ECE 331L

FUNDAMENTALS OF MICROELECTRONIC CIRCUITS

Lecture 5

BIPOLARJUNCTION TRANSISTORS 2/2

Professor Hisham Z. Massoud

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering

Fitzpatrick Building, Room 3521
massoud@ee.duke.edu

ECE 331 L Lecture 5 Bipolar-Junction Transistors 2/2 5.1

 LECTURE 5 TOPICS

6. The Static Ebers-Moll Model of BJTs

7. The Bipolar-Junction Transistor Small-Signal Model
8. NPN BJT Dynamic Charge-Control Model
9. NPN BJT SPICE Model

ECE 331 L Lecture 5 Bipolar-Junction Transistors 2/2 5.2

 6. THE STATIC EBERSMOLL MODEL OF BJTs

6.4. The Complete NPN BJT Ebers-Moll Model

C

IC

VBC F IF
IB IR
B
IF
VBE R IR

IE

E
ECE 331 L Lecture 5 Bipolar-Junction Transistors 2/2 5.3
 6. THE STATIC EBERSMOLL MODEL OF BJTs

6.5. The NPN BJT Ebers-Moll Model Equations

The terminal currents of an NPN BJT are given by
       
q VBE IS q VBC
IC (VBE , VBC ) = IS exp 1 exp 1 ,
kB T R kB T
       
IS q VBE q VBC
IE (VBE , VBC ) = exp 1 IS exp 1 ,
F kB T kB T
       
IS q VBE IS q VBC
IB (VBE , VBC ) = exp 1 + exp 1 .
F kB T R kB T

ECE 331 L Lecture 5 Bipolar-Junction Transistors 2/2 5.4

 6. THE STATIC EBERSMOLL MODEL OF BJTs

6.6. The PNP BJT Ebers-Moll Model Equations

The terminal currents of a PNP BJT are given by
       
q VEB IS q VCB
IC (VEB , VCB ) = IS exp 1 exp 1 ,
kB T R kB T
       
IS q VEB q VCB
IE (VEB , VCB ) = exp 1 IS exp 1 ,
F kB T kB T
       
IS q VEB IS q VCB
IB (VEB , VCB ) = exp 1 + exp 1 .
F kB T R kB T

ECE 331 L Lecture 5 Bipolar-Junction Transistors 2/2 5.5

 6. THE STATIC EBERSMOLL MODEL OF BJTs

6.7. Limitations of the Static Ebers-Moll Model

The Ebers-Moll model is a simple model that includes many mecha-
nisms underlying bipolar-transistor action and provides insight into many
bipolar-transistor design considerations.
Some important effects not included in the static Ebers-Moll model are
Base-width modulation (the Early effect),
Punch-through,
Base/collector junction breakdown,
Generation/recombination in the B/E and B/C depletion regions,
High-level injection (Kirk effect, base push-out effect),
Emitter-current crowding,
Series resistances, and
Nonuniform dopant profiles, especially in the base region.

ECE 331 L Lecture 5 Bipolar-Junction Transistors 2/2 5.6

 6. THE STATIC EBERSMOLL MODEL OF BJTs

6.8. NPN BJT Equivalent Circuit in the Cut-off Bias Range

For VBE 4.0 kB T /q and VBC 4.0 kB T /q, the NPN BJT is
biased in the cut-off range and its terminal currents are approximately
given by

IS IS
ICco IS + ,
R R
IS IS
IEco + IS ,
F F
IS IS
IBco .
F R

ECE 331 L Lecture 5 Bipolar-Junction Transistors 2/2 5.7

 6. THE STATIC EBERSMOLL MODEL OF BJTs

6.9. NPN BJT Equivalent Circuit in the Forward-Active Bias Range

For VBE 4.0 kB T /q and VBC 4.0 kB T /q, the NPN BJT is biased
in the forward-active range and its terminal currents are approximately
given by
 
q VBE IS
ICfa (VBE ) IS exp + ,
kB T R
 
I q VBE
IEfa (VBE ) S exp + IS ,
F kB T
 
fa IS q VBE IS
IB (VBE ) exp .
F kB T R

We find that ICfa (VBE ) F IBfa (VBE ) and ICfa (VBE ) F IEfa (VBE ).

