Nota Sains Sukan Tahap Iii PDF

AKADEMI KEJURULATIHAN KEBANGSAAN
SKIM PERSIJILAN KEJURULATIHAN KEBANGSAAN (SPKK)
SPORT
SCIENCE
NOTES
LEVEL III
0
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ISI KANDUNGAN
MUKA SURAT
1) MAKLUMAT AM KURSUS SAINS SUKAN TAHAP III 2
2) UNIT 1 SPORTS PHILOSOPHY 13
3) UNIT 2 SPORTS IN MALAYSIA 29
4) UNIT 3 ANATOMY AND SPORT PHYSIOLOGY 50
5) UNIT 4 BIOMECHANIC 88
6) UNIT 5 PHYSICAL CONDITIONING 114
7) UNIT 6 SPORTS NUTRITION 154
8) UNIT 7 COACHING COMPETENCIES 180
9) UNIT 8 SPORTS PSYCHOLOGY 223
10) UNIT 9 MOTOR BEHAVIOUR 266
11) UNIT 10 SPORTS MEDICINE 281
12) SENARAI PENYELARAS DAN PENGHARGAAN 309
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MAKLUMAT AM
KURSUS SAINS SUKAN TAHAP III
1. PENGENALAN
Kursus Sains Sukan merupakan salah satu komponen di bawah Skim Persijilan
Kejurulatihan Kebangsaan (SPKK). SPKK adalah satu program pembangunan
kejurulatihan yang seragam dan berterusan dan antara lain ialah untuk
meningkatkan pengetahuan jurulatih dalam ilmu kejurulatihan khususnya aspek
sains sukan ke arah memajukan lagi prestasi atlet demi kecemerlangan sukan untuk
negara.
2. PENDAFTARAN DAN PEMBAYARAN KURSUS TAHAP III
2.1 Kepada semua peserta yang mempunyai Lesen Jurulatih di bawah Skim
Pelesenan Kejurulatihan Kebangsaan (SLKK) boleh mengikuti kursus Sains
Sukan Tahap III , yang dianjurkan oleh Majlis Sukan Negara Malaysia
dengan mendapat diskaunyuran penyertaan . Yuran bagi ahli SLKK adalah
seperti berikut :
YURAN
BIL KURSUS BUKAN AHLI (TIADA

AHLI ( SPKK/LESEN) LESEN)
1 Tahap III RM200 RM250

mempunyai SPKK Thp
II/Lesen B
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2.2 Setiap peserta yang telah mendaftar bagi kursus dikehendaki membayar
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yuran sebanyak RM 250.00 (Bukan Ahli) dan RM 200 (Ahli).
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2.3 Pembayaran perlu dibuat melalui wang tunaisahaja semasa menghadiri kursus
dan untuk mendapatkan diskaun peserta dikehendaki menunjukkan lesen sebagai
bukti.
2.4 Wang pendaftaran perlulah dijelaskan semasa pendaftaran di tempat kursus.

Sekiranya wang pendaftaran tersebut tidak dijelaskan, peserta tidak dibenarkan
menduduki peperiksaan.
KANDUNGAN KURSUS
Kursus Sains Sukan Tahap III meliputi masa selama 42 jam serta mengandungi
topik-topik seperti berikut ;-
BIL TOPIK JAM

1 Falsafah Sukan 2
2 Sukan Di Malaysia 2
3 Kompetensi Sukan 4
4 Anatomi dan Fisiologi 5
5 Latihan dan Persediaan Fizikal 8
6 Psikologi Sukan 4
7 Tingka Laku Motor 3
8 Biomekanik 4
9 Perubatan Sukan 4
10 Pemakanan Sukan 4
11 SEMINAR 3
Jumlah 43
3. PERLAKSANAAN KURSUS
a. Kelas akan berjalan selama enam (6) hari.

b. Sesi persediaan seminar akan diberikan selama 5 hari. Setiap kumpulan
yang telah diagihkan bebas untuk menjalankan perbincangan.
c. Sesi seminar dan peperiksaan melibatkan 1 hari menjadikan jumlah
keseluruhan 6 hari.
d. Tenaga pengajar adalah terdiri daripada instruktur yang dilantik oleh
Lembaga Kejurulatihan Kebangsaan.
e. Sebab perkara-perkara yang tidak dapat dielakkan sekiranya ada perubahan
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Jadual dan Instruktur maka akan diberitahu kepada peserta.

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4. PENILAIAN
5.1 UJIAN OBJEKTIF (50%)
Di akhir kursus satu ujian objektif akan dijalankan. Ujian ini mengandungi 50
soalan objektif dan masa ujian ialah 11/4 jam.
5.2 UJIAN LISAN (10 %)
5.2.1 Semua peserta diwajibkan mengambil bahagian dalam satu ujian

lisan yang akan diadakan pada akhir kursus dan topik yang akan diuji
dan perbincangkan ialah temubual dan maklumbalas media.
5.2.2 Tujuan Seminar ialah untuk melihat keupayaan peserta untuk

membuat dan memberi maklumbalas dalam aspek sesi soal jawab
media.
5.2.3 Setiap peserta dikehendaki mengambil ujian lisan secara individu.
5.2.4 Ujian akan diberikan secara spontan oleh penemuduga.
5.2.5 Setiap peserta akan diberi 5minit sahaja untuk sesi soal jawab.
5.2.6 Ujian lisan akan dikendalikan oleh panel yang dilantik oleh Akademi
Kejurulatihan Kebangsaan.
5.2.7 Aspek-aspek yang akan dinilai adalah seperti berikut :-
PEMARKAHAN UJIAN LISAN

NAMA PENUH
SUKAN
NO. K.P
MARKAH
TAJUK PERATUS
DIPEROLEHI
PENYAMPAIAN
KEJELASAN SUARA 10%
KEYAKINAN 10%
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GAYA 10%
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JUMLAH
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RESPON TERHADAP
SOALAN
KEUPAYAAN MEMAHAMI 20%
SOALAN
KETEPATAN FAKTA 20%
GAYA INTERAKSI 10%
JAWAPANYANG 10%
PRAKTIKAL
KEUPAYAAN WACANA 10%
JUMLAH 100%
PERATUSAN
MARKAH (10%)
5.3 PROJEK ASPEK PRAKTIKAL KAJIAN (30%)
5.3.1 Setiap peserta akan diwajibkan menyediakan satu projek/kajian

padang bertaip berdasarkan salah satu dari aspek berikut ;-
a. Pemakanan.
b. Latihan Fizikal.
c. Perubatan sukan.
d. Ujian Padang -Parameter Fisiologi
e. Psikologi.
f. Biomekanik - Persediaan atau Pembetulan Teknik Sukan
Kemahiran.
5.3.2 Cara pemilihan tajuk/aspek akan ditentukan oleh peserta sendiri

berdasarkan satu-satu tajuk/aspek Praktikal Kajian Sukan masing-
masing, contohnya, Tajuk yang dipilih:-
Tajuk: Sukan Hoki: Peningkatan Latihan Anerobik semasa Musim
Pertandingan.
Perbincangan: Masaalah yang dihadapi oleh pemain sendiri dalam
pasukan. Posisi. Boleh beri Data.
Cara Mengatasi masaalah. Jenis Latihan. Kajian berkaitan Bukti.
Cadangan untuk mengaplikasikan bagi pasukan sendiri..
Projek boleh dibuat dalam format Thesis. Tetapi lebih kepada
Kualitatif daripada Kuantitatif.
Format Thesis- Pendahuluan, Tujuan dan Objektif,Makluman tentang
tajuk,SkopKajian,Batasan Kajian,Kajian-kajian
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Berkaitan,Perbincangan,Cadangan,Bibiligrafi.
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5.3.3 Projek ini harus disampaikan kepada penyelaras semasa datang
untuk VIVA. 3 bulan selepas kursus.
5.3.4 Format Susunan Buku Laporan Projek adalah seperti di lampiran.

- Kertas Kerja hendaklah bertaip Double – Spacing , Fonts 12
dan Huruf ROMAN.
- Tidak Kurang daripada Tiga Ribu (3,000) patah perkataan.
- 1 original dan 2 salinanOrIginal – Kulit Hard Cover
warna maroon.
2 Salinan – Boleh fotostat dan Comb Binding.
Naskah original akan disimpan oleh pihak Majlis Sukan
NegaraMalaysia.
5.3.5 Penilaian untuk kajian ini adalah berdasarkan aspek-aspek berikut :-
BIL ASPEK PERATUS

i Isi kandungan 10%
ii Format dan Stail Penulisan 10%
iii. Aspek praktikal Kajian 20%
iv Kajian Berkaitan 30%
iv Rumusan dan Cadangan 20%
v Rujukan 10%
Jumlah 100%
5.4 VIVA
5.4.1 Semua peserta dikehendaki menghadiri satu sesi Viva yang akan
diadakan selewat-lewatnya 3 bulan selepas kursus.
5.4.2 Peserta yang gagal menghadiri sesi Viva setelah dipanggil akan
diberikan tempoh satu tahun selepas kursus untuk mengikutinya atau
sesi Viva berikutnya yang diadakan selepas tempoh itu.
5.4.3 Mana-mana peserta yang gagal menghadiri sesi Viva dalam tempoh
yang diberikan akan dianggap gagal keseluruhan kursus.
5.4.4 PENILAIAN SESI VIVA

MARKAH PENUH VIVA ADALAH 10 DAN MARKAH LULUS ADALAH 5
BIL BAHAGIAN MARKAH MARKAH YANG

DIPEROLEHI
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PENGETAHUAN (SUKAN
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SPESIFIK)
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1.2 UMUM
1 (Pengenalan sebagai Jurulatih) 1
1.3 KHUSUS (Berkenaan Sukan)
PENGETAHUAN SAINS SUKAN

