v0 a t ,

(1.22)

+ ( v a ),
( v a ).
v0 ,
v = at ,

(1.23)

.
,
(1.22) (1.23) 1.5.
-

1.5

, (1.4) (1.22),

ds
= v0 a t
dt

ds = v0 dt a t dt ,

(1.24)

ds = v dt a t dt ,
0

s0

(1.25)

s0 t = 0 , s t .
v0 a , ,

s = s0 + v0 t

a t2
.
2

(1.26)

s0 = 0 ,
a t2
s = v0 t
,
2

(1.27)

v0 = 0 ,
s=

a t2
,
2

(1.28)

1.6.
.
(1.23) (1.28)

1.6

v = 2a s .

(1.29)

1.7.
r ( 1.7),
v A t , v
A t + t . A A
s , r , . -

v v ,
A A .

v A A ,

,
v = v + v ,

(1.30)

v ,
v v

r r A A (

).
v
1.7

: v , -

v , vn , v .

v = v v .

(1.31)

v
(a )sr =

v
,
t

(1.32)

vn

(an )sr =

vn
.
t

(1.33)

( t 0 ), (1.32) (1.33)
a an a . A A ( s 0 ), ( 0 ). a
A v , .
9

. v v v v ,
a = lim

t 0

v
v dv
= lim
=
.

0
t
t dt

(1.34)

, t 0 , ABC 0 ,
2 , an ,
vn , v ,
A , . ABC OAA
vn | r |
=
,
v
r

(1.35)

an
vn
v | r | v
| r | v
s v
v2
= lim
= lim
= lim
= v= .
t 0 t
t 0 r t
r t 0 t
r t 0 t r
r

an = lim

(1.36)

a
a an ( 1.8)
a = a + an ,

(1.37)

, (1.34)
(1.36),

1.8
2

2
dv v
a = a + a = + . (1.38)
dt r
2

10

2
n

(1.34) a . ( v = const. dv dt 0 ), a = 0 .
an ,
( v = const. ),
(1.36).
(1.38), r an 0 ,
. a , (1.34).

2.
() ,
.
: .



( 2.1).

2.1

.

,
.

11

' ( 2.2).
,
, , ,
. ,
(
)
.

2.2

.
SI ,
rad.
( 2.3).

2.3
2.1.
t

sr =

.
t

(2.1)

, t 0 ,

12

= lim

t 0

d
=
= .
t
dt

(2.2)

, ,
,
(2.2). ,
.
SI , (2.1-2) rad s .
= const. ,
T ,
. , (2.1),

2
.
T

(2.3)

T (),

1
=
.
T 2

(2.4)

SI s 1 , . ( Hz ).
2.2.
, .
t

sr =

.
t

(2.6)

, t 0 ,

13

= lim

t 0

d
=
.
dt
t

(2.7)

(2.2)

d 2
=
dt 2

(2.8)

, ,
.
SI , (2.6-7) rad s 2 .
2.3.


( 2.4). ,
.
i
ri , si
t .
2.4

,
si = ri ,

(2.9)

. (2.9) t ,
, t 0 ,
si

= lim ri
.
t 0 t
t 0
t
lim

(2.10)

ri i (
t ), .

14

si

= ri lim
.
t 0 t
t 0 t
lim

(2.11)

, (1.4),
vi i ,

vi = ri .

(2.12)

(1.34) (1.36), (2.12),

ai =

dvi d (ri )
d
=
= ri
= ri ,
dt
dt
dt

(2.13)

( ri , i -

), i
a ni =

vi2 vi2
= 2 ri = 2 ri = ( ri ) = vi .
ri ri

(2.14)

(2.12-14)
vi = ri ,

(2.15)

ai = ri ,

(2.16)

ani = vi ,

(2.17)

ri i ( ).

3.
3.1.
,
, .

15

(),
( ). (), .
, (),
, . .

.
, :
1. ,
;
2. , , .
,
,
( 3.1).
x .
.
, , , .

3.1

() : . ,
: ,
1fm = 1015 m .

. ,
16

,
. /,
.
, m .
m v ( )
p = mv .

(3.1)

SI , kg m s .
3.2.
1687.
. ,
() .
.
3.2.1. ( )
:

. , ( )
,
.

v = const.

(3.2)

, .
( ),
.
. , , , . , ,
. ,
17

.
,
.
,
.
. .

.
. ,
, .
,

.
. , ,
, ,
, .
3.2.2.
, :
p , t , t 0 ,
.
p dp
=
=F.
t 0 t
dt
lim

(3.3)

,
dp d (m v )
dv
=
=m
= ma = F .
dt
dt
dt

18

(3.4)

m
, ,
, .
F1 , F2 , ..., Fn ,

m a = F1 + F2 + + Fn

n
dv
= Fi
dt i =1

dv
=F,
dt

(3.5)

F , a
. (3.5) .

, .
F = 0 , (3.5) a = 0 , . v = const. ,
.
(3.4) SI , N = kg m s 2 .
3.2.3. ( )
:
F12 , F21 , , .

F12 = F21 .

(3.6)

( 3.2) (. 3.2b).

3.2
19

, , . :
,
.
, ( mZ ) ( m )
Fg ,
3.3

Fg ( 3.3).

3.3.
.
. (
) :
Fg m1 m2 , r 2 .
Fg =

m1m2
,
r2

(3.7)

: = 6, 67 1011 Nm 2 kg 2 ,
6, 67 1011 Nm 2 kg 2 .
(3.7)

Fg =

m1 m2
er ,
r2

(3.8)

Fg
er ( 3.4).

20

3.4

.
G=
d

Fg
mp

(3.9)

Fg m mp
( m mp ).

.
(3.8) (3.9)

G=

m mp
1
1
m
Fg =
2 er = 2 er .
mp
mp
r
r

(3.10)

G Fg ,
.
(3.9), , SI , m s 2 .

.
,

G , , .
3.5

(.
),

( 3.5),
G Fg .
21

(3.8), ( mZ ) (
mp )
Fg =

mZ mp
r2

er ,

(3.11)

, (3.10)

G=

1
m
Fg = 2Z er .
mp
r

(3.12)

(3.4),
( mp ) g (
)
mp g = Fg ,

(3.13)

, (3.13)
g =G.

(3.14)

g r = RZ + h ( 3.6), RZ

3.6

, h ( mp )
, , (3.12) (3.14),
g =

mZ
.
( RZ + h) 2

(3.15)

h (3.15)
,
RZ 6,37 108 m ,

(3.16)

(3.15)
g

mZ
.
RZ2

22

(3.17)

g , m , RZ ( ). g 9, 78 m s 2
, 9,81 m s 2 , 9,83 m s 2 ,
.
(3.13),
m
( 3.7)
3.7

Fg = mg .

(3.18)

,
Fg
Q = Fg ,

(3.19)

. ,
, N ,

N = Q .

(3.20)

Q N ,
,
.
3.4.

, . ,
23

, , .
.
.
.
m ( 3.8). F
,

3.8

Fgr .
,
Fstr , F . Fstr

F , , ,

Fstrmax = Fgr .

(3.21)

Fstrmax = s tr Fn ,

(3.22)

Fn , s tr ,
, (
). F ,
Fn = Fg = mg . (3.22),

Fsmax

tr
.
3.9

( 3.9),

24

, Fd tr ,
,

Fdmax
tr = d tr Fn ,

(3.23)

d tr , .
F ( v = const. ).

F = Fdmax
tr = d tr Fn .

(3.24)

, ,
: s tr d tr . . s tr = 0,8 d tr = 0, 4 ,
s tr = 0,10 d tr = 0, 06 , s tr = 0, 04

d tr = 0, 04 .
. ,
. ,
, .
, ,
.
3.5.
, m V

m
.
V

(3.25)

, .
,

25

dm
.
dV

(3.26)

SI , kg m3 .

Q
,
V

(3.27)

Q . (3.25) (3.27),

mg m
= g = g .
V
V

(3.28)

.
3.6.
(), .
n , : m1 , m2 , ..., mi , mj , ..., mn : v1 , v2 , ..., vi ,
vj , ..., vn .

, . Fi j
mi mj , Fji
mj mi . ,
,
Fi j = Fji .

(3.29)

, Fi mi .
,

26

dp1 d (m1 v1 )
=
= F21 + F31 + + Fn1 + F1
dt
dt
dp2 d (m2 v2 )
=
= F12 + F32 + + Fn 2 + F2
.
dt
dt

dpn d (mn vn )
=
= F1n + F3 n + + F( n 1) n + Fn
dt
dt

(3.30)

, (3.29),
n

n
dpi
d (mi vi ) n
=
= Fi = F ,

dt
i =1 dt
i =1
i =1

(3.31)

F .
, ().

n

F = F =0,

(3.32)

n
dpi
d (mi vi )
=
= 0,

dt
i =1 dt
i =1

(3.33)

d n
d n

p
mi vi = 0 .

i=

dt i =1 dt i =1

(3.34)

i =1

(3.31)
n

, ,
,
n

i =1

i =1

p = pi = mi vi = const.