ECE 331 L Lecture 5 Bipolar-Junction Transistors 2/2 5.8

 6. THE STATIC EBERSMOLL MODEL OF BJTs

6.10. NPN BJT Equivalent Circuit in the Saturation Bias Range

For VBE 4.0 kB T /q and VBC 4.0 kB T /q, the NPN BJT is biased in
the saturation range and its terminal currents are approximately given
by
   
q VBE IS q VBC
ICsat (VBE , VBC ) IS exp exp ,
kB T R kB T
   
I q VBE q VBC
IEsat (VBE , VBC ) S exp IS exp ,
F kB T kB T
   
sat IS q VBE IS q VBC
IB (VBE , VBC ) exp + exp .
F kB T R kB T

ECE 331 L Lecture 5 Bipolar-Junction Transistors 2/2 5.9

 6. THE STATIC EBERSMOLL MODEL OF BJTs

Solving the ICsat and IBsat expressions, we get that

sat kB T IB + 1 R IC
VBE = ln 
 ,
q 1

IS + 1 R
F

and
IC
IB
sat kB T F
VBC = ln
I   .
q S 1

+ 1 R
R F

ECE 331 L Lecture 5 Bipolar-Junction Transistors 2/2 5.10

 6. THE STATIC EBERSMOLL MODEL OF BJTs

From these expressions, we get that

sat sat sat
VCE VBE VBC ,



kB T IB + 1 R IC

= ln   .
q IC
R IB
F

Here IB must be larger than IC /F .

ECE 331 L Lecture 5 Bipolar-Junction Transistors 2/2 5.11

 6. THE STATIC EBERSMOLL MODEL OF BJTs

6.11. NPN BJT Equivalent Circuit in the Reverse-Active Bias Range

For VBE 4.0 kB T /q and VBC 4.0 kB T /q, the NPN BJT is biased
in the reverse-active range and its terminal currents are approximately
given by
 
IS q VBC
ICra (VBC ) IS exp ,
R kB T
 
IS q VBC
IEra (VBC ) IS exp ,
F kB T
 
IS IS q VBC
IBra (VBC ) + exp .
F R kB T

We find that IEra (VBC ) R IBra (VBC ) and IEra (VBC ) R ICra (VBC ).

ECE 331 L Lecture 5 Bipolar-Junction Transistors 2/2 5.12

 7. THE BIPOLARJUNCTION TRANSISTOR SMALLSIGNAL MODEL

Small-signal linear models of bipolar transistors are developed to analyze

and design linear analog circuits, such as amplifiers. These models relate
the small-signal voltages and currents at the input and output ports of
linear circuits.
In such circuits, the transistor is biased with a bias circuit that determines
the static or quiescent operating point Q. This small-signal linear model
relates the small-amplitude currents and voltages superimposed on the
quiescent-point static currents and voltages.
The small-signal aspect of this model is required so that the relation-
ship between small-signal currents and voltages is linear. Small-signal
models are used to evaluate the ability of a transistor to operate at high
frequencies by allowing us to determine the circuit cut-off frequency fT .