2.1 ANATOMI & FISIOLOGI
2.2 BIOMEKANIK
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2.3 PSIKOLOGI
2.4PERUBATAN SUKAN
2.5 LATIHAN FIZIKAL
3 SISTEM LATIHAN 3
4 PENGURUSAN SUKAN 1
JUMLAH MARKAH 10
5. KEPUTUSAN
a. Keputusan hanya akan diumumkan setelah Peserta telah selesai
menjalani semua bentuk penilaian. Keputusan hanya akan diumumkan
selepas sebulan dari tamatnya VIVA. Keputusan bagi peserta Tahap III
hanya akan dikeluarkan setelah keputusan VIVA diperolehi. Markah lulus
ialah 50%. Peserta boleh mendapatkan keputusan daripada pihak penganjur
sebulan dari tamatnya VIVA
b. Markah lulus untuk setiap komponen penilaian ialah
KOMPONEN MARKAH MARKAH LULUS
Ujian Objektif 50 25
Seminar 10 5
Projek 30 15
Viva 10 5
Jumlah 100 50
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c. Markah LULUS keseluruhan ialah 50%
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d. Sijil boleh diambil dari pihak penganjur 3 bulan setelah diumumkan
keputusan dalam Laman WEB.
LAMPIRAN
KURSUS SAINS SUKAN TAHAP III

FORMAT SUSUNAN BUKU LAPORAN PROJEK ASPEK PRAKTIKAL KAJIAN
KULITBELAKANG
( Hard Cover)
Warna Maroon
BIBLIOGRAFI
ISI PROJEK
LAPORAN PEMERIKSA
(Ditaip seperti Format
yang diberi)
KANDUNGAN
HELAIANTAJUK
KULITHADAPAN
( Hard Cover)
Warna Maroon
8 Page
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SUKAN
OLAHRAGA
PERSEDIAAN FIZIKAL
KULIT
HADAPAN
(HARD COVER)
WARNA MAROON
DISEDIAKAN OLEH :-
ZAWAWI ZAKARIA
KOD KURSUS 3(1)2012
KURSUS SAINS SUKAN

TAHAP III
SKIM PERSIJILAN
KEJURULATIHAN LAPORAN PEMERIKSA
HELAIAN
KEBANGSAAN (SPKK) (DITAIP SEPERTI FORMAT
TAJUK
YANG DILAMPIRKAN)
SUKAN OLAHRAGA
PENINGKATAN LATIHAN
KEKUATAN KAKI UNTUK
ATLET LOMPAT JAUH
PROJEK ASPEK
PRAKTIKAL KAJIAN INI
DISEDIAKAN BAGI 2 ( Muka Surat)
MEMENUHI KEPERLUAN
KURSUS SEBAGAI SALAH
SATU ASPEKPENILAIAN
1 (Muka Surat)
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BIBLOGRAFI
(Akhir) Muka Surat
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FORMAT INI DITAIP DALAM BUKU LAPORAN PROJEK
LAPORAN PEMERIKSA
(LAPORAN INI DIISI OLEH PEMERIKSA/PENILAI)
BIL ASPEK PENILAIAN PERATUS MARKAH

1 ISI KANDUNGAN 10 %
2 FORMAT DAN STAIL PENULISAN 10 %
3 ASPEK PRAKTIKAL KAJIAN 20 %
4 KAJIAN BERKAITAN 30%
5 RUMUSAN DAN CADANGAN 20 %
6 RUJUKAN 10 %
JUMLAH 100%
KOMEN PEMERIKSA
Markah
(30%)
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………………………………………
(TANDATANGAN PENILAI)
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NAMA:………………………………………
TARIKH :……………………………….....
KANDUNGAN TAHAP III
LEVEL III
1 SPORTS PHILOSOPHY 2 hours

1.1 Coaching Ethics- Fair Play, Sportsmanship, Olympic
Spirit..
1.2 Sports And Athelete’s Character Building.
1.3 Current Issues IN Sport.
2 SPORTS IN MALAYSIA 2 hours

2.1 Malaysia’s Participation In International Competitors
And Multi-Sports Events.
2.2 Malaysia’s Achievement In International Sports.
2.3 Paralympic Sport
3 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 5 hours
3.1 Physiological And Metabolic Adaptations.
3.3 Physiological Responses And Acclimatization To
Exercising In Various Environmental Conditions.
3.4 Laboratory Testing.
4 BIOMECHANIC 4 hours
4.1 Fluid Mechanics (Mekanik Bendalir).
4.2 Common Technique Analysis Approach.
4.3 Qualitative Video Analysis of Sport Skill
4.4 Measuring distance
4.5 Capturing, Editing and Synchrinize Proceudre
4.6 Compilation and Interpretation Procedure
5 PHYSICAL CONDITIONING 8 hours
5.1 Periodization Revisited.
5.2 Exercise Prescription.
5.3 Assessment And Monitoring.
5.4 Speed, Agility And Quickness Training.
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5.5 Power Training.

5.6 Advance Exercise Techniques (Olympic Lifting).
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5.7 Functional Training.
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5.8 Practical Session (5 hours).
6 SPORTS NUTRITION 4 hours

6.1 Meal/Menu Planning
6.2 Nutrition For Travelling Athlete
6.3 Nutrition For Injuries
6.4 Nutrition For Special Condition
6.5 Problem Based Learning Session
7 COACHING COMPETENCY 4 hours
7.1 Risk Management.
7.2 Developing Top Level Athletes.
7.3 Planning for International Sport Competition
7.4 Coaching Development & Presentation Skills
7.5 Media Relation
7.6 Problem solving
7.7 Decision Making in Sport
8 SPORTS PSYCHOLOGY 4 hours
8.1 Team Building and Cohesion
8.2 Test and Measurement in Sport Psychology
8.3 Plan and Application of psychological Skill Programme
in Training
8.4 Tactics, Match Analysis, Match Plan
8.5 Perceptual Motor Intelligence
9 MOTOR BEHAVIOUR 3 hours
9.1 Facilitating Learning And Performance.
9.2 Transfer Of Learning.
9.3 Skill Learning.
9.4 Deliberate Practice in Athletes Training.
10 SPORTS MEDICINE 4 hours
10.1 Rehabilitation Of Sports Injury.
10.2 Medical Conditions In Athletes.
10.3 Medical Preparedness For Competition And Travel.
10.4 Aspects Of Jet Lag.
10.5 Altittude Sickness
10 ORAL TEST (ASSESSMENT) 4 hours
TOTAL HOURS 43 hours
“ History stands witness to the fact that those who cut theirs country’s throat end up
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cutting their own “

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“ Believing everybody is dangerous but believing nobody is more dangerous”
“ If someone feels that they had never made a mistake in their life, then it
means they had never tried a new thing in their life.”
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1.1. Coaching Ethics
a. Coaching ethics are based on your conduct behavior,beliefs and

principles.Ethics are not what these behavior,beliefs and principles are but
what they ought to be. Here we look at ethics from the perspective of fair
play, sportsmanship and Olympic spirit.
1.1.1 Fair Play
What do we mean by 'fair play' and 'level playing field'?
In ethics, the concept of fairness involves treating everyone equally and

impartially. 'Fair play' is usually understood to mean using only tactics that
are in accord with the spirit of the sport.
A 'level playing field' is a situation in which competitors are required to follow

the same rules and are given an equal apportunity to compete.
This means that no matter what the rules are, as long as they are applied
equally and impartially the playing field is still level. If drugs (or any
currently-illegal tactics) were allowed, as long as everyone had equal access
to them the sport would still be fair. If some sportsmen did not want to use
legal drugs for health or moral reasons, they would be at a disadvantage,
but it would be seen as their own fault.
Five Basic Elements in Fair Play
1. Respect the rules.

2. Respect the officials and their decisions.
3. Respect your opponent/s.
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4. Give everybody an equal chance to participate.

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5. Maintain your self-control at all times
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1.1.2. Sportsmanship
Sportsmanship is simply good character when participating in sports. It is

about respect for opponents, officials, teammates, coaches and the game
itself (Martens, 2004).
Thus,it is important to develop good character if we want to develop good

sportsmanship.
Three steps to coach character
Step 1 – Identify the principles of character.

Step 2 – Teach the principles of character.
Step 3 – Provide opportunities to practice.
Characters values and opportunities for development.

Characters Values Opportunities in Sport
Be respectful  Be respectful of the game & its rule and
traditions
 Be respectful of your opponents
 Be respectful of the officials
 Be respectful in victory and defeat
Be responsible  Prepare yourself to do your best
 Be punctual for practices and games
 Be self-disciplined
 Be cooperative with your teammates
Be caring  Help your teammates play better
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 Support teammate in trouble

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 Be generous with praise, stingy with critics
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 Play for the team, not yourself
Be honest  Play by the spirit of the rules

 Be loyal to the team
 Play drug free
 Admit to your own mistakes
Be fair  Treat other players as you wish to be treated
 Be fair to all players, including those who are
different
 Give other players an opportunity
 Play to win within the rules
Be a good citizen  Be a good role model
 Strive for excellence
 Give back to the sport
 Encourage teammates to be good citizens
Source: Martens (2004), page 59.
1.1.3 The Olympic Spirit
The Olympic spirit is best acquired through an understanding of the Olympic

Creed,the Olympic motto and the Olympic symbols.
The Olympic Creed
"The most important thing in the Olympic Games is not to win but to take part, just as
the most important thing in life is not the triumph but the struggle. The essential thing
is not to have conquered but to have fought well".
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b. TheOlympic Motto
The Olumpic motto “ Citius, Altius , Fortius “ (Faster, Higher , Stronger) was
devised by Father Henri Didou, a teacher-friend of de Coubertin.While it can
inspire athletes and coaches at any level , it is also to represent the pursuit of
excellence in life
The Olympic Symbol (The Rings)
The Olympic rings represent the five continents and the athletes from all over the
world meeting at the Olympic Games in a spirit of fair and friendly competition. The
five colours of the rings and the white background colours are specially selected – at
least one of the six colours will be found in the flag of every country in the world. The
rings represent the continents but the colours of the rings do not.
The Olympic Games give us the chance to celebrate our shared humanity, and the
object of the competitors should be to express this humanity by performing fairly and
honestly to the best of their natural ability. The Olympic spirit can be seen in all
those who compete in the Games, not just in those who win the medals. This spirit
can be seen in athletes from poorer parts of the world, who have little chance to
develop their skills or gain experience, but who do the best they can with limited
resources, and who represent their country with pride and dignity. In the spirit of the
Olympics, the most important thing is to have taken part fairly, and to have done
one's best. This is what the Olympic Games are really about, and some might say
it's what life is really about as well. What do you think?
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Word Example Sentence Meaning
Celebrate The Olympic Games give us the to mark a special occasion, or to

chance to celebrate our shared praise or highlight something
humanity. special, with festive events
Conquer Athletes say they have to conquer to defeat or achieve victory over
their fears and doubts in order to someone or something
perform at their best.
Creed The Olympic Creed always appears A set of basic beliefs and
on the scoreboard during the principles
Opening Ceremony.
Dignity Even though she wasn't the winner a sense of pride and self-respect
of her event, she did her best and
performed with dignity.
Essential One of the essential qualities of a of the greatest importance;

great athlete is belief in his or her absolutely necessary
own ability.
Fairly It's essential that athletes perform (to do something) with honesty;
fairly, referees rule fairly, and without cheating or bias
judges score fairly.
Humanity What do you think people mean the fact or condition of being
when they talk about our 'shared human; positive qualities we
humanity' or the 'human spirit'? share, such as benevolence
Object The object of athletes should be to the thing you want to get or
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perform to the best of their ability. achieve; what you aim to do