(3.35)

(3.35)
, p
.
27

.
( m1 m2 )
,
(,
, 3.10).
: p = 0 . , ,

3.10
, , ,
v1 v2 . ,
p = m1 v1 + m2 v2 = 0 ,

(3.36)

m1 v1 = m2 v2 ,

(3.37)

,
.
m1 v1 = m2 v2 ,

(3.38)

v1 m2
=
.
v2 m1

(3.39)

.
,
, p = 0 . , ,
(3.36), v1 ( m1 ), v2
( m2 ). v1 v2 (3.39).

28

3.7

. , .
s F ,
( 3.11),
A = F s = F s cos .

(3.40)

(3.40), .

cos < 2 . = 2 , s = 0 . cos > 2 , .

3.11
: F = F ( s ) ,
, dA
ds

dA = F ds .

(3.41)

(3.41) s s1 s2
s2

A = F ds .

(3.42)

s1

SI j , J , , (3.40), je
: J = Nm .

29

3.8.

. F A t ,
P=

A
.
t

(3.43)

, . .
,
P=

dA
.
dt

(3.44)

SI , W , , (3.43)
: W = J s .
3.9. . .
(3.8), m mp
Fg =

m mp
r2

er .

(3.45)

dA
mp ds ( 3.12) ,
(3.41) (3.45),
dA = Fg ds =

m mp
r2

er ds .

(3.46)

3.12
er ds = | er || ds | cos = ds cos = dr ,

30

(3.47)

dA =

m mp
r2

dr .

(3.48)

1 2 a
r2

1 1
dr
A12 (a) = m mp
2 = m mp . (3.49)
r
r1 r2
r1

3.12
(3.49) A12 (a)
r1 r2 , 1 2.
b,
A12 (b) = A12 (a) .

(3.50)

A12 (b) A12 (a) = 0 .

(3.51)

(3.49)
A12 (a) = A21 (a) ,

(3.52)

. (3.52) (3.51) A
L ( 1 2 b, 2 1
)

A=

F ds = m G ds = A
g

12

(b) + A21 (a) = 0 .

(3.53)

(3.53) Fg ,
G L .
31

(3.50) (3.53),
, , !
, , . .
3.10.

. , : , , , , . ,
. ,
.
,
. :
( ) ( ).
3.10.1.
m F ,
v1 v2 . F
, . F
v1 v2 . ,
s2

A12 =
s1

s2

s2

s2

dv
dv
ds
F ds =
ds = m
ds = m
dv
m

dt
dt
dt
s1

v2

= m v dv =
v1

s1

2
2

2
1

mv mv

2
2

32

s1

(3.54)

, ,
Ek =

m v2
,
2

(3.55)

. (3.55) ( Ek 0 ).
SI , .
(3.54) (3.55) F
m
A12 = Ek2 Ek1 = Ek .

(3.56)

3.10.2.
( ) .
mp t = 0
, h
( h RZ ) ( 3.13),

3.13

v1 = 0 , Ek1 = 0 .
h ,

Ek2 =

mp v22
2

mp
2

( 2 gh )2 = mp g h ,

(3.57)

v (1.29)
.
1 2
A12 = Ek = Ek2 Ek1 = mp g h .

33

(3.58)

(3.58)
h .
mp

Ep = mp g h ,

(3.59)

, , (3.58),
A = Ek = Ek2 Ek1 = mp g h = mp g h mp g 0 = Ep1 Ep2 = Ep .

(3.60)

(3.59) , . mp g h0 ( h0
),
Ep = Ep + mp g h0 .

(3.61)

, Ep , Ep , (3.60)
.
(3.59), (3.61),
mp , h RZ .
mp (3.49) ,
mZ .

1 1

1
1
A12 = mZ mp = mZ mp mZ mp = ( Ep1 Ep2 ) = Ep (3.62)
r1
r2
r1 r2

, r2 = RZ Ep2 = 0 .
r1 = r Ep1 = Ep ,

1 1
r RZ
h
Ep = mZ mp
= mZ mp
= mZ mp
,
RZ r
RZ r
RZ r
34

(3.63)

h mp . h RZ
, RZ r = RZ2 , , (3.17),

mZ mp
h
=

h = mp g h ,
RZ2
RZ2

Ep = mZ mp

(3.64)

(3.59).
(3.63)
(3.62)

: r2 .
Ep2 = 0 ,
r1 = r Ep1 = Ep ,
Ep (r ) =
3.14
Ep ( RZ ) =

mZ mp
r

(3.65)

mZ mp
RZ

mZ
mp RZ = mp g RZ ,
RZ2

(3.66)

g (3.16).
Ep (r ) (3.65) 3.14.
3.10.3.
Ek j Ep a
Ek + Ep = E .

(3.67)

mp h , 3.13.
35

1 : Ek1 = 0 , Ep1 = mp g h ,
E1 = Ek1 + Ep1 = mp g h .

(3.68)

1 , 1 2 , : Ek1 = mp v12 2 ,
Ep1 = mp g h ,

E1 = Ek1 + Ep1 =

mp v12
2

+ mp g h =

mp
2

2 g (h h) + mp g h = mp g h ,

(3.69)

v1 (1.29) , .
2 : Ek2 = mp v22 2 , Ep2 = 0 ,
E2 = Ek2 + Ep2 =

mp v22
2

mp
2

2 g h = mp g h .

(3.70)

, , , :

E = Ek + Ep = const.

(3.71)

( ) , , , , , .
.
3.11.

.
, , , .
, , . ,
36

( ). ,
, ,
.
: .
3.11.1.

.
,
( m1 m2 ), v1 v2 = 0 , v1 v2 , , 3.15.

3.15

m1v1 = m1v1 + m2 v2 ,

(3.72)

m1v12 m1v12 m2 v22

=
+
,
2
2
2

(3.73)

(3.72) . v1
v2 v1 . (3.72) (3.73)

m1 (v1 v1 ) = m2 v2 ,

37

(3.74)

m1 (v12 v12 ) = m2 v22 .

(3.75)

(3.74) (3.75),
v1 + v1 = v2 .

(3.76)

v2 (3.76) (3.74)
m1 (v1 v1 ) = m2 (v1 + v1 ) m1v1 m1v1 = m2 v1 + m2 v1
(m1 m2 )v1 = (m1 + m2 )v1

(3.77)

v1 =

m1 m2
v1 .
m1 + m2

(3.78)

(3.76) (3.78)
v2 =

2m1
v1 .
m1 + m2

(3.79)

m1 = m2 , (3.78) (3.79) v1 = 0 , v2 = v1 .
m2 m1 (. ),
, (3.78) (3.79), m2 ,
v2 = 0 , v1 = v1 .

,
3.16

( 3.16).
3.11.2.

m1
m2 , v1 v2 , -

3.17

3.17).
38

m1v1 + m2 v2 = (m1 + m2 ) v ,

(3.80)

, .

v=

m1v1 + m2 v2
.
m1 + m2

(3.81)

,
.
3.12.
( ) m ,
r ,
( v = const. ), 3.18. 1.7, an ,
3.18

, (1.36)
an =

v2
.
r

(3.82)

, ( )
Fcp = m an ,

(3.83)

an ,
m v2
Fcp = m an =
.
r

(3.84)

, , ,
, Fcf .

39

() , ,
,
Fcp = Fcf .

(3.85)

, , .
, ,
. ,

.
3.13.
3.2. .
()
.
3.13.1.
,
, a0 . S , S
( B) m ,
, B

( 3.19). -

(
).
3.19

S ,

( v0 = 0 ) ( v0 = const. )
40

,
, .
S ,
.
S ( )
Fin a0 .

Fin = m a0 ,

(3.86)

S .
Fin B,
Fel Fin , : Fin = Fel .
, B S , S
a0 .
Fin ,
Fel .

(). , , . ,

3.20

, .

41

. , Fg = mg , Fin = m a0
, a0 .
mg + ma0 = m ( g + a0 ) , , . a0 = 3 g ,
4mg , .
,
a0 .
,
.

( 3.20).
Qa = mg + ma0 = m ( g + a0 ) .

(3.87)

( 3.20b),
Qa = mg ma0 = m ( g a0 ) .

(3.88)

a0 = g ( ),
, . .
3.13.2.
() . m
z , x
y .

S ( z
z S ), m
( 3.21). Fcp Fcf .

42

, r ; ,
(3.84) (2.12)
Fcp =

m v2
= m 2r .
r

(3.89)

3.21
, Fcf , Fcp , ( ).
,
() , Fcp , Fcf .
, (
), , . .
S ( 3.21b) , .
, .
,
Fcfi = m 2 r .

, .

43

(3.90)

, .
mi
, , (3.90), ( Fcfi )i = mi 2 ri , ,
mi , ri . (
ri , ),
,
.
.
. ,
mg , ,
() . , ( < 0, 2 m ),
().
, , mg ,
m 2 r ,
, . ( an = 2 r ) g (. 2 r > 60000 g ),
,
, .