ECE 331 L Lecture 5 Bipolar-Junction Transistors 2/2 5.13

 7. THE BIPOLARJUNCTION TRANSISTOR SMALLSIGNAL MODEL

Assume that the quiescent operating point Q of a circuit where an NPN

bipolar transistor is connected in the common-emitter circuit configura-
tion is determined by the input and output static bias voltages VBE and
VCE , respectively.
The total instantaneous values of the base current is given by

iB 

iB (vBE , vCE ) = iB (VBE , VCE ) + vBE VBE

vBE V 
CE

iB 

+ vCE VCE + higher-order terms .
vCE V 
BE

ECE 331 L Lecture 5 Bipolar-Junction Transistors 2/2 5.14

 7. THE BIPOLARJUNCTION TRANSISTOR SMALLSIGNAL MODEL

The total instantaneous values of the collector current is given by


iC 

iC (vBE , vCE ) = iC (VBE , VCE ) + vBE VBE

vBE V 
CE

iC 

+ vCE VCE + higher-order terms .
vCE V
BE

Ignoring the higher-order terms, and taking into account that

iB (VBE , VCE ) IB ,
iC (VBE , VCE ) IC ,
vBE VBE vbe ,
vCE VCE vce ,
iB IB ib ,
iC IC ic .

ECE 331 L Lecture 5 Bipolar-Junction Transistors 2/2 5.15

 7. THE BIPOLARJUNCTION TRANSISTOR SMALLSIGNAL MODEL

The above relationships are rewritten in the form

 
iB  iB 
ib = vbe + vce ,
vBE V vCE V
CE BE

and  
iC  iC 
ic =  vbe +  vce .
vBE 
VCE vCE 
VBE

ECE 331 L Lecture 5 Bipolar-Junction Transistors 2/2 5.16

 7. THE BIPOLARJUNCTION TRANSISTOR SMALLSIGNAL MODEL

The partial-derivative terms are the different transistor conductances

defined as

iB 
 gbe , base-to-emitter conductance ,
vBE 
VCE

iB 
 gr , reverse transconductance ,
vCE 
VBE

iC 
 gm , forward transconductance ,
vBE 
VCE

and 
iC 
 gce , collector-to-emitter conductance .
vCE 
VBE

ECE 331 L Lecture 5 Bipolar-Junction Transistors 2/2 5.17

 7. THE BIPOLARJUNCTION TRANSISTOR SMALLSIGNAL MODEL

The small-signal base and collector currents are then expressed as

ib = gbe vbe + gr vce ,
and
ic = gm vbe + gce vce .
In the forward-active bias range, it is shown that both IC and IB are only
dependent on VBE . The reverse transconductance and the collector-to-
emitter conductance are, therefore, both zero. The above expressions
of the small-signal base and collector currents in the forward-active bias
range then are written as
fa
ib = gbe vbe ,
and
fa
ic = g m vbe .

ECE 331 L Lecture 5 Bipolar-Junction Transistors 2/2 5.18

 7. THE BIPOLARJUNCTION TRANSISTOR SMALLSIGNAL MODEL

As the B/E junction is forward-biased and the B/C junction reverse-

biased, the B/E junction small-signal capacitance Cbe can be included,
and that of the reverse-biased B/C junction can be neglected.
In the small-signal equivalent circuit of an NPN BJT connected in the
common-emitter configuration:
rbe is also known as the input resistance r
gbe = 1/rbe and is also known as the input conductance g
rce is also known as the output resistance ro
gce = 1/rce and is also known as the output conductance go
rbc is also known as r
Cbe is also known as C
Cbc is also known as C

ECE 331 L Lecture 5 Bipolar-Junction Transistors 2/2 5.19

 7. THE BIPOLARJUNCTION TRANSISTOR SMALLSIGNAL MODEL

7.1. A First-Order Small-Signal NPN BJT Model

ib ic
B C

vbe rbe Cbe gm vbe rce vce

E E

ECE 331 L Lecture 5 Bipolar-Junction Transistors 2/2 5.20

 7. THE BIPOLARJUNCTION TRANSISTOR SMALLSIGNAL MODEL

fa
In the forward-active bias range, the transconductance gm is the change
in the output current ICfa with respect to the change in the input voltage
VBE . The collector current is approximately given by
 