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Perform Most athletes perform better in front to carry out an activity for which
of a crowd, possibly because of one has trained, such as a sport
adrenalin.
Spirit The Olympic spirit is shown when a special attitude or feeling

spectators applaud all the associated with something
competitors, not just the winners.
Struggle Every athlete has to struggle to try hard, esp. when faced with
against difficulties such as injuries difficulties or challenges
and defeats.
Take Part Over 10,000 athletes will take part to join in (an activity); participate
in the next Olympic Games.
Source: http://www.englishclub.com/vocabulary/sports-olympics-spirit.htm.Retrieved
on 16 September 2008
1.2 Sport and Athletes’ Character Building
1.2.1 Negative Aspect In Sport And Ways To Overcome It
People engaged in sports are less likely to indulge in bad habits. Since a
sportsman makes lots of effort and time in order to get good performance, they
will not have much spare time to consider indulging in bad habits, such as
gambling, committing crime or taking drugs etc.
Gambling through sports is becoming more and more popular now. As a matter
of fact, since soccer betting was legalized, more people have become engaged
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in this activity. Indeed, many people want to use sports as a way to gain money
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but end up in losing it . Lots of money is being “invested” in this undesirable
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activity and as a result, a new social problem is triggered in society. Moreover,
it may cause corruption between the soccer team members and the gambling
company.
Sports Gambling
All nations in the world are familiar with major addictions such as narcotics, alcohol,
and tobacco. Society has spent countless millions of dollars warning about these
substances, However another addiction that receives far less attention is gambling.
In America, gambling has a major impact on the college campuses across the
country, so much so that the executive director of the N.C.A.A., Cedric W. Demsey,
in his 1997 “State of the Association” address called gambling the most serious
threat facing inter-collegiate athletics.
Gambling in sport has among others two major impacts. First, gambling on sports
just like casino gambling is addictive. Secondly, gambling on sports has hurt the
integrity of sports. Because gambling on sports is causing negative consequences
for athletes and games, all government should ban all gambling on sports and steps
should be taken to decrease the prevalence of illegal and internet gambling.
Brochures and advertisements on the negative impacts that sports gambling cause
should be readily available to the general public.
Drugs in Sports
Drugs have been used for centuries by athletes in an attempt to improve sport
performance. In fact, the breakdown of ancient Olympic Games was caused by
political interference as well as drug. In more recent times, any substance that
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athletes believe might influence performance has been used, often in very high
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dosages and with disastrous effects. A cyclist, Linton was the first death from
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doping from using caffeine a century ago, followed by another cyclist, Knud Jensen,
of the Danish 100 km time trial team who collapsed and died in the Rome Olympic
in 1960 after taking nicotinic titrate (drug used to increase the supply of blood to the
leg muscles). In 1961, an inquiry into drug taking in Italian soccer revealed that 8 out
of the 36 first division players tested had been taking amphetamines (Beashel &
Taylor, 1992). Ben Johnson was tested positive with anabolic steroids at the Seoul
Olympic in 1988.
The coach is responsible for his athletes and is respected by the athletes, as such
he can be a valuable medium for drug education and help reduce drug use in sport
by:
a. Being a good model.

b. Communicating own beliefs to athletes about negative effect of drug use.
c. Practicing sound coaching principles and provide information on effectiveness
of training on sport performance.
d. Providing accurate, unexaggerated and relevant information about the
harmful effects of drugs.
e. Discouraging athletes from sharing medications for what may appear to be
similar complaints.
f. Discouraging smoking and reminding of passive smoking.
g. Discouraging alcohol drinking and never using alcohol as reward.
h. Finding out the reasons why athletes use drugs.
Violence in Sport
Violence in sports can or be influenced by a wide range of activities, from trash

talking-to unruly fan behavior to deliberate physical assaults to fighting.
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Athletes have become a major influence in societies in every country. Athletics play
important role in shaping our characters and our values. While most athletes do this
in a positive way there is a percentage that have a negative effect on people’s lives.
Unfortunately there are people in this world,who use violence as a way of showing
control. Some men or women feel the need to be in control. There is a quote, that I
came across that stated, "Sports often encourage people to define their relationship
with others in terms of domination." Many historians however tend to believe that an
increase in spectator violence coincides with the commercialization of sports.
Spectator Violence
An example of spectator violence is sport hooliganism. A hooligan is a disorderly

and noisy person who behaves in a violent and destructive way. He goes to matches
to engage in aggressive and violent behavior before, during and after the game.
1.2.2 The Formation of Leadership Quality Through Sport
Leadership Means (Martens, 2004):

a. Knowing how to chart a course, to give others direction.
b. Developing social and psychological environment (team culture) as well
physical environment.
This situation is created through selecting, motivating, rewarding, retaining and

unifying members of the team, which includes assistants, players, parents and
others. Excellent coach (leader) provides team vision and translates it into reality. A
coach develops the environment that ensures maximum opportunity for athletes to
achieve success and consequently team success.
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Many people argue that sport can build leaders, but nobody has investigated exactly
how this might occur (Weinberg & Gould, 2007). The following approach can help
develop leadership quality:
a. coaches appoint athletes to leadership positions
b. new players became involved with older peers through increasingly
challenging competition
c. parents mentor players on complex cognitive sport issues and decision
making
d. players maintain good relationships with peers and gain their trust
e. parents support sport involvement and activities (through monetary support,
encouragement, and moral support)
f. coaches provide an excellent training environment to help develop skill
1.3 Current Issues
1.3.1 Ergogenic Aids
What are Ergogenic Aids?

Ergogenic aids consist of substance, drugs, procedures and even devices that
are intended to improve athletic performance.
Some of these substances are naturally occurring, easily available and

completely legal while others are manufactured, illegal or banned by many
sporting organizations. Many athletes, coaches, politicians and fans feel the use
of certain substances is unethical in sports.
Ergogenic aids can be classified into five categories:

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a. Nutritional Ergogenic Aids

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i. Carbohydrates, muscle glycogen and muscle glycogen super
compensation.
ii. Proteins, vitamins and iron.
iii. Water and electrolytes.
b. Pharmacological Ergogenic Aids

i. Amphetamines.
ii. Caffeine.
iii. Anabolic Steroids.
c. Physiological Ergogenic Aids

i. Oxygen.
ii. Blood Doping.
d. Psychological Ergogenic Aids

i. Hypnosis.
ii. Covert Rehearsal Strategies.
iii. Stress Management Procedures.
e. Mechanical Ergogenic Aids

i. Extrinsic Biomechanical Aids.
ii. Physical Warm-Up.
1.3.2 Winning Versus Sporting Spirit
“Athletes First, Winning Second” (The motto of the American Sport Education
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Program, Weinberg & Gould, 2007). Every decision made by a coach should be
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based on what is judged as the best for athletes, and second on what may
improve the athlete’s or team’s chances of winning.
The above motto is hard to implement as many administrators demand coaches

to practice “Winning First, Athletes Second”. This happens because
administrators have their own objectives or are pressured by others. Usually,
coaches who help young people become better humans, consider losers as
failures and often are replace or fire them.
In sport, the objective of every athlete and coach must be to win within the rules
of the game. Emphasis on winning should not be on the winning itself but on
striving to win.
In addition winning must be matched with sportsmanship. Athletes must

demonstrate
sportsmanship (simply good character when participating in sports) when striving
to win. According to Martens (2004), athletes must have respect for
opponents, officials, teammates, coaches and the games itself.
“The most important thing in the Olympic Games is not to win but to take part just
as the most important thing in life is not the triumph but the struggle. The
essential thing is not to have conquered but to have fought well” (Barron de
Coubertin, founder of the modern Olympic Games. Martens, 2004: page 57)Does
it say that it is not important to win? Why is the struggle more important than the
triumph?
1.3.3 Aggression in Sport
Any form of behavior (physical or verbal) directed toward the goal of

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harming or injuring another living being who is motivated to avoid such

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treatment (Baron & Richardson, 1994).
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For an act to be considered aggression it must meet four criteria (Gill, 2000):
a. It is a behavior.
b. It involves harm or injury.
c. It is directed toward a living organism.
d. It involves intent.
Sport Specific Aggression Determinants
Athletes behave aggressively because (Weinberg & Gould, 2007):

a) Someone has committed aggression against them.
b) The opposition has annoyed them.
c) They are highly ego oriented and have a low level of moral development.
d) They want to show how tough they are.
e) They believe it is part of their role.
f) They feel group pressures to be aggressive.
Strategies to control aggression in sport and physical activity settings
Situations of Aggression Strategies for Coaches
 Athletes are frustrated – losing,  Coaches should be sensitive to detecting
perceive unfair officiating, are and controlling aggression
embarrassed, are physically in pain,  Detect causes of frustration, remove
playing below their capabilities or athlete from the situation at the first signs
poorly, overemphasis on winning of aggression

 Teach athletes skills to control their
emotions and their reactions to frustration
(eg. Simulate frustrating conditions to
allow players to practice emotional control
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strategies under pressure)

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 Use modeling and reinforcement
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approaches
 Learn appropriate behavior; differentiating
aggression from appropriate, intense or
assertive play
 Learn to resolve conflicts and disputes in a
nonviolent fashion (meet, record facts,
express feelings, aims to resolve, outline
necessary changes, develop action plan &
have follow up on the plan)
1.3.4 Other Issues
a) Media and its effects on sport.
b) Commercialization in sport.
c) Doping in sport.
d) Other issues as suggested by participants.
THOUGHT FOR THE DAY FOR COACHES
“The game doesn’t progress through an accumulation of many championships or

tournaments, but through continuous development of original ideas”.
“Tomorrow’s success is founded on today’s preparation”.
“The tragedy of coaching young players focuses on the fact that many coaches may
know a lot about the game, but they don’t know their young pupils”.
“Youth prefer to be stimulated instead of being instructed”.