,

Z =

2
2
rad
=
= 7, 29 10 5
.
TZ 24 60 60
s

44

(3.91)

m ,
Fg ,
Fcfi ( 3.22),
Q
Fg Fcfi .

Fcfi = m 2 r ,
( Fcfi = 0 ),
( Fcfimax = m Z2 RZ ).

3.22

Fcfimax m Z2 RZ Z2 RZ
=
=
= 3,5 103 ,
Fg
mg
g

(3.92)

( 0,35% ).

, FKor .
m v ;

FKor = 2m (v ) .

(3.93)

m
( ) r -

vr ( 3.23). vr ,

FKor = 2m vr .

(3.94)

,
3.23

, -

.
45

S , ()
.
,
( S ) ,

. ( S )
S , .

4.
4.1.
m


m1 , m2 , ..., mi , ..., mn ,
r1 , r2 , ..., ri , ..., rn
( 4.1). -

,
n

m = mi .

(4.1)

i =1

4.1

rCM =

1 n
mi ri ,
m i =1

(4.2)

m rCM = mi ri .
i =1

(4.3)
46

(4.3)


n
drCM
dr
= mi i ,
dt
dt
i =1

(4.4)

m vCM = mi vi ,

(4.5)

i =1

vCM , vi mi .
(4.5)
m

n
dvCM
dv
= mi i ,
dt
dt
i =1

(4.6)

m aCM = mi ai ,

(4.7)

i =1

aCM , ai mi .

n

mi
i =1

n
n
dvi
= mi ai = Fi = F ,
dt i =1
i =1

(4.8)

F ,
( 3.6).

n

m aCM = Fi = F .

(4.9)

i =1

,
(). , (4.9)
, . ,

47

.
( F = 0 ), (4.8)
m aCM = m

dvCM d (m vCM )
=
= 0,
dt
dt

(4.10)

m vCM = const. ,

(4.11)

.

. ( )
mi g ( 4.2)
n

i =1

i =1

mi g = g mi = mg = Fg .
4.2

(4.12)

(,
, ) . ,
, ,
(
).
4.2.
.
.
4.2.1.
I OO (
4.3)
48

I = m r2 ,

(4.13)

m , r
OO .
m OO ( 4.4)

4.3
n

I = mi ri 2 ,

(4.14)

i =1

ri mi
OO .
(),
,
m

I = lim mi ri = r 2 dm ,
2

i =1

(4.15)

r dm
OO . (3.26) , -

dV , dV
, (4.15)
4.4

I = r 2 dV ,

(4.16)

.
,
V

I = r 2 dV .
0

49

(4.17)

(4.17) . m , R h mR 2 2 ,
m R 2mR 2 5 .
4.2.2. . .
O (
4.5). F ( ) A
r . F O
M ,
M = rF .

(4.18)

r F ,
(

4.5

), ( 4.5 M ).

M = r F sin = F d ,

(4.19)

: d = r sin .
n ( ),

n

i =1

i =1

M = M i = ri Fi ,

ri Fi .

50

(4.20)

, ,
, .
,
(4.20), M 1
M 2 (
4.6

4.6).

. ( 4.6 ), , ,

M = M 1 + M 2 = F d1 + F d 2 = F (d1 + d 2 ) = F d .

(4.21)

d1 d 2 ,
,
F d .
4.2.3.


O ( 4.7) F . ,

. ,

4.7

.
51

( ) .

.
4.7 m1 , m2 , ..., mi , ...,
mn r1 , r2 , ..., ri , ..., rn . Fi ( ) mi ,
: Fi Fni ( ),

Fi = Fi + Fni .

(4.22)

(4.20)

M i = ri Fi = ri ( Fi + Fni ) = ri Fi + ri Fni = ri Fi ,

(4.23)

ri Fni = 0 ( ri Fni ). Fi
, mi .
(2.16): ai = ri ,

Fi = mi ai = mi ( ri ) ,

(4.24)

, (4.23) (4.24)

M i = ri Fi = ri mi ( ri ) .

(4.25)

ri ri Fi , i
M i = ri mi ri = mi ri 2 .

(4.26)

Fi ( 4.7), , (4.25), M i
, .

M i = mi ri 2 .
52

(4.27)

(4.27)

n
n
n

M = M i = mi ri 2 = mi ri 2 = I .
i =1
i =1
i =1

(4.28)

(4.28)

( F = m a ) ; M F ,
I m , a .
4.2.4. ,

m

( 4.8)
mi vi ri
n

Ek = Eki =
i =1

i =1

mi vi2
2

1
2
= mi ri 2 2 =
2 i =1
2
n

I 2
2

=
m
r

i i
2
i =1
n

, (4.29)

(2.12) 4.8

: vi = ri .

OO ( 4.9). mi Fi .
t mi
dsi = ri d ,

53

(4.30)

Fi dsi ,
(3.40)

dAi = Fi dsi = Fsi dsi = Fsi ri di ,

(4.31)

Fsi Fi
dsi . Fsi ri = M i
,
dAi = M i di .

(4.32)

(4.32)
4.9

t
n

i =1

i =1

i =1

dA = dAi = M i di = d M i = M d ,

(4.33)

M .
,
( ).
(4.33)
2

A = M d .

(4.34)

, (3.43)
P=

dA
d
=M
= M ,
dt
dt

, (4.33), dA = M d .

54

(4.35)

4.2.5.
OO
( 4.10)
L=rp,

(4.36)

r , p
m , ( v ) .
L
r p ,
,
, .

OO ( 4.11), mi ,

4.10

ri pi = mi vi ,

OO

Li = ri pi = ri mi vi = ri mi ( ri ) ,

(4.37)

vi (2.15).
vi ri ri ,
Li = ri mi ri = mi ri 2 ,

(4.38)

Li
4.11

Li = mi ri 2 .

(4.39)

L OO
Li

55

i =1

i =1

i =1

L = Li = mi ri 2 = mi ri 2 = I .

(4.40)

(4.40) (3.1)
( p = m v ).
(4.40),
(4.28)
M = I = I

d d ( I ) dL
=
=
,
dt
dt
dt

(4.41)

(3.4) .
(4.41), M = 0 ,
L = I = const. ,

(4.42)

:
,
.
.
. ,
I1
I 2 .
(4.42)
I1 1 = I 2 2 ,

(4.43)

1 , 2 .
.
( ).
56

,
( , ).

5.
5.1.
, F1 , F2 , ..., Fi , ..., Fn ,
r1 , r2 , ...,
ri , ..., rn , :
()
n

F = Fi = 0 v0 = 0 ,

(5.1)

i =1

v0 ;
()

M = M i = 0 0 = 0 ,

(5.2)

i =1

0 .
(5.2)
(.
).
(5.1) , (5.2)
.
3.2.
, . , .
57

(5.2) M = 0 ,
.
. ( 5.1),
F1 F2 ( 5.1), .
.
,
,

(5.2)
5.1

M = M 1 + M 2 = r1 F1 + r2 F2 = 0 .

(5.3)

,
, (5.3)
,
M = M 1 M 2 = d1 F1 d 2 F2 = 0 ,

(5.4)

d1 F1 = d 2 F2 ,

(5.5)

F2 d1
= =k,
F1 d 2

(5.6)

k .
5.1,
,
, , ,
( d1 d 2 ) ( d1 = d 2 ,
. , ).

5.2
58

,
( 5.2). .
, . F1 F2 .

6.
,
( ) .
,
.
( ), ,
.

.

( )
. , 6.1

, -

. .
,
.
:
() .

59

6.1. ()
, S ,
Fn , (
6.1). Fn
S ,
Fn
.
S

n =

(6.1)

Fn , l
( 6.1), ( 6.1b). l , ( )

l =

l
,
l

(6.2)

l > 0 , l < 0 .
,

l = n ,

(6.3)

. (6.3) .

Ey =

(6.4)

n = Ey l .
60

(6.5)

SI ,
, N m 2 .
n l
( 6.2). n < np , (6.5); n = np ,
; np < n < ne , ;
n = ne ; n > ne , , nk . .

6.2
(6.5) n (6.1), l (6.2),
Fn =

Ey S
l

l = k l ,

(6.6)

. l Fn , k .
6.2.

61

6.3

, F ,
S ( 6.3).
F ,
.
F S

F
,
S

(6.7)

, ,
6.3,
x
= tg .
l

(6.8)

= Es ,

(6.9)

Es . SI
, N m 2 .

(). .
( ) l R
,
F F ,
, S ( 6.4).
6.4
62

M
, .
M ,

2l
1
M= M,
4
c
R Es

(6.10)

c , Es .
,
.

7.

( ) ( ) ().

, , , ,
. ,
. ,
(
, , , ). - ( Es = 0 ).
, , ,
- !

.

63

7.1.

,
,
p=

F
,
S

(7.1)

F S .
,

p=

dF
.
dS

(7.2)

; SI :
Pa = N m 2 .
7.2. . .
, ( S1 S2 ) ( 7.1). :
1. ;
2.