q VBE
ICfa IS exp .
kB T

Then, the small-signal forward transconductance is given by

  
fa  fa
fa I C  q q V BE I C
gm  IS exp .
VBE  kB T kB T (kB T /q)
VCE

ECE 331 L Lecture 5 Bipolar-Junction Transistors 2/2 5.21

 7. THE BIPOLARJUNCTION TRANSISTOR SMALLSIGNAL MODEL

The variation of the base current IBfa with the base-to-emitter voltage
fa
VBE is defined as the small-signal base-to-emitter conductance gbe or
g . With the relationship between IBfa and ICfa as IBfa ICfa /F , the
small-signal base-to-emitter (or input) conductance is given by

 
fa
fa IBfa

 IC /F  fa
gm
gbe = g  =  = ,
VBE  VBE  F
VCE VCE

and the small-signal base-to-emitter (or input) resistance by

fa 1 1 F
rbe = r = = fa = fa .
g gbe gm

ECE 331 L Lecture 5 Bipolar-Junction Transistors 2/2 5.22

 7. THE BIPOLARJUNCTION TRANSISTOR SMALLSIGNAL MODEL

The small-signal common-emitter current gain f is defined as the ratio

of the small-signal collector and base currents. It is given by
fa fa fa
ic gm vbe gm gm
f = fa = fa = fa = F .
ib gbe vbe gbe gm /F

ECE 331 L Lecture 5 Bipolar-Junction Transistors 2/2 5.23

 7. THE BIPOLARJUNCTION TRANSISTOR SMALLSIGNAL MODEL

7.2. An Advanced Small-Signal NPN BJT Model

Cbc

ib Rbb B rbc C Rcc ic

B C

vbe rbe Cbe rce Ccs

gm vbe

E S
vbe
Ree
ie
E

ECE 331 L Lecture 5 Bipolar-Junction Transistors 2/2 5.24

 7. THE BIPOLARJUNCTION TRANSISTOR SMALLSIGNAL MODEL

This circuit includes the small-signal series collector resistance (Rcc ),

base resistance (Rbb ), emitter resistance (Ree ), base-to-collector re-
sistance rbc (or r ), base-to-collector capacitance Cbc (or C ), and the
collector-to-substrate capacitance Ccs .
The small-signal collector-to-emitter resistance rce is due to base-width
modulation. It is modeled by the Early voltage VA , and it is given by

VCE |VA | q |VA |

rce = = = .
IC IC kB T gm

ECE 331 L Lecture 5 Bipolar-Junction Transistors 2/2 5.25

 7. THE BIPOLARJUNCTION TRANSISTOR SMALLSIGNAL MODEL

The base-to-emitter junction capacitance Cbe (or C ) is given by

s s
+
q Si Na,B Nd,E Vbi,BE
Cbe (VBE ) = A +


2 Vbi,BE Na,B + Nd,E Vbi,BE VBE
 
q q VBE
+ trn,B IS exp .
kB T kB T
| {z }
gm

ECE 331 L Lecture 5 Bipolar-Junction Transistors 2/2 5.26

 7. THE BIPOLARJUNCTION TRANSISTOR SMALLSIGNAL MODEL

A small-signal variation in VCE changes the collector depletion-layer

width, which results in a change in the base width. The variation in
the base width results in a change in the minority-carrier charge stored
in the base quasi-neutral region, and a change in the base current. A
small change VCE in VCE causes a change IB in the base current
which is represented by a small-signal base-to-collector resistance rbc (or
r ) in the advanced equivalent circuit. This resistance is given by