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“Moving step by step, you may travel great distances”.

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“Too much drill will kill”.
“Coaches who don’t apply new remedies should expect to suffer new troubles”.
“Poor performance on the short term doesn’t mean that the long term objectives
cannot be accomplished”.
“You can help a player a lot by correcting him, but more by encouraging him”.
“There is no greater power on the playing field than the player’s intelligence”.
“The genuine coach generates ideas and opens the minds of his players. His far-
reaching task is to let the others think, instead of thinking for them”.
“The coach or player who doesn’t learn from defeat, will always be a beginner”.
“When the coaches of today tend to teach the way they were taught in the past, how
can we expect progress”.
“The player who runs has to think, and the one who thinks has to run”.
“Only a coach who has got enough brain can be simple”.
“Mastering a skill doesn’t mean that the player knows how to use it at the precise
momentduring the game”.
“The development of the game is so fast these days that the coach who says it can’t
be done is generally interrupted by someone doing it”.
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“If you win, you need not have to explain. If you lose, you should not be there to
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explain”
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Introduction
A discussion on the sporting achievements of Malaysia would not be complete if we

do not flash back to the history of our participation and the golden moments
achieved by our athletes in international meets.
From the ’50s through the ’70s, badminton, athletics, soccer, hockey and
weightlifting were among the sports which had contributed to the good name of our
country in the SEA Games, Asian Games, Commonwealth Games and the
Olympics.
Past athletes of the bygone era, to name a few, badminton legend Eddy Choong,
Malaysia’s most outstanding sprinter M.Jegathesan, 110m hurdler Ishtiaq Mobarak,
soccer giants ”Rajabola’ Ghani Minhat and ’Supermokh’ Mokhtar Dahari, cycling
champions Daud Ibrahim and Ng Joo Ngan, hockey Olympian Ho Koh Chye,
international tenpin bowler P.S. Nathan, and track queen of the ’70s Marina Chin
and the ’Bionic Lady’ heptathlete Zaition Othman, were all household names.
From the ’80s onwards, the new generation of sportsmen and sportswomen in
badminton, tenpin bowling, squasy, aquatics and wushu continued to do our country
proud in international competitions. Names like, Razif and Jailani, the Sidek brothers
(badminton), M.Kumaresan (cycling), Shalin Zulkifli (tenpin bowling), Lim Keng Liat
(swimming), Nicol David (squash), Lim Chong Wei (badminton), Bryan Nickson
(diving) and Chai Fong Yin (wushu) are all synonymous with our sporting
achievements and our capacity to accept challenges at the world level reflecting our
spirit of ’Malaysia Boleh’
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Participation and Performance in International Sports Competitions
1. SEA Games
2. Asian Games
3. Commonwealth Games
4. Olympic Games
5. Other international competitions
Objectives
1. To discuss and understand Malaysia's involvement in international sports in
general.
2. To study examples of successful athletes or teams in Malaysia.
3. Discuss athlete and team performance.
Malaysia in The International Sports Arena

- Participation and Achievements
SEA Games
The Southeast Asian Games (also known as the SEA Games), is a biennial multi-
sports event involving participants from the member countries of Southeast Asia.
Originally, the SEA Games was called SEAP Games or in full, the Southeast Asian
Peninsula Games.
Thailand, Laos, South Vietnam, Burma (now Myanmar), Malaya (now Malaysia)
Singapore were the founding members that agreed to the formation of the ‘SEAP
Games Federation Committee’ (SGF) in 1958. In 1959, Bangkok, Thailand, hosted
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the first SEAP GAMES.

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Currently there are 11 nations that are members of the SEA Games Federation.
Up to 2007, the SEA Games had been contested 24 times and members of the SGF
took turns to organize the event.
Malaysia played host in 1965, 1971, 1977, 1989 and 2001.
The outstanding achievements by our athletes in the 21st SEA Games in 2001 is of
great historical significance for Malaysia. The 111 gold medals won by our athletes
represent the highest number of gold ever achieved by our national contingent in the
SEA Games. This figure surpassed the 67 gold medals won by the 1989 SEA
Games contingent.
Malaysia - Participation And Achievements in SEA Games (1959-2011)

Malaysia’s No. of %
No Yea Venue Host Achievement gold Gold
r Country G S B Ttl medal Medal Placin
s at won g
stake
1 195 Bangkok Thailand 8 15 11 34 67 11.94 3/6
9
2 196 Rangoon Burma 12 16 16 44 79 15.19 3/7
1
196 (Cancelled)
3 Cambodia
3 196 K. Lumpur Malaysia 33 36 29 98 135 24.44 2/7
5
32
7
5 196 Rangoon Burma 16 24 39 79 146 10.96 4/6
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9
6 197 K Lumpur Malaysia 41 43 55 13 143 28.67 2/7
1 9
7 197 Singapore 30 35 49 11 161 18.63 3/7
3 4
5 7
7 0
10 197 Jakarta Indonesia 18 23 59 10 227 7.93 5/7
9 0
11 198 Manila Philippine 16 27 31 74 225 7.11 4/7
1 s
12 198 Singapore 16 25 40 81 209 7.66 6/8
3
5
7 4
9 1
1 s 9
17 199 Singapore 43 45 65 15 317 13.56 5/8
3 3
18 199 Chiangmai Thailand 31 49 69 14 334 9.28 4/10
5 9
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7 8
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20 199 B.S Begawan Brunei 57 45 42 14 230 24.78 2/10
9 4
1 1 1
22 200 Hanoi & HCM Vietnam 44 42 59 14 445 9.89 5/11
3 City 5
5 s 5
24 200 Nakhon Thailand 68 52 96 21 477 14.23 2/11
7 Ratchasima 6
25 200 Vientiane Laos 40 40 59 13
9 9
26 201 Indonesia Jakarta
1
An analysis from the table shows that:
1. The Malaysian contingent has always done well when the SEA Games is
hosted in Malaysia.
2. Except for the 9th SEA Games in 1977 in Kuala Lumpur, the Malaysian
Contingent has always won over 20% of the gold medals in contention, when
Malaysia hosted the Games.
3. When the host country is either Indonesia or Thailand, the domination by the
host country is so strong that the chance for Malaysia to win more gold
medals is reduced.
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Asian Games
Alsoknown as Asiad, the Asian Games is the biggest sports competition in the
continent of Asia. This multi-sports event is held every four years attracting top
sportsmen and sportswomen from all the member countries.
The Asian Games is organized under the regulations of the Olympic Council of Asia
(OCA)and sanctioned by the International Olympic Committee (IOC).
According to its history, the Asian Games was mooted by Dutt Sondhi, India’s IOC
representative. He put forth the idea during the Olympics Games in 1948 held in
London. As a result, the Asian Games Federation was formed and it was decided to
have the first Asian Games in India with New Delhi as the host city in 1951.
The first time Malaysia participated was in the second Asian Games held in Manila,
Philippines in 1954.
In the 1966 Asian Games in Bangkok, our national track and field team won 5 gold
medals. This achievement proved that the 60s were the golden era of Malaysian
athletics. Among the well known athletes were M.Jegathesan, Nashatar Singh,
Rahim Ahmad, Cheryl Dorall, R. Subramaniam, M.Rajamani and Ishtiaq Mobarak.
In the 2006 Asian Games in Doha, Malaysia won 42 medals. To date, this was the
best achievement so far in terms of medal haul by our contingent in the Asian
Games.
Malaysia’s achievements in Asian Games 1954-2010
YEAR VENUE MEDALS TOTAL
1951 New Dehli - - - DNP*
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1954 Manila 0 0 0 0
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1958 Tokyo 0 0 3 3
1962 Jakarta 2 4 8 14
1966 Bangkok 7 5 6 18
1970 Bangkok 5 1 7 13
1974 Teheran 0 1 4 5
1978 Bangkok 2 1 3 6
1982 New Dehli 1 0 3 4
1986 Seoul 0 5 5 10
1990 Beijing 2 2 4 8
1994 Hiroshima 4 2 13 19
1998 Bangkok 5 10 14 29
2002 Busan 6 8 16 30
2006 Doha 8 17 17 42
2010 Guanzhou 9 18 14 41
* Did Not Participate
Commonwealth Games
Starting from the first meet in 1930 until the fourth in 1950, the competitions were
known as the British Empire Games. Later, due to further historical developments,
the name was changed to British Empire & Commonwealth Games (1954) and then
again renamed British Commonwealth Games (1966). Finally, in 1978 the name
Commonwealth Games was adopted and has remained until today.
Malaysia’s Achievements
The history of Malaysia’s involvement in the Commonwealth Games (British Empire

36
Games then) started in 1950 when Auckland, New Zealand hosted the second
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Games. Malaysia participated only in the weightlifting event. The four weightlifters
showed outstanding performance and won a medal each in their respective events.
In Perth, Australia, 1962, Malaysia took part in 4 sports, namely, athletics,

swimming, cycling and weightlifting. Malaysia’s only achievement came from
weightlifting which secured one bronze medal from the featherweight event.
In all the Commonwealth Games which Malaysia took part between 1970-1990,
badminton continuously gave excellent performance and contributed medals to our
achievements.
In 1994, Malaysia sent athletes for 8 sports in the Commonwealth Games held in
Victoria, Canada. Once again, our badminton players helped Malaysia’s medal
collection by winning 6 medals (2G, 2S, 2B). The seventh medal came from our
traditional contributor, weightlifting, which contributed a bronze,
Malaysia’s achievements in the Commonwealth Games 1950-2010
YEAR VENUE MEDALS Total