7.1

;
3. .
, S1 , F1 ,
s1 , p1 = F1 S1 .

A1 = F1 s1 = p1 S1 s1 = p1 V1 ,
V1 .
64

(7.3)

, S2 s2
F2 , p2 = F2 S 2 .

A2 = F2 s2 = p2 S 2 s2 = p2 V2 .

(7.4)

, ,
A1 = A2 ,

(7.5)

p1 V1 = p2 V2 .

(7.6)

V1 = V2 ,

p1 = p2 .

(7.7)

, .

7.2

, ,
.
, 7.2.
(7.7),
F1 F2
= ,
S1 S 2

65

(7.8)

F1 S1
= ,
F2 S 2

(7.9)

.
F1 S1 F2 S2 .


p = EV

V
,
V

(7.10)

EV . .
, .
.
7.3.

() 7.3.
,
.
7.3

dh S ,
h , .
( ,
). F1 F2 -

66

Fg , ( )
F1 + Fg = F2 .

(7.11)

F1 = p S , F2 = ( p + dp ) S , Fg = mg = Vg = S dh g , (7.11)
p S + S dh g = ( p + dp ) S .

(7.12)

dp = g dh .

(7.13)

dp = g dh ,

patm

(7.14)

patm ( h = 0 ).
p = patm + g h .

(7.15)

(7.15) ,
. . (
7.4

)
, -

( 7.4).
.
U ( 7.5) ( 1 > 2 ) (.
), ( h1 h2 )
a b .
67

7.5

p1 = patm + 1 g h1 ,

(7.16)

p2 = patm + 2 g h2 .

(7.17)

patm + 1 g h1 = patm + 2 g h2 ,

(7.18)

1 h2
= .
2 h1

(7.19)

,
, h1 h2 .
, , .
7.4.
, , ,
.
, . ,
.
, . , , -
pV = p0 V0 = const. (m, T = const.)

7.6.

68

(7.20)

7.6

m
m
p
=
p = 0
,
V p0 V0
p0

(7.21)

0 = m V0 .
- (
,
).
, (. H 2 , O2 , N 2 , He , )
.
. .
7.5.
, , .
,
, ( ): 78% N 2 , 21% O 2 , 0,94% Ar ,
0,02% CO 2 , . -

. 200 km ,
: , .
69

10 km .
. 10 km
60 C .
, ().
.
10 40 km . ,
. 80 C .
40 km .
.
= 1, 29 kg m3 ,
.

.
1645. ,
:
1 m . ,

,
7.7

( 7.7). 760 mm -

,
. (, , , ),

patm = g h = 101.325 Pa .

(7.22)

patm = p0atm e

70

h
7970

(7.23)

p0atm ( h = 0 ), patm
h ( ) .
.
(. ), , . ,
.
. , .
101,325 kPa ,
1 m 2 , g = 9,81 m s 2 km ,
m=

Fg
g

105 N
10 4 kg .
m
9,81 2
s

(7.24)

, .
7.6.
f ( 7.8).
, . , V .
S Fi
S ,
Fi = pi S ,

(7.25)

pi S
. ,

71

Fp = Fi ,

(7.26)

i =1

,
Fp = Qf ,

(7.27)

.
(7.27)
Fp = Qf = mf g = f V g ,

(7.28)

mf .

( 7.8b). , Fp , . , (7.28),
. :
.
, .
Q = Q Fp = t Vg f Vg = ( t f ) Vg .

7.8
72

(7.29)

,
:
1. t > f , : Q > Fp ;
2. t = f , : Q = Fp ;
3. t < f , : Q < Fp .
, .
7.7.

. , ,
, , .
, . . , . , R , .
M1 M 2
d1 d 2 , d1 R , d 2 < R
7.9.
M1 , -

7.9

.
M 2 , ,
, . , M 2 F2 , .

73

, , . .
, ,
.
,
, .
,
, , .
, .


, (
7.10). ,
F ,
7.10

F
F = F ,

(7.30)

,
F = F .

(7.31)

,
F = 2l ,

(7.32)

2l ,
.
74

F
2l

(7.33)

.
s , F
A = F s = F s = 2l s = 2 S ,

(7.34)

S , 2 S
. (7.34)

A
,
2 S

(7.35)

.
(7.33) (7.35), N m J m 2 SI
.
.
7.8.
:
.
, .
,
, ( 7.11).

7.11
75

F
Fko Fad . ,
. , 7.11 2 . = 0 , , .
7.11b .
, ,
, , ( 7.12). 2 .
= , .

7.12
, . ,
, .
7.9.
( 1 mm )
, ( ),
( ) ( 7.13).

76

7.13

()
, .
( = 0 ),
( 7.14). , ,
. ,
,
,
F = Q .

(7.36)

7.14
(
2r ),
F = 2r .

(7.37)

Q = mg = Vg = r 2 h g ,

(7.38)

r , , V
.
(7.36)

2r = r 2 h g ,
77

(7.39)

h=

2
.
rg

(7.34)

.
7.10.
7.10.1. . .
()
. ( ),
, , .
,


v = v (r , t ) .

7.15

(7.41)

v ( 7.15).
. , , ,
p = p(r , t ) , = (r , t ) .

(7.42)

,
. , -

7.16

, 78

,
. .

, ( 7.16). ,
, .
.

7.17. v1 v2 S1 S2 . V1 ,
S1 t ,
7.17

S1 v1 t
V1 = S1 v1 t .

(7.43)

, S2
V2 ,
V2 = S 2 v2 t .

(7.44)

V1 = V2 ,

(7.45)

, (7.43) (7.44),
S1 v1 t = S 2 v2 t ,

(7.46)

S1 v1 = S 2 v2 .

(7.47)

,

S v = const.

79

(7.48)

(7.47) (7.48) .

Q=

V
= Sv,
t

(7.49)

, V t S . SI , m3 s .
7.10.2.
( ) , ,

7.18.
1
2 ( S1 S2 ) m , v1 v2 , h1 h2 .

7.18

S1 S2 . t
1 2 1 2 .
, (7.47) S1 S2

S1 v1 = S 2 v2 .

(7.50)

(7.50) t ( = const. ),

S1 v1 t = S2 v2 t ,

(7.51)

m1 = m2 ,

(7.52)

80

m1 = m2 = m t
S1 , S2 . 1 2
, m 1 1 2 2 . m
1
1

E = m v22 + m g h2 m v12 + m g h1 .
2
2

.(7.53)

t
A = F1 s1 F2 s2 = S1 p1 s1 S 2 p2 s2 = p1 V p2 V ,

(7.54)

s1 S1 1 1 , s2 S2
2 2 ; F1 = S1 p1 S1
( ), F2 = S 2 p2 S2 ( ).
,
E = A ,

(7.55)

, (7.53) (7.54),
1
1
m v22 + m g h2 m v12 m g h1 = ( p1 p2 ) V .
2
2

(7.56)

V , = m V ,

1
1
p1 + g h1 + v12 = p2 + g h2 + v22 ,
2
2

(7.57)

1
p + g h + v 2 = const. ,
2

(7.58)

81

,
. p (7.58) , g h , v 2 2 .
7.10.3.
)
7.19
, ( S2 ) h (
S1 ). S1 S 2 , , 7.19

(7.47), v1 v2 ,

v1 0 . , S1 S2 patm ,
patm + g h = patm +

1 2
v2 ,
2

(7.59)

v2 = 2 gh .

(7.60)

(7.60) , h .
v2 , , h
.

82

)
7.20 ,
S1 S2 ,
.
p1 +

1 2
1
v1 = p2 + v22 ,
2
2

(7.61)

7.20

p = p1 p2 =

( v22 v12 ) .

(7.62)

, (7.47)
v2 = v1

S1
,
S2

(7.63)

(7.62)

p =

2
2 S12 v12 2
2 S1
2
v

v
=
v1 2 1 =
( S1 S22 ) ,
1 2 1
2
2 S2
2 S2
2 S2

(7.64)

v1

v1 = S2

2 p
,
( S12 S22 )

(7.65)

, (7.49),

Q = S1 v1 = S1 S2

83

2 p
.
( S12 S 22 )

(7.66)

S1 S2 , , p , , (7.66), .
)
7.21, (
). ( v2 = 0 ). S1
, (
v1 , p1 ), S2
( p2 , v2 = 0 ). ( h1 = h2 = 0 ),
, ,
p1 +

1 2
v1 = p2 .
2

(7.67)

p2 patm

7.21

p = p2 patm ,

(7.68)

(7.67) (7.68) (
)
p1 +

1 2
v1 = p2 = patm + p .
2

84

(7.69)

) ( )
(
7.22) B ,
S1
. v1
S1 B, v0

S0 B, (7.47)
7.22
S1 v1 = S0 v0 ,

(7.70)

v1 =

S0
v0 > v0 ,
S1

(7.71)

S0 > S1 .
S1 S0 (7.58),
S1 S0 ,
p1 +

v12
2

= p0 +

v02

(7.72)

(v02 v12 ) .