VCE VCE IC
rbc = = = F rce .
IB IC IB
| {z } | {z }
rce F

ECE 331 L Lecture 5 Bipolar-Junction Transistors 2/2 5.27

 7. THE BIPOLARJUNCTION TRANSISTOR SMALLSIGNAL MODEL

7.3. Cut-off Frequency fT

The cut-off frequency fT is used to evaluate the transistor high-frequency
performance. It is the frequency at which the current gain in the
common-emitter configuration is unity while the output terminals are
shorted for small signals.
Measurements of fT are used to compare the performance of transis-
tors for new Si fabrication technologies and for various combinations of
semiconductors used in heterojunction bipolar transistors.
The shorted-output condition eliminates the collector-to-emitter resis-
tance rce and connects Cbc (or C ) in parallel with Cbe (or C ). In the
derivation of an expression for fT , the small-signal resistances Rbb , Ree ,
and Rcc are ignored, but a more complete model would generally include
Rbb . Because rbc (or r ) is a large resistance which is now in parallel
with the small resistance rbe (or r ), then rbc (or r ) can be neglected.
ECE 331 L Lecture 5 Bipolar-Junction Transistors 2/2 5.28
 7. THE BIPOLARJUNCTION TRANSISTOR SMALLSIGNAL MODEL

iin iout
B C

Cbe + Cbc
vbe rbe gm vbe

E E

The input current is given by

 
1

iin = + j Cbe + Cbc vbe ,
rbe

and the output current is

iout = gm vbe .

ECE 331 L Lecture 5 Bipolar-Junction Transistors 2/2 5.29

 7. THE BIPOLARJUNCTION TRANSISTOR SMALLSIGNAL MODEL

The magnitude of the input current is the square root of iin times its
complex conjugate:
s !
1 2

2
|iin | = 2 + Cbe + Cbc vbe .
rbe

The ratio of the magnitude of the output to the input current is

 
 iout  gm
 = s .
i 
in 1 2

2
2 + Cbe + Cbc
rbe

ECE 331 L Lecture 5 Bipolar-Junction Transistors 2/2 5.30

 7. THE BIPOLARJUNCTION TRANSISTOR SMALLSIGNAL MODEL


At high frequencies, where Cbe + Cbc 1/rbe , and the cut-off fre-
quency fT is defined as the frequency at which |iout |/|iin | = 1. Substi-
tuting T = 2 fT , the cut-off frequency fT is then given by
gm
fT =
.
2 Cbe + Cbc

As the diffusion capacitance

is expected to be larger than the depletion
capacitances, Cbe + Cbc Cbe , and Cbe gm trn,B , the expression for
fT reduces to
1
fT .
2 trn,B
With trn,B = WB2 /2 Dn,B , this expression reduces to
Dn,B
fT 2 .
WB
ECE 331 L Lecture 5 Bipolar-Junction Transistors 2/2 5.31
 7. THE BIPOLARJUNCTION TRANSISTOR SMALLSIGNAL MODEL

There are two important factors in the high-frequency performance of

BJTs:
1. The cut-off frequency is directly dependent on the minority-carrier
diffusivity in the base quasi-neutral region. The fT of NPN tran-
sistors is higher than that of PNP transistors because of the
higher diffusivity of electrons for the same dopant concentration
in the base region, and
2. A short-base quasi-neutral region in the base is necessary to
achieve a higher fT .

ECE 331 L Lecture 5 Bipolar-Junction Transistors 2/2 5.32

 7. THE BIPOLARJUNCTION TRANSISTOR SMALLSIGNAL MODEL

7.4. Maximum Frequency fmax

The high-frequency behavior of transistors is also specified by the max-
imum available power gain at high frequencies. For maximum power
gain, the load resistance RL must be matched to the output resistance
of the transistor. At high frequencies, the power gain decreases with
frequency. When the power gain falls to unity, the maximum frequency
of oscillation fmax is obtained as
s
gm
fmax = 2

.
16 Rbb Cbe + Cbc

ECE 331 L Lecture 5 Bipolar-Junction Transistors 2/2 5.33

 7. THE BIPOLARJUNCTION TRANSISTOR SMALLSIGNAL MODEL


With Cbe + Cbc Cbe , and gm /Cbe being replaced by 2 fT , the max-
imum frequency is then expressed as
s
fT
fmax = .
8 Rbb Cbe

Both fT and fmax are often used as figures of merit for comparing the
high-frequency performance of bipolar transistors.