G S B
1950 Auckland, New Zealand 2 1 1 4
1954 Vancouver, Canada 0 0 0 0
1958 Cardiff, Wales 0 2 0 2
1962 Perth, Australia 0 0 1 1
1966 Kingston, Jamaica 2 2 1 5
1970 Edinburgh, Scotland 1 1 1 3
1974 Christchurch, N.Zealand 1 0 3 4
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1978 Edmonton, Canada 1 2 1 4

1982 Brisbane, Australia 1 0 1 2
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1986 Edinburgh, Scotland - - - DNP*
1990 Auckland, New Zealand 2 2 0 4
1994 Victoria, Canada 2 3 2 7
1998 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 10 14 12 26
2002 Manchester, UK 7 9 18 34
2006 Melbourne, Australia 7 12 10 29
2010
*Did Not Participate
1998 was a historic and challenging year for Malaysia for as the host country for the
XVI Commonwealth Games which was held in Kuala Lumpur. Malaysians had the
opportunity to witness and assess the performance of our national athletes who
were trained under the Program Jaya ’98. The National Sports Council of Malaysia
launched this 4-year plan in 1994 to prepare our national athletes for international
competitions with the KL Comonwealth Games as the climax. The Malaysian
contingent won 10 Gold medals, 14 Silver and 12 Bronze. With this best ever
Commonwealth Games medal haul, Malaysia was ranked 4th in the overall positions
of the participating teams. This achievement has remained Malaysia’s best ranking
in all the Commonwealth Games it has taken part in. Names like Sapok Biki
(boxing), G. Saravanan (athletics), Hamidon Hidayat (weightlifting), Nuruhuda
Baharin (shooting) and the rhythmic gymnastic team members began to receive
public attention in Malaysia when they won a gold medals for their sports.
In the 2002 Manchester Games, badminton, our traditional medal contributor, won 3
gold medals. Weightlifting contributed another 3 gold medals through Amirul
Hamizan who also set three new records.
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Sports that contributed to Malaysia’s medal tally.
(1998 KL Commonwealth Games)
No Sport Achievement
G S B
1 Athletics 1
2 Badminton 3 4
3 Lawn Bowl 2 1 1
4 Boxing 1 1
5 Cycling 1
6 Rythmic Gimnastics 1 1 2
7 Hockey (Men) 1
8 Shooting 1 1 3
9 Weightlifting 1 1 3
Olympic Games
The Olympic Games is the biggest sporting event in the world. This multi- sports
gathering takes place every four years. The top teams and athletes representing
their countries come together in this meet and compete in the tradition enshrined in
the Olympic spirit. The first modern Olympics was held in Athens, Greece, in the
year 1896. Twelve nations represented by their 500 athletes competed. Malaysia
first took part in 1956 when the Olympic Games was held in Melbourne, Australia.
The Malaysian contingent consisted of 33 athletes who competed in 5 sports,
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hockey, weightlifting, athletics, swimming and shooting. In this first international

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Olympic outing, the national hockey team managed a creditable 9th placing out of 12
teams.
The national soccer team created history when it successfully went through the
qualifying rounds and played in the Munich Olympic in 1972. Malaysia has taken
part in all the Olympic Games so far except for the 1980 OlympicGames in
Moscow, USSR, where Malaysia along with many other countries boycotted the
Games for political reasons. If not for this boycott, our national soccer team would
have seen action for the second time in the Moscow Olympics. Until today, so far all
the medals won by Malaysia in the Olympics came from the badminton players. In
the 1992Olympics in Barcelona, Spain, badminton doubles pair, Razif and Jailani
Sidek became the first two Malaysian sportsmen to win a medal each when they
won the bronze medal in the men’s doubles event. In Atlanta, 1996, another
badminton doubles pair, Cheah Soon Kit and Yap Kim Hock captured the silver
medal in the Olympics Rashid Sidek won a bronze in the men’s singles event.
National player Lim Chong Wei won the silver in the 2008 Beijing Olympics.
Achievements in Olympic Games

No Year/Venue Sport Athlete Achievement
1 1956 Melbourne, Hockey (Men) 9/12 placing
Australia
2 1964 Athletics M Jegathesan Semifinal -21.4s
Tokyo, Japan 200m
3 1968 Athletics M Jegathesan Semifinal
Mexico City, Mexico 200m
4 1972 Munich, Soccer National team Qualified for final round
Germany
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5 1992 Barcelona, Badminton Razif Sidek Bronze medal

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Sepanyol (Doubles) Jailani Sidek
6 1996 Badminton Cheah Soon Silver medal
Atlanta,USA (Doubles) Kit Yap Kim
(Singles) Hock Bronze Medals
Rashid Sidek
Swimming
7 2004 100m Breast Lim Keng Liat Entered Semi final
Athens, Greece Stroke
Cycling Josiah Ng Entered final round
(Kerin)
8 2008 Badminton Lee Chong Silver medal
Beijing, China Archery Wei
-3 man-Team Marbawi, Entered 1/4final
CS Cheng &
-Individual Khalmizan Entered Top 8
CS Cheng
Success in other World Level Competitions

Besides the achievements in regional competitions and the Olympic Games,
Malaysian sportsmen and sportswomen had also shown outstanding performances
in many other international meets. Our national badminton team had won the
Thomas Cup, the supremacy of world - class badminton, 4 times. Also, Malaysian
badminton players had won numerous singles and doubles titles in tournaments
such as the All England and World GP Circuit.
Eddy Choong was the first Malaysian player to win the All England singles title in
1953. Subsequently, other Malaysian players too recorded great success in other
years when they captured the singles and the doubles titles in competitions all over
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the world. After Hafiz Hashim who became the All England champion in 2003, no
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other Malaysian player has recaptured the prestigious title.
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In their All England debut in 2006, doubles pair Tan Boon Heong-Koo Kien Kiat
emerged as champions. However, in the 2008 Beijing Olympics, the much expected
pair failed to perform to general expectation. Apart from having qualified and
participated in a few Olympics, the best performance so far by our national hockey
team was the 4th placing in the 1975 World Cup tournament held in Kuala
Lumpur. In that semi-final match India defeated Malaysia. Another historic
achievement by our national hockey team was when they merged silver medallists
in the 1998 Kuala Lumpur Commonwealth Games.
In tenpin bowling, since the time of P.S.Nathan, Malaysian bowlers were highly
regarded by players from other countries. In 2005, our bowlers captured 24
international titles and this increased to 32 the following year.
Shalin Zulkifli is synonymous with the success of Malaysia in the international

bowling arena. Without doubt, in the ’90s, tenpin bowling outshone other sports in
Malaysia with Shalin’s success after success in winning titles both in national and
international competitions. Her fantastic performances at international level had
injected great interest in bowling among the younger potential players in Malaysia.
As an example, in 2005, Esther Cheah achieved the distinction of being the
youngest female bowler ever to win the World Tenpin Bowling Competition. In the
same year, Malaysian bowlers captured 24 international titles and went on to win 32
titles in 2006.
Apart from badminton and tenpin bowling, squash has also made Malaysia proud in
international sports competitions. In 1998, at the age of 15, Nicol David was
crowned the World’s Women Junior Squash champion. With that historic
achievement, she became the youngest player to win the prestigious world title. This
‘squash queen’ went on to chalk up more success and set an invincible record in
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Asia when she won the Asia championship five times (1998, 2000, 2002, 2004
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and 2006).
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In 2005, at the age of 22, she became the youngest female player to win the
Women’s World Open in Hong Kong.
In 2007, with her consistent outstanding performance in all the competitions she
added 8 WISPA titles to her name.
Conclusion
Malaysia has yet to a win an Olympic gold medal, be it from an individual athlete or
from a team event. Malaysia is not lacking in terms of training facilities. Also, we
have various incentives for athletes who achieve excellence in their sports. In
coaching, where local expertise is lacking, the national sports associations with the
financial assistance of the National Sports Council of Malaysia, has engaged foreign
coaches to train our elite and potential athletes. From time to time, ambitious
development programmes and training projects have been carried out to win the
elusive Olympic gold medals.
Malaysia has a rich sports history and it is important for us to learn about the lives
and struggles of our past and present world-standard sportsmen and sportswomen.
We have to made an in-depth comparison of our training system with that of the
successful countries.
This will enable us to gain an insight into the effort required to reach sporting
excellence of international standard. Also, an understanding of the struggles and
sacrifices by sports legends, both local and foreign, can serve as a motivation and
help our future national athletes to scale greater heights in international meets.
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Examples of Outstanding Achievements by Malaysian Athletes in International

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Competitions
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No Name Sport Year & Competition International
(Year Born) Achievement
Badminton All-England 953, Singles champion
1 Eddy Choong 1954,1956,1957 4 times.
(1930) All-England Doubles
1952,1953,1954 champion 3 times
Athletics Olimpic Games
2 M.Jegathesan 200m 1964 Tokyo Entered
(1943) 1968 Mexico semifinals
100m Asian Games Entered
1966 Bangkok semifinals
4x100m As above Gold medal
200m Asian Games
1962 Jakarta Gold medal
Gold medal
Badminton Olimpic Games 1992 Bronze medal
3 Mohd Razif Sidek All England 1982 Champions
(1962) & Mohd Jailani 1983,1989 Runners-up
Sidek (1963) World Cup
1982,1988,1990,1991 Champions
1986,1987 Runners-up
World GP
1986,1989,1991 Champions
Commonwealth
Games 1990 Champions
4 Lee Chong Wei Badminton 1998 Commonwealth
(1982 ) Games Gold medal
2007 Indonesia Open Champion
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2008 Beijing Olimpic Silver medal