(7.73)

p1 p0 =

, (7.71) v1 > v0 ,
p1 < p0 ,

85

(7.74)

, p0 , p1
.
, ()
.
7.11.
.
, ,
. ,
4,
, v .
()
F = S

v
,
x

(7.75)

S , v x , . x ,

,
. SI
, N s m 2 .
,
() R ( 7.23).
l , p1 p2 , (7.75),
7.23

r
v=

p1 p2 2 2
(R r ) .
4 l

86

(7.76)

( r = 0 )
v=

p1 p2 2
R ,
4 l

(7.77)

( r = R ).
(7.76),
7.23
Q=

dV R 4 p1 p2
=
,
dt
8
l

(7.78)

( p1 p2 ) l .
, , .
Q R 4 ,
.
(7.48), ,
, (7.78),
Q=

R 4 p1 p2
= const.
8
l

(7.79)

R 4 8 ,
p1 p2 p
=
= const. ,
l
l

(7.80)

( p = l const. ). ,
(7.57) 7.23,
p1 +

v12
2

= p2 +

87

v22
2

(7.81)

h1 = h2 . ,
S v = const. ,

( S = const. ), v = const.
( v1 = v2 (7.81)), (7.81)

p1 = p2 ,

(7.82)

p = p1 p2 = 0 .

(7.83)

7.24

, 7.24.
(7.78)
V R 4 p0
=
,
8 l 0
t0

(7.84)

V R 4 p
=
,
t
8l

(7.85)

t0 0 l R , t . (7.84) (7.85)

= 0

p t
gh t
t
= 0
= 0
,
p0 t0
0 g h t0
0 t0

(7.86)

0 .
, , . , 88

, (, ,
). ,
7.25 ( )
( )
.
. ,
( ),
, .

7.25

8.
, , , ,
, , , .


f (t + T ) = f (t ) ,

(8.1)

T .
,
, .
m
8.1.
x = 0 ( ). -

8.1

x = A ,

,
89

Fel = k x ,

(8.2)

k ,
.

Fel = k x ,

(8.3)

x .
x .
x = 0 , , , (8.2), ,
, . , v ( x )
, ,
. , ( v = 0 ) x = A . ,
( x = 0 ).
v ( x )
, ,
. , ( v = 0 )
x = A . , , .
-. ,
, , .

90

. , ( )
, , , x ( ).
8.1.

, , Fel
x , (8.3).
,
m 8.1 , (7.3)
m a = k x ,

(8.4)

a . a x , (3.4)

m
x = k x ,

(8.5)

k
x.
m

(8.6)

x=

k
= 2
m

(8.7)

x + 2x = 0 .

(8.8)

(8.6)

(8.3) ,
x = A cos(t + ) ,

91

(8.9)

x (
), A ( ), t + ,
( t = 0 ). (8.9)
8.2

,
8.2.

( , ) 2 ,

2
cos(t + ) = cos(t + 2 + ) = cos t +

+ .

(8.10)

(8.1) T
T=

(8.11)

, (8.7).
()

1
.
T

(8.12)

(8.11) (8.12)

2
= 2 .
T

(8.13)

8.2.
A12
8.1. (3.42) (8.3),

92


s2

x2

k
A12 = Fel ds = k x dx = ( x22 x12 ) .
2
s1
x1

(8.14)

x1
x2 , . , (3.60),
A12 = Ep = Ep1 Ep2 ,

(8.15)

k x2
Ep ( x ) =
,
2

(8.16)

, (8.14)

. x = A
k A2
,
2

Ep ( A) =

(8.17)

x = 0
Ep (0) = 0 .

(8.18)

, (8.9),
v = x =

dx
= A sin(t + ) .
dt

(8.19)

x , (8.7),
mv 2 m 2 2 2
k A2
1 cos 2 (t + )
Ek ( x) =
= A sin (t + ) =
2
2
2
,
k 2
k 2
2
2
2
= A A cos (t + ) = ( A x )
2
2

(8.20)

x = 0
Ek (0) =

k A2
,
2

x = A
93

(8.21)

Ek ( A) = 0 .

(8.22)

x
, (8.16) (8.20)
E ( x) = Ep ( x) + Ek ( x) =

k x2 k 2
k x 2 k A2 k x 2 k A2
+ ( A x2 ) =
+

=
,
2
2
2
2
2
2

(8.23)

.
8.3 ,

8.3

x .
8.3.

(8.9) .
, ()
. , ,
. () .

8.4,
, , .
, , 8.4

94

Ftr = rv ,

(8.24)

r ,
.
, x

m a = k x rv ,

(8.25)

, , (8.25)

m
x = k x r x ,

(8.26)

x+

r
k
x + x = 0 .
m
m

(8.27)

: 2 = r m 2 = k m , (8.27)

x + 2 x + 2 x = 0 ,

(8.28)

r < 4k m
x = A e t cos(1 t + ) ,

(8.29)

A , , 1

1 = 2 2 .
(8.29) 8.5, = 0 .

95

(8.30)

8.5
1 < , (8.11) T1 > T .
0 ( r 0 ), .
(8.29)
x = A cos(1 t + ) .

(8.31)

r 4k m ,
, , .
8.4.


.
8.6,

F = F0 cos p t ,

(8.32)

F0 , p
.
ma = F kx r v .

(8.33)

8.6
, (8.33)

96

m
x + k x + r x = F0 cos p t ,

(8.34)

F
r
k
x + x = 0 cos p t .
m
m
m

(8.35)

x+

: 2 = r m 2 = k m ,

x + 2 x + 2 x =

F0
cos p t ,
m

(8.36)

.
x = A cos(p t + ) ,

(8.37)

A=

F0

(8.38)

m ( 2 p2 ) 2 + 4 2p2

tg =

2 p

2 p2

(8.39)

A p 8.7.
p = r , .

r = 2 2 2 ,
8.7

(8.40)

97

,
, , , , .

9.
9.1.
,
. () () . ( , , ),
,
() .
() , . ,
. , , . ,
.
. ,
, , .

. ,
( ), (). .

98

,

.

.

9.1, .
( ), : ,
,
.
-. , ,
. ,
,
(
) . , ( ).
.

9.1 , 9.1b.
( t = 0 ) , 1 ,
. t = T 4 , 1
(), 2 .

99

t = T 2 1 , 2 , 3 .

t = 3T 4 1
, 2


, 3
,
4 . t = T 1
,

9.1

2 -

, 3 , 4 , 5 ,
. , 5
1. 5 , 1
. , 1 5 . , , , .

. 1 5
1 5. 1 5
T ,

100

= cT .

(9.1)

T=

(9.2)

() , (9.1)
c = ,

(9.3)

.

.

,
. 9.2

.
9.2

, . 1 ( ), , 1 . ,
2, 1. 101

, 1 2, 1,
. , 2 3,
. , .
9.2b
9.2 .
9.1b , (9.1), (9.2) (9.3)
.

, . . , , .
,
, .
, :
1. () , ( );
2. () , ;
3. () , ,
, .
,
( ).
( )
. , 102

( )
.
.
, , , 9.3.
. , 9.4,
.

9.3

.
,
.
, 9.3,
,
9.4

9.4.

9.2.
,
, , .
, x 9.5, ,
( x = 0 ), , (8.9)

= 0 sin t ,

103

(9.4)

, 0 , ,
2 .

9.5
x c . x
t1 =

x
.
c

(9.5)

= 0 sin (t t1 ) = 0 sin t ,
c

(9.6)

x .
,

t = const.
c

(9.7)

, = const. ,
dt

dx
=0,
c

(9.8)

dx
=c.
dt

(9.9)

c
.
,
(9.6),
104

= 0 sin t + .
c

(9.10)

, ,
dx
= c .
dt

(9.11)

(9.6) = 2 T cT = ,
t x
.
T

= 0 sin 2

(9.12)

9.3.
. ,
( ).

: ( ),

1 = 2 ,

(9.13)

1 2 = const.

(9.14)

.
,

x1
,
c

(9.15)

x2
.
c

(9.16)

1 = 01 sin t
2 = 02 sin t

01 = 02 = 0 , (9.15) (9.16)
105

x1
x1

= 0 sin t
= 0 sin (t + 1 ) ,
c
c

(9.17)

x2
x2

= 0 sin t
= 0 sin (t + 2 ) .
c
c

(9.18)

1 = 0 sin t
2 = 0 sin t

1 =
2 =

x1
c

x2
c

(9.19)

(9.20)

= 1 + 2 = 0 sin (t + 1 ) + 0 sin (t + 2 )
1 + 2
2
= 2 0 cos 1
sin t +

2
2

(9.21)

(9.19) (9.20),

1 2
2

2c

( x2 x1 ) =

2c

(9.22)

= x2 x1 . = 2 T cT = , (9.22)

1 2
2

= .
2cT

(9.23)

, (9.21)

+

= 2 0 cos sin t + 1 2 .
2

(9.24)

0 = 2 0 cos ,


106

(9.25)

cos = 1 ,

(9.26)

= 2n , (n = 0, 1, 2,) ,

(9.27)

= 2n , (n = 0, 1, 2,) .