ECE 331 L Lecture 5 Bipolar-Junction Transistors 2/2 5.34

 8. NPN BJT DYNAMIC CHARGECONTROL MODEL

Under time-dependent conditions, the relationship between the instan-

taneous values of terminal currents and terminal voltages is described
by the differential equations that relate the currents and the charges
stored in the emitter, base, and collector quasi-neutral regions, and in
the base-to-emitter and base-to-collector depletion regions.
In a PN-junction diode, the charges stored in the diode are Qn,P and
Qp,N in the quasi-neutral regions and QDEP in the depletion region. The
relationship between the total instantaneous value of the diode current
and the diode charges is written as

dQp,N (t) Qp,N (t) dQn,P (t) Qn,P (t) dQDEP (t)
iD (t) = + + + + .
dt p,N dt n,P dt

ECE 331 L Lecture 5 Bipolar-Junction Transistors 2/2 5.35

 8. NPN BJT DYNAMIC CHARGECONTROL MODEL

In an NPN bipolar-junction transistor, the charges stored in the emitter,

base, and collector regions are Qp,E , Qn,B , and Qp,C , respectively. The
charges stored in the depletion region of the base-to-emitter and base-
to-collector depletion regions are QDEP,BE and QDEP,BC , respectively.
The complete charge-control model equations for an NPN transistor are
 
QF (t) 1 1 dQR (t) dQV C (t) dQV S (t)
iC (t) = + QR (t) ,
F R BR dt dt dt

QF (t) dQF (t) QR (t) dQV C (t) dQVE (t)

iB (t) = + + + + ,
BF dt BR dt dt
 
QR (t) 1 1 dQF (t) dQVE (t)
iE (t) = + + QF (t) + + ,
R F BF dt dt

ECE 331 L Lecture 5 Bipolar-Junction Transistors 2/2 5.36

 8. NPN BJT DYNAMIC CHARGECONTROL MODEL

where
   
q vBE (t)
QF (t) QF 0 exp 1 ,
kB T
   
q vBC (t)
QR (t) QR0 exp 1 .
kB T

QF (t) is the forward-active-bias-range excess minority-carrier charge

stored in the quasi-neutral base region.
QF 0 is the physical parameter that relates the base charge to the base-
to-emitter voltage in the forward-active bias range.
F is the mean forward (diffusion) transit time of minority carriers in the
quasi-neutral base region from emitter to collector that relates QF and
IC .
ECE 331 L Lecture 5 Bipolar-Junction Transistors 2/2 5.37
 8. NPN BJT DYNAMIC CHARGECONTROL MODEL

BF is a time constant equal to F F that relates QF and IB .

QR (t) is the reverse-active-bias-range excess minority-carrier charge sto-
red in the base quasi-neutral region.
QR0 is the physical parameter that relates the base charge to the base-
to-collector voltage in the reverse-active bias range.
R is the mean reverse (diffusion) transit time of minority carriers in the
quasi-neutral base region from collector to emitter that relates QR and
IE .
BR is a time constant equal to R R that relates QR and IB .

ECE 331 L Lecture 5 Bipolar-Junction Transistors 2/2 5.38

 9. NPN BJT SPICE MODEL

C
iC

Rcc Csc

C    
S q VBC
IEC
IEC = IS exp 1 ,
Cbc kB T
R
iB Rbb B
   
B ICT q VBE
ICC = IS exp 1 ,
ICC kB T
Cbe
F     
q VBE q VBC
ICT = IS exp exp .
E kB T kB T
Ree
iE

ECE 331 L Lecture 5 Bipolar-Junction Transistors 2/2 5.39

 READING ASSIGNMENT FOR LECTURE 6

Field-Effect Transistors (MOSFETs)

Characteristics of the MOS Capacitor (4.1)
The NMOS Transistor (4.2)
PMOS Transistors (4.3)
MOSFET Circuit Symbols (4.4)

ECE 331 L Lecture 5 Bipolar-Junction Transistors 2/2 5.40