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Games
Olimpic Games
5 Ishtiaq Mubarak Athletics 1968 Mexico
(1948 ) 110m 1972 Munich
Hurdles 1976 Montreal Entered
1973 ATF,Seoul semifinals
1974 ATF Manila Gold medal
Asian Games Silver medal
1974 Teheran
1966 Bangkok Silver medal
Bronze medal
SEA Games 1965
6 M.Rajamani Athletics (200m,400m,800m & 4 Gold medals
(1943) 400m 4X100m) (all new records)
Asian Games 1966
Bangkok, Gold medal
200m Bronze medal
4X100m
Asian Games 1970 Gold medal
7 Daud Ibrahim Cycling Bangkok 5 gold medals
(1947) SEA Games 1971 KL
Commonwealth participant
Games
1974 Christchurch participant
Olympic Games
1972 Munich
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Cycling 2002 Commonwealth
8 Josiah Ng (sprint) Games Manchester Final 5th position
(1980) (sprint) 2004 World Cup, -3rd
(keirin) Mexico 6th
(sprint) Athens Olympic 11th
Games 2004
9 Lim Keng Liat Swimming 1998 Asian Games Gold medal

( ) 100m b/s Bangkok
50m b/s 2002 Commonwealth Silver medal
100m b/s Games Manchester Bronze medal
100m b/s 2004 Olimpic Games, Entered
Athens semifinals
- SEA Games
10 Nurul Huda Abdullah Swimming 1985 Bangkok 7 Gold
( ) 1987 Jakarta 7 Gold -5 new
records
World Junior Meet
11 Daniel Bego Swimming 2006 BrazilOlimpic Silver medal
(1990) 100m kk-k Games
2008 Beijing
1994 Asian Games,
12 Shalin Zulkifli TP Hiroshima 2 Gold
(1978) Bowling World Junior Bowling
Mexico 1994 Bronze
Manila 1997, Gold
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Incheon 1998 Gold

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-World Masters
London 2001 Champion
Grand Slam Asia
Singapore 2003 Champion
- 2004 World Ranking Ranking No 2
-2004 Masters Open
in 4 countries Champion
13 Amirul Hamizan Weightliftin 2002 Commonwealth 3 Gold (3 new

Ibrahim g (56 kg) Games Manchester records)
( 19 )
2001 World Women Champion
Junior
14 Nicol David Squash Kej. Skuasy Asia
(1983) 1998, 2000, 2002, 5 X Johan
2004, 2006
Kej.Terbuka Wanita
Dunia Johan 3 kali
2005, 2006, 2007
Kej. Skuasy Terbuka
di 5 buah negara 5 X Johan
2005 No. 1
Ranking Dunia 2006-
2008
2004 Olimpik Athens Youngest M’sian
15 Bryan Nickson (1990) Diving athlete
-World Meet 7th - qlfd for
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Beijing.
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2008 Olimpik Beijing Participant
Examples ofoutstanding achievements by Malaysian teams in international

competitions
No Sport Year Competition Best Performance

1 Hockey (Men) 1975 3th World Cup in 4th position
Kuala Lumpur
1998 16th Commonwealth Silver medal
Games in KL
Hockey 1979 Junior World Cup 4th position
(Men Junior) Paris
2 Soccer 1972 Munich Olympics Qualified and played in Munich.
1980 Moscow Olympics Qualified to play in Moscow but
joined in boycott of the Games.
3 Rythmic 1998 KL Commonwealth Gold medal for Team Event
Gymnastics Games
4 4X100m relay 1966 Asian Games in Gold medal
team Bangkok
1952 Thomas Cup Champion –first time
5 Badminton 1955 Thomas Cup Champion
(Men) 1967 Thomas Cup Champion
1992 Thomas Cup Champion
2006 Asian Games Champion (doubles)
2007 All-England Champion (doubles)
6 Tenpin 1994 Sukan Asia ,Jepun Gold medal (trios)

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Bowling 1995 Kej Boling Dunia di Silver medal

(Women) AS
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Tenpin
Bowling
(Men)
7 Archery 2008 Beijing Olympics Enterend ¼ finals

-3-man Team
“Players win, players lose, players prepare, players practice,players get hurt but
players get up. No matter what the outcome is , players play.”
“ Everyone thinks of changing the world but no one thinks of changing himself.”
References:
1. Mohd Salleh Aman (2004) Sukan Dalam Masyarakat Malaysia, Penerbit

Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
2. L.B.Ooi (200) Way of the Champions, Percetakan Solai Sdn Bhd, Petaling Jaya
Malaysia.
3._________ (1998), Sukan Komanwel dari Hamilton ke Kuala Lumpur (1930-

1998),
Arkib Negara Malaysia.
4 .C.J.Chong, E.S.Tan (1995), Legends of the Flame, Pan Pacific Publications,

Sinapaore.
5. J.Johari, S.Ishak, A.R.A.Ghaffur, (1995), JAGUH MAKSAK, Penerbitan MAKSAK

Malaysia.
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6. http://en.wikipedia org/wiki Southeast Asia Games rtrvd 10.10.2008
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UNIT 3
ANATOMI AND
PHYSIOLOGY
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COURSE OBJECTIVE (LEVEL 3)
At the end of this unit, coaches will be able to analyses, evaluate and discuss on:
• Acclimatization to environment in sports
• Exercising at altitude
• Ergogenic aids and sport performance
• Body composition and performance
• Exercise considerations for special population
• Measuring physiological parameters
KEYWORDS
1) Convection 11) Ergogenic aids
2) Conduction 12) Sports Performance Factors
3) Radiation 13) Female Athlete Triad
4) Evaporation 14) Respiratory Quotient (RQ)
5) Heat cramp
6) Heat exhaustion
7) Heat stroke
8) Frostbite
9) Hypothermia
10)Hypoxia
ACCLIMATIZATION TO ENVIRONMENT IN SPORTS

• The acclimatization of an athlete is important in order to ensure optimal
performance, and reducing the environmental effects.
• Athletes could suffer from a heat- or cold-related illness.
• Overweight or poorly conditioned athlete could suffer a heat illness.
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• Thin & highly condition athlete (less fat for insulation) may be prone to cold
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Temperature Regulation
Temperature Regulation
Metabolism
•Tissue
Tissue cells in the body work & use energy, heat is produced
Convection
•Loss
Loss or gain of heat resulting from the circulation of air (wind)
•Warm
Warm air (increase body temperature)
•Cool
Cool air (decrease body temperature)
Conduction
•Body
Body heat can be lost or gained if the body comes in contact with a warmer or colder object
•Warm jacuzzi – increase body temperature
•Cold
Cold shower or cold drink – decrease body temperature
Radiation
•Heat
Heat loss or gained through contact with infrared waves
•Most
Most common radiation heat is from the sun
Evaporation (perspire)
•Evaporation
Evaporation of sweat off the skin is the main way in which the body cool itself
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MEANS OF HEAT GAIN AND HEAT LOSS
Heat Gain Heat Loss
Hot Environment Cold Environment
ACCLIMATIZATION TO HOT ENVIRONMENT

• The main effect of hot environment on the human body is the loss of body
fluids.
• This is due to the body’s effort in fighting off hyperthermia and maintaining
internal body temperature. It does this through the release of sweat.
• This will lead to three conditions:

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1) Heat cramps
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2) Heat exhaustion
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3) Heat stroke
1. HEAT STROKE
 History
◦ The athlete complains of a muscle spasm that is not caused by a
specific injury.
◦ Cramps usually occur in the quadriceps, hamstrings, or calves.
 Symptoms
◦ Pain caused by muscle spasm.
◦ Fatigue.
 Signs
◦ Severe muscle spasms.
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2. HEAT EXHAUSTION
 Definition
◦ This is a shock
shock-like condition.
 Cause
◦ Dehydration occurs when the body’s water & electrolyte supplies are
depleted through sweating.
 History
◦ The athlete suffered no injury but begins to develop shock-like
shock
symptoms.
 Symptoms
◦ Headache (a continuous pain in the head).

head)
◦ Nausea (feeling of sickness with an inclination to vomit).
vomit)
◦ Dizziness (sensation of spinning around & losing one’s balance).
balance)
◦ Chills (unpleasant feeling of coldness).
coldness)
◦ Fatigue (extreme tiredness resulting from mental or physical exertion
or illness).
◦ Extreme thirst
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• Signs
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o Pale, cool, & clammy (sticky or slimy) skin
o Rapid, weak pulse loss of coordination
o Dilated pupils Profuse sweating (key sign)
3. HEAT STROKE
 Definition
◦ This is a life-threatening
threatening condition in which the body stops sweating &
the body temperature rises dangerously.
 Cause
◦ Dehydration causes a malfunction in the body’s temperature control

center in the brain.
 History
◦ The athlete may dazedly stagger (walk or move unsteadily) off the field
or collapse.
• Symptoms
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o Feeling of being on fire (extremely hot)

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o Nausea
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o Confusion
o Irritability (annoyed or angered)
o Fatigue
 Signs
◦ Hot, dry and flushed or red skin (key sign)

◦ Very high body temperature (above 39°C)
◦ Lack of sweat
◦ Rapid pulse
◦ Rapid breathing
◦ Constricted pupils
◦ Vomiting
◦ Diarrhea
◦ Possibly seizures (epileptic)
◦
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Possibly unconsciousness
◦
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Possibly respiratory or cardiac arrest

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ACCLIMATIZATION TO COLD ENVIRONMENT
• When a person is exposed to cold weather
o Body temperature starts to drop below normal.
o This is a counteraction where the body tries to gain or conserve heat

by shivering involves muscles contracting rapidly to produce heat.
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o Reduction of blood flow to the skin & extremities conserves the heat of
the brain, heart, & lungs
o Two conditions caused by this exposure are:
o Frostbite
o Hypothermia
1. FROSTBITE
 Definition
◦ Superficial frostbite involves localized freezing of the skin & the

superficial tissues below it.
◦ The nose, ears, toes, & fingers are especially prone to superficial
frostbite.
◦ Deep frostbite begins superficially but advances to deep tissues such
as muscles & tendons
 Cause
◦ Exposure of body parts to cold, causing tissues to freeze & blood

vessels to constrict.
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 Symptoms
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◦ Painful, itchy, burning, or tingling areas that may become numb as the
frostbite worsens.
◦ These symptoms may recur when the affected areas are re-warmed.
 Signs
◦ First-degree frostbite – red or flushed skin that may turn white or gray.
◦ Second-degree frostbite – firm, white, & waxy skin, blisters & purple tint
to skin appear when the area is re-warmed.
◦ Third-degree frostbite – blisters bluish skin. The area feels very cold &
stiff.
2. HYPOTHERMIA
• Definition
o In this condition, the body temperature drops below normal.
• Cause
o Prolonged exposure to wet, windy, & cold environment.