(9.28)

0 , (9.25),

cos = 0 ,

(9.29)

= (2n + 1) , (n = 0, 1, 2,) ,

(9.30)

= (2n + 1) , (n = 0, 1, 2,) .

(9.31)

(9.28) (9.31)
, . () .

, ,
. , .
9.4. () ()

, . .

107

c=

Ey

(9.32)

Ey , .

c=

Ev

(9.33)

Ev , .

c=

p
,

(9.34)

= C p CV
, p , .
,
,
c=

Es

(9.35)

Es , .

,
:
.
AB MM
, 9.6. ( A ) , ( B ) BC .
, A
r = BC ( , 108

A ),
. DC ,
( C MM )
A ,
.

9.6
A
. , ,
1 . ADC ABC ( AC ) . , AD BC ADC ABC , . , 9.6

(9.36)

(9.37)

1 =

= 1 ,

(9.38)

= 1 .

(9.39)

109

, , .
,
. ,
( = ).
( = 0 ) .
MM , : c2 < c1 ,
9.7, .

9.7
, AB , A 1, 2 B .
2 C , t . c1 ,
BC = c1 t .

(9.40)

t , A , , AD .
c2 ( c2 < c1 ),
AD = c2 t .

(9.41)

DC , .
1 ( 110

). 2 DC ,
1 2 9.7,
BC = AC sin ,

(9.42)

AD = AC sin .

(9.43)

(9.42) (9.43), (9.40)

(9.41),

BC AC sin sin c1
=
=
= .
AD ACsin sin c2

(9.44)

c1 c2 (9.44) ,
BC c1
= = n12 .
AD c2

(9.45)

n12 .
c2 < c1 , < , . , , . , .
,
.
9.5. ()
. 9.8 . , , ,
P , ,
.

9.8

,
. 111

.
.
9.6.
16 20.000 Hz . .
. 16 Hz
, 20.000 Hz .
16 20.000 Hz
.
,
.

9.9

(. ). -

(, ). ( ). : , .
9.9 , .
. , 1
( 1 ). i ( i > 1 ) . , -

112

,
( ).
, . 9.4. .

.

I=

Esr Psr
=
.
St
S

(9.46)

SI , , W m 2 .
,
. p ; p p
p + p , p .
I=

(p ) 2
,
20 c

(9.47)

0 , c .
I min = 1012 W m 2 (
1.000 Hz < < 4.000 Hz , ).
I max = 10 W m 2 ( ). -

(13 ) L ,

I
L = 10 log10
I min

113

(9.48)

,
,
dB . I min L = 0 dB ,

I max L = 130 dB . .

60 dB . 9.10 -

9.10

L .

,

.
9.11.

,

9.11

, d = 2, 7 cm .
, 7,
= 4 d , = c = 3.000 Hz .

.
. (, ), 114

.
.
2 3.
20 30 .
, 2 3.000 Hz ,
180 ( 2 3 30 = 180 ) . -

, (9.47),
, 32.000.
( )
. , .
.

(). 2,5
. , ,
.
, . , , , . , ,
,
.
( ),
. ,
. , .

115

( > 20.000 Hz ) : ( ), . ,
, ,
,
. .

( ) .

( ) ,
105 W m 2 ,
MHz .

( ~ 0, 01 s ) , 35 70 kHz .
100 kHz .


.
.

. ,
. , ( ).
, . .
. . , .
,
.
- , .
116

II
10.
10.1.

.
,
, . . , ( )
( ).
,
( ),
( ). , ,
, . , ,
,
.
, .
. .
,
(. ).
, , .

(, ) .
, . ,
. ,
,
, ,
.
,
.

(
)
101.325 Pa .

0 C ,
100 C ,
10.1.
10.1

0 100 C ,
( 1 100 ) .

,
.
SI , K . ,
,
( ),
273,15 C . , ,
T (K) = t (C) + 273,15 C ,

118

(10.1)

T (K) = t (C) ,

(10.2)

.
( C ) ,
SI ( K ).
38 C
( ) 357 C ( ), -

). ( 110 C ). 300 C
. .
10.2.
( , )
.
.
,
, 10.2, l l

10.2

T ,

l
= T ,
l

(10.3)

, ( ).

119

l , T ,
(10.3),
l = l + l = l + l T = l (1 + T ) .

(10.4)

V V
T ,
V
= T ,
V

(10.5)

= 3 . V T ,
(10.5),
V = V + V = V + V T = V (1 + T ) = V (1 + 3 T ) .

(10.6)

, , (10.5),
.

m
V

(10.7)

.
( ),

V
,
V

(10.8)

m (10.7) 10.3

. ,
120

(10.5),

= T .

(10.9)

,
(10.8) . ,
0 C 4 C .
, 4 C ( 10.3). , ( )
4 C .
, 4 C ,
. , ,
. .
10.3.
( ,
) .
( , , ).
,
. , ,
, . ()
. . ,
.

121

, .
,
, SI . ,
, cal ,
1 g 14,5 C 15,5 C .

1840. ,
. - . ,
I = 4,186

J
.
cal

(10.10)

T1 T2 ,
Q m
T = T2 T1 ,
Q = m c T .

(10.11)

(10.2),
Q = m c t = m c (t2 t1 ) ,

(10.12)

c , , . (10.11),
c=

Q
,
m T

(10.13)

. ,
122

c=

1 dQ
.
m dT

(10.14)

SI , J kg K .

Ck = m c

(10.15)

, , (10.14),
Ck =

dQ
.
dT

(10.16)

SI , J K .
. ,
.
10.4.
,
, . ,
, .
,
.
, .
( , , ).
, (
).
123

: , , , , . . ,
( ).

,
. .
U ,
() ,
.
()
(). .
,
(.
, ).
, , , ,
. ,
.
.
(.
, ).
: Q
U , A
,
Q = U + A .

124

(10.17)

, Q
, .
U ,
. A ,
.

dQ = dU + dA .

(10.18)

, .
10.5.
10.4
,

. ,

S . x , -

10.4
V = S x .

(10.19)

( F = p S )
p
A = F x = p S x = p V .

(10.20)

, (10.20)
dA = p dV .

125

(10.21)

,
V1 V2
V2

A12 =

p dV .

(10.22)

V1

( p, V ) 10.5, .
, V = V2 V1 . , (10.22)
, ( ).

10.5
(10.22) ()
. , V = V2 V1 .
.
(10.20),

Q = U + p V ,

(10.23)

dQ = dU + p dV .

(10.24)

126

11.
11.1.
m
, p , V T . ,
.
11.1

,
(7.20), -
pV = const. (m = const., T = const.)

(11.1)

, ( p, V ) 11.1 .

p = p0 (1 + t ) (m = const., V = const.) ,

(11.2)

p t (C) , p0 0 C ,
,

1
.
273,15 C

11.2 (11.2).

11.2
127

(11.3)

p = 0 , (11.2),
p0 (1 + t( p =0) ) = 0 .

(11.4)

1 + t( p =0) = 0 ,

(11.5)

p = 0 ,

t( p = 0) =

= 273,15 C .

(11.6)

, , (10.1)
T( p = 0) = t( p = 0) + 273,15 C = 0 K .

(11.7)

,
0, 001 K .

,
, j.
.
1 + t (11.2) ,
(10.1) (11.3)
1+ t = 1+

t
273,15 C + t T
=
= ,
273,15 C
273,15 C
T0

(11.8)

T0 = 273,15 K . ,
p p0
=
T T0

(m = const., V = const.) ,

(11.9)

p
= const. (m = const., V = const.) .
T

( p, T ) 11.3.
128

(11.10)

11.3
( p, V ) (11.10) 11.4.
, ( p, t ) ,
( p, T ) , . ( p, V ) .

-
V = V0 (1 + t ) (m = const., p = const.) ,

(11.11)

V t (C) , V0
0 C ,
, -

11.4

, (11.3). (11.8), -

V V0
=
T T0

(m = const., p = const.) ,

(11.12)

V
= const. (m = const., p = const.) .
T

(11.13)

(V , t ) , (11.11) 11.5,
(V , T ) (11.13) 11.6

129

11.5

11.6

( p, V ) - 11.7.

11.7
- , .
11.2.
0 C , -
(11.1)
p0 V0 = p1V1 = p2 V2 = const.

(11.14)

p0 V0 = pV0 ,

(11.15)

p V0 .
,
- (11.11),
V = V0 (1 + t ) ,

(11.15)
130

(11.16)

p0 V0 = p

V
,
1+ t

(11.17)

, (11.8),
pV p0 V0
=
,
T
T0

(11.18)

p0 , V0 T0 0 C .
1 mol (
0, 012 kg
6

C12 ),

NA = 6, 023 10 23

.
mol

(11.19)

, ( T0 = 273,15 K
p0 = 101.325 Pa ) ,
VM = 22, 415 103

m3
,
mol

(11.20)

V0 = n VM ,

(11.21)

n
n=

m
,
M

(11.22)

m M . ,
(11.18)
pV
pV p0 n VM
=
= n 0 M = nR ,
T
T0
T0

(11.23)

, ,
pV = nRT ,

131

(11.24)

R = p0 VM T0 = 8, 314 J mol K .
11.3. -
-
(. ) (, , ,
, ).
,
.
. ,
. ,
. , , .
(
)
l , N .

,
11.8,
x X 1 X 2 .
, , 11.8

vi ,
vi = vxi e x + vyi e y + vzi e z ,

(11.25)

vi2 = vxi2 + v 2yi + vzi2 .

(11.26)

132

vxi x ,
pxi = vxi . ,
pxi = vxi .
pxi = pxi pxi = 2 vxi .

(11.27)

X 1
ti ,
( X 1 X 2 ),
,
ti =

2l
.
vxi

(11.28)

, X 1 ti
Fxi =

pxi
v
v2
1
2 vxi = xi 2 vxi = xi ,
=
2l
2l
l
ti
vxi

(11.29)

X 1 ti ,
Fxi = Fxi =

vxi2
l

(11.30)

N X 1
N

vxi2

i =1

Fx = Fxi =
i =1

v
i =1

2
xi

(11.31)

p=

F
=
l2 l3

i =1

l3

vxi2 =

133

vxi2 N 2
= 3 vx ,

l
i =1 N
N

(11.32)

vx2 x .
,

N
N
v
v2
v2
v = xi , v y2 = yi , vz2 = zi .
i =1 N
i =1 N
i =1 N
N

2
x

(11.33)

vx2 + v y2 + vz2 =
i =1

N
N
N
v yi N v 2
vxi + v yi + vzi
vxi2
v2
+ + zi =
= i = v2 ,
N i =1 N i =1 N i =1
N
i =1 N
2

(11.34)

v 2 . ,
v 2 = 3 vx2 ,

(11.35)

, (11.32)

p=

N v2
l3 3

2 N v2 2 N
2
=
Ek = n0 Ek ,
3V 2
3V
3

(11.36)

V = l 3 ,

Ek =

v2
2

(11.37)

, n0 = N V
.
(11.36) .

pV =

2
N Ek
3

(11.38)

,
pV = nRT ,

134

(11.39)

nRT =

2
N Ek ,
3

(11.40)

Ek =

3 n
3 R
3
RT =
T = kT .
2N
2 NA
2

(11.41)

N = n NA . k = 1,38 1023 J K .
(11.37) (11.41),

v2 =

3 kT

3RT
=
NA

3RT
,
M

(11.42)

M = NA .

(11.43)

(11.34) (11.42)
,
N

vi2
vef = v = =
i =1 N
2

3RT
.
M

.(11.44)

j ,
j

n0 = n0i ,

(11.45)

i =1

n0i i .
, (11.36)
p=

j
j
2
2 j
2
n0 Ek = n0i Ek = n0i Ek = pi ,
3
3 i =1
i =1 3
i =1

135

(11.46)

2
n0 i Ek
3

pi =

(11.47)

i . (11.46)
, .
11.4.
, (11.41), . ,
(
x , y z ),

1
kT .
2

(11.48)

.

Esr =

1
kT .
2

(11.49)

i ,

E=

i
kT .
2

(11.50)

, 1 UM
UM = NA E = NA

i
i R
i
kT = NA
T = RT .
2
2 NA
2

(11.51)

m
U = n UM = n

136

i
RT .
2

(11.52)

, (10.14) ,
, , ,
(10.14) (11.22),
C = Mc = M

dQ
M dQ 1 dQ
=
=
.
m dT m dT n dT

(11.53)

,

C=

1 Q
.
n T

(11.54)

SI J mol K .
,
(11.55) (11.54), .

( V = const. ) ?
, 11.9.
,
(11.54),
1 QV
CV =
.
n T

11.9
(11.55)

(10.23)
QV = U ,

(11.56)

V = 0 V = const. , (11.52)
U = n

i
R T ,
2

(11.57)

, (11.55-57),
137

CV =

1 U 1 i R T i
= n
= R.
n T n 2 T
2

(11.58)

( p = const. ) ?
11.10.
,
(11.54)
11.10

Cp =

1 Q p
.
n T

(11.59)

(10.23)
QV = U + p V .

(11.60)

,
(11.55),
Cp =

1 U p V
+
.
n T n T

(11.61)

, (11.24) p = const.
p V = n R T ,

(11.62)

p V
=R,
n T

(11.63)

(11.58),

C p = CV + R =

i
i+2
R+R =
R.
2
2

(11.58) (11.64)
138

(11.64)

Cp
CV

2 1 i+2
i+2
R=
.
i R 2
i

(11.65)

, i = 3
( ). , (11.58), (11.64) (11.65)
CV =

3
5
5
R , Cp = R , = = 1, 67 .
2
2
3

(11.66)

He
Ar , .

( O 2 , N 2 )

11.11.

, ,
(, x , y , z -

11.11

). I x x
, x
I x2 x2 2 . -

i = 5 (3 2 ), , (11.58), (11.64)
(11.65)
CV =

5
7
7
R , Cp = R , = = 1, 40 .
2
2
5

(11.67)

, ( ), .
, ,
( 139

). ( 9.2 ), , 7,
(11.87)
CV =

7
9
9
R , Cp = R , = = 1, 29 ,
2
2
7

(11.68)

.
,
,
,
.
,
.
( n = 3 4),
,
i = 6 . , (11.58), (11.64) (11.65)
CV =

6
8
8
R , Cp = R , = = 1,33 ,
2
2
6

(11.69)

. , , , , CV Cp . 4.
, ( 10 2 103 C ), : , , .

140

( 103 104 C ) , 106 C .

,
- ,
25 J mol K . ,
,
( i = 6 ); Cp = CV = 3R 25 J mol K (
, ).
11.5
N , N
(v, v + v) .
f (v ) =

N N
1 N
=
,
v
v N

(11.70)

N N
(. 450 m s 451 m s , v = 1 m s ).
(11.70) ,
3

2
4 2 2kT v 2
f (v ) =
e
v ,

2 kT

(11.71)

T , k
.

11.12 T1 T2 ( T1 < T2 ).
11.12

141

, (0, ) .

:
1.

v0 =

2 kT

v=

8 kT

2 RT
;
M

(11.72)

8 RT
;
M

(11.73)

2.

3.
vef = v 2 =

3 kT

3RT
,
M

(11.74)

(11.44),
- .
(11.72-74)
v0 < v < vef .

(11.75)

, O2 T = 300 K , : v0 = 440 m s , v = 500 m s , vef = 540 m s . .

11.6.

. ,
Q = 0 .

142

(11.76)

, .
(10.23),
(11.76),
U + p V = 0 .

(11.77)

U (11.58), p (11.24),

n CV T + n

RT
V = 0 ,
V

(11.78)

, n CV T
T R V
+
= 0.
T CV V

(11.79)

,
dT R dV
+
= 0.
T CV V

(11.80)

ln T +

R
ln V = const. ,
CV

(11.81)

CV
ln T V

= const.

(11.82)

TV

R
CV

= const.

(11.83)

(11.64) (11.65),
Cp CV

TV

CV

= T V 1 = const.
143

(11.84)

, T ,

pV = const.

(11.85)

( p, V ) 11.13. .

> 1 , (11.1) ( 11.13 ,

).

11.13
,
,
. ,
, n > 1 . , ; ,
.

12.
12.1.

. ,
. ,
144

. ,
, .
(
) F

r 12.1.
r > r0 ( r0
F = 0 ), F < 0 , . r < r0 , F > 0 ,
.
U
r ,

12.1

12.1b. ,
r = r0 U min .
, .
( Ek ~ kT ), ,
.
, kT U min ,
.
,
.
, kT U min , , .

145

kT U min , r0 . .
kT > U min , ( ), (
). , , .
, , U min
( , , ).
U min , .
.
,
U min , . , ,
.
12.2.
, .
,
.
12.2

12.2 t Q .

146

( ),
. , , , , .
Q .
(, , ) ,
.
, t .
, , ,
.

,
q =

Q
,
m

(12.1)

Q , m . SI , J kg .
= 1083 C ,
, Cu , tCu
= 209, 3 kJ kg , H 2 O , tH 2 O = 0 C ,
qCu
qH 2 O = 333, 2 kJ kg .
,
. , t , q .

147

12.3.
:
. .
. , .
, ,
.

t . 12.3

12.3

t Q .
Q
,
(
).

,
q =

Q
,
m

(12.2)

Q m
, 12.3.
q SI J kg .
q ,
148

101,325 kPa . . H 2 O , tH 2 O = 100 C ,

qH 2 O = 2256 kJ kg , Hg , = 357 C , qHg
= 272 kJ kg .
tHg

12.4,
, .
12.4

(
), .
, .
.
, , . ,
.
, , , .
, . , ,
,
. , . .
( ) .
149

, ,
, . , , 2,33 kPa
20 C , 100 C
101,325 kPa .
(, , , ), .