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o Extreme fatigue, such as that suffered after competition in a marathon

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or triathlon.
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• History
o The athlete did not suffer a

ann injury but begins to act irrational &
disoriented.
• Symptoms
o When the body temperature drops below 35°C :

• Irritability
• Confusion
• Drowsiness (sleepy)
• Lethargy (lack of energy
 Signs
o From 37°C - 35°C :

 Loss of coordination
 Loss of sensation
 Uncontrollable shivering
o From 32.2°C - 35°C :
 Shivering may stop
 Pale & hard skin
 Numbness
 Slow, irregular pulse
 Slowed breathing
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 Signs
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o From 30°C – 32.2°C :
 Hallucinations
 Dilated pupils
o Below 29.4°C :
 Unconsciousness
 PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSES TO COLD
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EXERCISING AT HIGH ALTITUDE (HYPOBARIC ENVIRONMENT)
• High Altitude or hypobaric environment
 Low atmospheric pressure.

 Lower atmospheric pressure also means lower partial pressure
of oxygen (PO2), which limits pulmonary diffusion and low O2
transport to tissue.
 This reduces O2 delivery to the body tissue, resulting in hypoxia
(O2 deficiency).
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• The term altitude refers to elevations above 1500 m (4,921 ft).
• Altitude presents a hypobaric environment which the atmospheric pressure is
reduced.
• Altitudes of 1500 m or above have a physiological impact on the human
body
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Differences in atmospheric conditions at sea
level & at altitude
Atmospheric Partial Pressure Ambient

Pressure of O2 temperature
At sea level 760 mmHg 159.2 mmHg 15oC
At 8,900m 250 mmHg 48.4 mmHg -40oC
PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSES TO ALTITUDE

Physiological Responses to Altitude
• The hypoxic conditions (diminished O2 supply) at altitude alter the body’s
normal physiological responses.
i. Respiratory Responses
• Pulmonary ventilation (breathing) increases at higher altitudes, when at
rest & during exercise.
• Because the number of O2 molecules in air is less, more air must be inspired
to supply as much 02 during normal breathing at sea level.
• Ventilation increases to bring in a larger volume of air because the air is
less dense.
• This increased ventilation results in a hyperventilation state, in which too
much CO2 can be cleared and allows blood pH to increase, leading
torespiratory alkalosis. In response, the kidneys excrete more bicarbonate
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ion, so less acid can be buffered.

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• Pulmonary diffusion is not hinder by altitude, but O2 transport is slightly
impaired because hemoglobin saturation at altitude is reduced, although by
only a small amount.
• The diffusion gradient that allows O2 exchange between the blood & active
tissue is substantially reduced at elevation, thus O2 uptake is impaired. This
is partially compensated for by a decrease in plasma volume, concentrating
the RBCs and allowing more O2 to be transported per unit of blood.
• Maximal O2 consumptiondecreases along atmospheric pressure. As the
partial pressure of O2 decreases, VO2max(Maximal O2 uptake) decreases at
a progressively greater rate.
• Maximum O2 uptake decreases since PO2 decreases. At sea level VO2max
= 50ml/kg/min but, at Mt. Everest peak, VO2max can be as low as 5ml/kg/min.
ii. Cardiovascular Responses

• During submaximal work at altitude, the body increases its cardiac
output, by increasing the heart rate, to compensate for the decrease in the
pressure gradient that drives O2 exchange.
• During maximal work, stroke volume and heart rate are both lowered,
resulting in a reduced cardiac output. This combined with the decreased
pressure gradient severely impairs O2 delivery & uptake.
iii. Metabolic Responses

• Because O2 delivery is restricted at altitude, oxidative capacity is
decreased.
• More anaerobic energy production must occur, as evidenced by increased
blood lactate levels for a given sub maximal work rate.
• However, at maximal work rate, lactate levels are lower, perhaps because the
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body must work at a rate that cannot fully stress the energy systems.
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PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSES TO PROLONGED EXPOSURE TO HIGH
ALTITUDE
i. Blood adaptations
• Hypoxic conditions stimulate the release of erythropoietin (EPO), which
increases erythrocyte (RBC) production.More RBC means more hemoglobin.
These adaptations improve the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood.
• Although plasma volume decreases initially (within a few hours of arrival at
altitude as a result of fluid shifts and respiratory water loss), which also
concentrates the erythrocytes (RBC) - hemoglobin, this changes also
increasing the blood’s oxygen-carrying capacity.
ii. Muscle adaptations

• Muscle fiber areasdecrease when at altitude, thus decreasingtotal muscle
area.
• Total muscle mass&total body weightdecrease. Part of this is from
dehydration and appetite suppression, which leads to protein breakdown in
the muscles.
• Metabolic enzyme activities in the muscle also decreased.
• Capillary density in the muscle increased, which allow more blood & oxygen
to be delivered to the muscle.
iii. Cardiorespiratory adaptations

• Increased in pulmonary ventilation both at rest and during exercise.
Ventilation is stimulated by the decreased O2 content of the inspired
air.
• Decreased in VO2 max with initial exposure to altitude does not
improve much (or improve very little) during several weeks of
exposure.
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DISADVANTAGES OF ACUTE EXPOSURE TO HIGH ALTITUDE
• Acute altitude sickness typically causes symptoms such as headaches,
nausea, vomiting, dyspnea, and insomnia. These usually appear in 6 to 96 hr
after arrival at altitude.
• The exact cause of acute altitude sickness is not known, but many
researchers suspect the symptoms may result from carbon dioxide
accumulation in the tissues.
• Acute altitude sickness can usually be avoided by a gradual ascent to altitude;
climbing not more than 300 m per day at elevations above 3000 m.
Medications can also be used to reduce the symptoms.
• High-altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE) &high-altitude cerebral edema
(HACE), which involve accumulation of fluid in the lungs & cranial cavity,
respectively, are life-threatening conditions. Both are treated by O2
administration & descent.
ERGOGENIC AIDS AND SPORT PERFORMANCE

• The nature of athletic abilities depends on inherited genes for:
o Determining heights
o General body shape
o Muscle fiber type
o Ability to generate muscular energy
o Psychological strength
• All these inborn characteristics contribute to athletic success 68
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Ergogenic Aids
• Special substances or methods used in an attempt to improve physiological,
psychological or biomechanical functions important to sport are called
ergogenic aids
Limits to Sport Performance

• The ultimate barrier in sports performance is the inability to achieve optimal
production, control and efficient use of energy because energy is the basis of
all movement in sport.
• Two factors play important roles in energy production and utilization in sport:
1) Genetic endowment
2) Training
Note:
Even if we are born with the characteristics of a natural athlete, we must train hard to
realize our potential.
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SPORT PERFORMANCE FACTORS
• The analysis of sports (physiological, psychological and biomechanical)
conducted on various sporting events to determine the abilities to be
asuccessful athletes are often referred to as Sports Performance Factors
(SPFs)
• Physical power (energy production)
 Explosive power and strength

 High power and sped
 Power endurance
 Aerobic power
 Aerobic endurance
 Mental strength (neuromuscular control)
 Stimulation
 Relaxation
 Mechanical edge (efficiency)
 Increase muscle / body mass
 Decrease body fat / body mass
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ENHANCING SPORT PERFORMANCE
• To enhance physical power
i. Increase the amount of muscle tissue used to generate energy.

ii. Increase the rate of metabolic processes that generate energy within
the muscle
iii. Increase energy supply in the muscle for greater duration.
iv. Improve delivery of energy supplies to the muscle
v. Counteract the accumulation of substances in the body that interfere
with optimal energy production.
 To enhance mental strength
i. Increase psychological processes that maximize energy production.
ii. Decrease factors that interfere with optimal psychological functioning.
 To enhance mechanical edge

i. Improve human body biomechanics to increase efficiency by
decreasing body mass, primarily body fat.
ii. Improve human body biomechanics to increase stability by increasing
body mass, primarily muscle mass.
CLASSIFICATION OF SPORTS ERGOGENICS

 Sports ergogenic can be classified into:
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i. Psychological aids
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ii. Mechanical aids
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iii. Nutritional aids
iv. Pharmacological aids
v. Physiological aids
 Among these, psychological skills (such as imagery and transcendental

meditations) and biomechanical are often seen as training techniques and
aids (sport clothing and equipments i.e. hand paddle in swimming) that can
lead to an advantage in sporting performance.
NUTRITIONAL ERGOGENICS
i. Carbohydrate (carbohydrate supplements).
ii. Fats (fat supplements, medium-chain triglycerides, omega-3 fatty acids).
iii. Protein/amino acids (protein supplements, arginine, lysine, aspartates,

branched amino acids (BCAA), tryptophan).
iv. Vitamins (antioxidants, Thiamine(B1), Riboflavin (B2), Niacin, Pyridoxine (B6),

Pantothenic acid, folic acid, B12, Ascorbic acid, Vitamin E)
v. Minerals (Boron, Calcium, Chromium, Iron, Magnesium, Phosphates,

Selenium, Vanadium, Zinc).
vi. Plant extract (Anabolic phytosterols, ginseng)
PHARMACOLOGICAL ERGOGENICS
i. Prohibited substances
 Stimulants (amphetamine, cocaine, ephedrine)*
 Narcotics (narcotics analgesic)*

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 Anabolic (anabolic steroids, clenbuterol )*

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 Diuretics*
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ii. Prohibited methods
 Blood doping*
 Pharmacological, chemical and physical manipulation
Note: * indicate
ndicate banned substances and methods
iii. Classes of drugs subject to certain restrictions
 Alcohol
 Caffeine
 Marijuana*
 Beta-blockers*
 Corticosteroids*
BODY COMPOSITION AND PERFORMANCE

• Body Composition is used to describe the percentages of fat, bone and
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muscle in the human body.