(, , , ).

,
.
m
1 m 3 . .

,
m 3 , M .
,
. , . , ( ).
.
m M
,

m
100 % .
M

(12.3)

0% 100% ( ).
m
(, H 2SO 4 - CaCl 2 ). 150

.
.
, .
12.4.
( p, T ) , . ,
()
(, ),
, .
12.5

12.5,
i ,
t , s .
.
ptr , (, ) .
610, 6 Pa 273,16 K .
12.5.
, ,
CO 2 , , 12.6.
p1 V1 . , .
151

T = const.

( pV = const. )
( p, V ) 12.6b -

1 2. V2 -

p23 ,
.
V2
V3 , ( p23 = const. ) ,
12.6

, .
p23 ;
( p, V ) 2-3 , V .
3 , ,
V3 V4 .
1-4 .

12.7 ( p, V )
, . Tkr ,
, ,
Vkr

pkr .

( Tkr = const. ) .

12.7
( p, V ) 4 :

152

1. , ;
2. , ,


;
3.
, 12.7

4. , ,
.
( p, V )
. , , . - CO 2 , Tkr = 304 K (31 C) ,
H 2 O Tkr = 647 K (374 C) , T = 293 K (20 C) . ,
O 2 Tkr = 154 K (119 C) , N 2 Tkr = 133 K (140 C) ,
He Tkr = 5 K (268 C) ,
.
( p, V ) , T > Tkr ,
, .
,
( pV = nR T )
: - , -

153

p + 2 (V b) = nR T ,
V

(12.4)

b ,
, a V 2
( a ).
,
( (12.4)
T = const . ),
( 12.6b, 12.7).

13.
13.1.
(10.22), V1
V2
V2

A12 =

p dV .

(13.1)

V1

( p = const . ),
V2

A12 = p dV = p (V2 V1 ) .

(13.2)

V1

( p, V ) , 13.1, A12
13.1

, A12 > 0

( V2 > V1 ), . A12 < 0 ( V2 < V1 ).

154

( V = const . ) ,
( V = 0 ).
( T = const . ), pV = nR T , V1 V2
(13.1)
V2

A12 =

V1

V2

2
V
dV
dV
p dV = nRT
= nR T
= nRT ln 2 .
V
V1
V1 V
V1

(13.3)

( p, V ) ( 13.2),

A12 > 0 ( V2 > V1 ), . A12 < 0

( V2 < V1 ).

( Q = 0 )
(13.1), , -

13.2

(10.17) ,

U + A = 0 .

(13.4)

U (11.58), A12
T1 T2

T
A12 = A = n CV T = n CV (T2 T1 ) = n CV T1 1 2 .
T1

(13.5)

(11.84) ( T V 1 = const . )
1

T2 V1
=
T1 V2

(11.64) ( Cp = CV + R )
155

(13.6)

CV =

C
CV
R
1
CV = R V = R
=R
.
R
R
Cp CV
1

(13.7)

(13.6) (13.7) (13.5),

1

n RT1 V1
1
A12 =
1 V2

(13.8)

( p, V ) ( 13.3),

13.3

A12 > 0 ( V2 > V1 ), .

A12 < 0 ( V2 < V1 ).

13.2. ( )
( )


.
13.4 ( p, V ) .
m ,
1, ( p1 , V1 , T1 ).

13.4

, , 1 2 ( p2 , V2 , T2 ), A1 , 1a221 1 .
2 1, b.
A2 , 1b221 1 .

156

A = A1 + A2
( A2 < 0 A1 > A2 ), 1a2b1 . ,
, U 2 U1 , Q1 . , , U1 U 2 ,
Q2 . ,
(10.17),
Q1 = U 2 U1 + A1 ,

(13.9)

Q2 = U1 U 2 + A2 .

(13.10)

,
Q1 Q2 = A1 + A2 = A .

(13.11)

Q1 , Q2 ,

Q1 > Q2 . ,
, ( ).
(
) , , 13.5.
,
,
( T1 T2 ; T1 > T2 ).
13.5
Q1 T1 A , Q2 T2 .
157

(),

=
d

A Q1 Q2
=
.
Q1
Q1

(13.12)

13.3.

, , .
13.6
( p, V ) ,

1 2 , 2 3 ,
3 4 4 1 .
, T1
T2 ( T1 > T2 ), ( ;
).
,
-

13.6

.
().
1 p1 , V1 , T1 . 1 2 T1 158

Q1 , ( T1 = const. ) V1 V2 ,
p1 p2 ( 13.6b). 2
p2 , V2 , T1 . (10.17)
, (11.58),
Q = n CV T + A .

(13.13)

1 2 , Q = Q1 , T = 0 A = A12 ,
Q1 = A12 ,

(13.14)

, (13.3),

V
A12 = n RT1 ln 2 .
V1

(13.15)

2 3 , 13.6c,
T1 ;
( Q = 0 ) V2 V3 , T1 T2

p2 p3 , . 3 p3 , V3 ,
T2 . , (13.5),

A23 = n CV T = n CV (T2 T1 ) .

(13.16)

3 4 , 13.6d,
T2 , ,
Q2 , ( T2 = const. ) V3 V4
p3 p4 . 4 p4 ,
V4 , T2 . (13.13), 3 4 Q = Q2 , T = 0
A = A34 ,
Q2 = A34 ,

159

.(13.17)

, (13.3),

V
V
A34 = n RT2 ln 4 = n RT2 ln 3 .
V3
V4

(13.18)

4 1 , T2
, ( Q = 0 ) V4 V1
T2 T1 p4 p1 , .
1 p1 , V1 , T1 . (13.5),

A41 = n CV T = n CV (T1 T2 ) .

(13.19)

(1, 2, 3, 4,1) ( p, V ) 13.6

A = A12 + A23 + A34 + A41 .

(13.20)

(13.16) (13.19)
A23 = A41 ,

(13.21)

, (13.15) (13.18),

V
V
A = n RT1 ln 2 n RT2 ln 3 .
V1
V4

(13.22)

(11.84) ( T V 1 = const. ) 2 3
T1 V2 1 = T2 V3 1 ,

(13.23)

T2 V4 1 = T1 V1 1 .

(13.24)

4 1

(13.23) (13.24),
V2 V3
= .
V1 V4

160

(13.25)

(13.25)
(13.22)

V
V
V
A = n RT1 ln 2 n RT2 ln 2 = n R (T1 T2 ) ln 2 .
V1
V1
V1

(13.26)

(13.14), (13.15) (13.26),

, (13.12),
V
n R (T1 T2 ) ln 2
A
V1 = T1 T2 ,
K = =
Q1
T1
V
n RT1 ln 2
V1

(13.27)

T1 T2 . T2 = 0 K ,
1, .
.
, (13.27)
. ,
, ,
(13.27),
,

K .

(13.28)

13.4.

, , . , ,

161

. , .
: ( ) .
13.7, m1 m2 , T1 T2 , T1 > T2 . 13.7

, -

. (
) ( ), .
, , ,
, -
. - .
:
, .
(13.28),
K
. ,
(13.12),
Q2 Q1 T2 T1

,
Q1
T1

.
162

(13.29)

. .
. , ,
, .
, ;
.

, 13.8.
,
, , . , 13.8b, -

13.8

.
,
. . ,
(. ,
1 2 ). , ( N ,
N

1 2 ).
(
)
,

. ,
( ),

163

. , , .
,
. , , ,
.

:
, ()
.

,
S = k ln W ,

(13.30)

k , W , ()
.
S SI , J K .
(13.30),
,
. , .
:
( ),
( ),
S 0 .

(13.31)

.
164

, ()
. , . , .
, ,
, ,
.

14.
: (), () (). ,
.
,
,
.
14.1.

, . ,
, , .
(, , , ).
, .
. , ,
165

, , .
.
, .
14.1 dx
S .
T , T dT . -

,
. dQ dt
14.1

S ,

,
dQ
dT
= k S
,
dt
dx

(14.1)

k , . k SI W m K . ,
k (. Ag 418 W m K , Cu 381 W m K ),

( 0, 024 W m K ,
0,59 W m K , 0, 08 W m K , 0,8 W m K ).
(14.1), l ,
S , T1 T2 ( T2 > T1 ), Q
t ,
Q
T T
=kS 2 1,
t
l

.
166

(14.2)

14.2
, 14.2b (14.2).
, T1 , , T2 .
(14.2) ,
(T , x)

14.2

.
14.2.
. .
. 14.3
, . ,
. ,
,
14.3

. .

, 14.4. , ,
14.4

( ), ().
167

(, , ).
, , ( ).
T . dQ dt

5
dQ
= K (T ) 4 ,
dt

(14.3)

5 4 , K
. dQ (10.14),

5
dT
K
=
(T ) 4 .
dt m c

(14.4)

, 5 4
,

dT
K
=
T .
dt m c

(14.5)

(14.5)

T = (T ) max e

Kt
mc

(14.6)

(T ) max .
(14.6)
14.5.
14.5
168


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16. . . : ,
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