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• Because muscular tissue takes up less space in our body than fat tissue, our
body composition, as well as our weight, determines leanness.
• The table below from the American Council on Exercise (American

NGO)shows how average percentages differ according to the specified
groups and categories:
Description Women Men
Essential fat 10–13% 2–5%
Athletes 14–20% 6–13%
Fitness 21–24% 14–17%
Average 25–31% 18–24%
Obese 32%+ 25%+
MEASURING BODY COMPOSITION

• Body composition (particularly body fat percentage) can be measured in
several ways.
• The most common method is by using skin fold calipers to measure the
thickness of subcutaneous fat in multiple places on the body.
• This includes the abdominal area, the subscapular region, arms, buttocks and
thighs.
• These measurements are then used to estimate total body fat with a margin
of error of approximately four percentage k points.
• Another method is bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA), which uses the
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resistance of electrical flow through the body to estimate body fat.

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Biceps
Subscapular
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Measuring Body Composition
Some examples of BIA based equipment
Handheld Body Fat

Analyzer
Standing Body Fat Analyzer
• Estimation of body fat percentage from underwater weighing (or hydrostatic

weighing) has long been considered to be the best method available,
especially in consideration of the cost and simplicity of the equipment.
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• The other ways to estimate body fatness, such as by skin folds, body girths,
body impedance, air displacement volume and body scanners are based on
equations which predict body density.
• In contrast, underwater weighing gives an actual measurement of body
density rather than a prediction
DIFFERENT ATHLETE POPULATION

1) Young athletes
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2) Older athletes
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3) Female athletes
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1. YOUNG ATHLETES
• The child through adolescent are referred to as young athletes.

• To understand the physical capabilities of young athletes and the potential
impact that sport activities have on them, we must first consider their growth
and development.
Bone
• Exercise along with an adequate diet is essential for proper bone growth.
• Exercise increase bone width and bone density. This increases the bone’s
strength. However it has little or no effect on bone length.
• Injury (especially at the epiphysis) of immature bones can affect bone growth
and development. Inappropriate equipment or a mismatch of players by size
and ability increases the risk of injury.
Muscle
• Increase in muscle
le mass with growth and development is accomplished
primarily by hypertrophy.
• Strength improves as muscle mass increases with age.
• Strength gains achieved from resistance training in preadolescents result
primarily from improved motor skill coordination and other neurological
adaptations.
• Fat cells can increase in size and number throughout life.
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• Amount of fat that accumulates depends on diet, exercise habits and heredity.
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• Performance tends to decrease as fat increases.
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Nervous System
• Balance, agility, and coordination improve as the young athlete’s nervous
systems develop.
Cardiovascular Function
• Children have smaller hearts than adults. As a result of this they have a
smaller stroke volume, a lower maximal cardiac output, and a lower VO2max
(expressed in L/min) than adults.
• Aerobic training in preadolescents does not alter VO2 max as much as would
be expected for the training stimulus. But endurance performance does
improve with aerobic training.
• A child’s anaerobic capacity increases with anaerobic training.
DISCUSSION
• What is the major concern when a bone that has not reached full growth
breaks?
• How dangerous is resistance training for children? What advice would you
give to children if they wanted to improve their strength?
• What happens to aerobic capacity as a prepubescent child trains aerobically?
2. OLDER ATHLETES
• Most athletic performances decline steadily during middle and older age.
Peak performances in both endurance and strength events decrease by about
1% to 2% per year, starting between ages 20 and 35.
• It is often difficult to differentiate between the results of biological aging and
physical inactivity.
• The decrease in VO2 max with aging and inactivity is a function of reduced
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blood flow to the active muscles, associated with the reduction in maximal
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cardiac output (decreases in HR max, SV max, and a-vO2 diff).
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• Endurance exercise training produces similar gains in healthy people,
regardless of their age, sex , or initial level of fitness.
• Strength is reduced with aging largely due to reduction in protein synthesis
and loss of FT motor units. Strength training at relatively higher intensities
can maintain / increase muscle strength and hypertrophy.
• With age, body fat content increases, while fat free mass decreases. Training
can help delay these changes in body composition.
• Aging does not appear to reduce our capacity to perform normal activity at
high altitude.
• Aging reduces our ability to adapt to exercise in the heat.
• Aging slows the nervous system’s ability but training can lessen the impact.
DISCUSSION
• How does training alter the biology of aging?
3. FEMALE ATHLETES
• Major differences in body size and composition between girls and boys do not
start to appear until puberty.
• For the same amount of muscle, there are no differences in strength between
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the sexes.
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• At sub-maximal exercise levels, women have similar cardiac outputs as
men (higher heart rates and lower SV).
• Women generally have lower VO2 max values (expressed in ml/kg/min) than
men.
• Lactate threshold values (expressed in relative %VO2 max) appear to be
similar between equally trained men and women.
 With endurance training or strength training, women and men experience:

 Changes in body composition. Gains fat-free mass (gains less than
men)
 Gain strength
 Increases in VO2 max
 Menstruation (no general pattern concerning ability / performances during
any specific phase of menstrual cycle).
 Menarche (no strong evidence to support delay due to intense training).
 Pregnant athlete - possible risk of fetal hypoxia, fetal hyperthermia, and
reduced carbohydrate supple to the fetus. Properly prescribed exercise
program is required.
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THE FEMALE ATHLETE TRIAD

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• The Female Athlete Triad is a syndrome occurring in physically active girls
and women. Its interrelated components are disordered eating (Anorexia
nervosa, Bulima Nervosa), amenorrhea, and osteoporosis.
• Alone or in combination, Female Athlete Triad disorders can decrease

physical performance and cause morbidity and mortality.
• Physically active girls and women should be educated about the Female
Athlete Triad.
DISCUSSION
• What are the two major eating disorders, and what is the level of risk for elite
female athletes of these eating disorders?
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MEASURING PHYSIOLOGICAL PARAMETERS
• Lactate Analyzer
Flexibility
• Goniometer
• Sit & Reach Test (Unit 7, Level 2, Competency)
VO2
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Respiratory Quotient (RQ)
• RQ is calculated from the ratio:
RQ = CO2 eliminated / O2 consumed
• The body’s capacity to extract energy from food nutrients is estimated from
RQ.
• It reflects the composition of fuels oxidized by the cells during exercise.
RQ
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• When an individual is utilizing100% carbohydrate for energy, R = 1.0. For
fats, R ~ 0.7. At rest and during non maximal exercise, a combination of fats
and carbohydrates (CHO) are utilized as substrate.
• On a mixed diet, R at rest is 0.82. For a starving individual, R may be as low

as 0.70. During maximal exercise, R = 1.0 or greater.
•
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• Thermal Equivalents of Oxygen for the Non-Protein RQ.
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References:
• Williams, M.H. (1998). The Ergogenic Edge. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics
Pub
• Marieb, E.N. (2012). Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology (10th

Edition).Pearson, San Francisco, CA.
• Wilmore, J.H. and Costill, D.L. (2007) Physiology of Sport and Exercise (4th
Edition). Human Kinetics, Champaign, IL.
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FLUID MECHANICS
Fluid plays a vital role in many aspects of everyday life. We drink them, breathe
them, swim in them. They circulate through our bodies and control our weather.
Airplanes fly through them; ships floats in them. A fluid is any substance that can
flow; we use the term for both liquid and gases.
In physical education and athletic activities, the motion of the performer and of the
equipment being used take place in a fluid environment. This environment – the air
in activities like badminton, cycling and golf, the water in scuba diving, and a
combination of air and water in canoeing, rowing and swimming – influences the
performance.
An athlete or object moving through a fluid is affected by the mechanical principles

of hydrostatic pressure (exerted by the weight of the fluid), buoyancy (the force
opposing gravity that acts on objects partially or totally immersed in a fluid), drag
(the force opposing motion through a fluid), and lift (the force acting perpendicularly
to motion that deflects an object from its original pathway. The influence of flow is
different depending on whether the movement is in air or water.
In some cases, like basketball, gymnastics and wrestling, the effects produced by
the fluid environment in which the activities take place are so small that they can be
disregarded in all but the most detailed analyses. In others like badminton, golf and
ski jumping, the effects produced by the fluid environment have an enormous effect
on the performance.
Drag and Lift
When we are moving though a fluid, the individual forces of drag and lift combine to
produce a resultant force. The drag forces are in the direction of travel, and they
oppose or drag against motion. The lift forces are perpendicular to the drag force, as
shown below. Together, these two combine to generate a resultant force.
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Drag and Relative Motion
In most cases, the drag is a ‘drag’ because it’s a

collection of fluid forces that tend to oppose the
action an athlete tries to perform. Drag pushes
pulls and tugs on an athlete. Whatever the
direction, drag forces act in opposition. If athletes
sprint faster, the air will push and pull at them
more.
The three types of drag are surface drag, form

drag, and wave drag. Surface drag is also called skin friction or viscous drag. The
amount of surface drag is determined by the relative motion of object and fluid, the
area of surface exposed to the flow, the roughness of the objects surface, and the
fluid viscosity. Surface drag increases according to the square of the velocity.
The Three Forms of Drag
Form drag is also called shape drag or pressure

drag. The amount of form drag is determined by
the relative motion of object and fluid, the
pressure differential between the leading and
trailing edges of the object, and the amount of
surface acting at the right angle to the flow.
Form drag increases according to the square of
the velocity.
Efforts to reduce form and surface drag as

much as possible occur in many sports in which athletes and their equipment move
at high velocity. In these sports you see body positions and equipments that are
designed to
 Eliminate pushing through the air with a blunt shape that has a large cross
sectional area at right angles to the direction of fluid flow
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 Eliminate lumps, bumps, projections, and rough edges and instead smooth
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out and polish all surfaces that contact the flow of the air; and
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 Eliminate the turbulent wake that occurs at the rear of the athletes or object
where the low pressure occurs
Wave drag occurs at the interface between water and air. The amount of wave drag
is determined by the relative velocity at which the object and the wave meet the
surface area of the object acting at right angle to the wave, and the fluids viscosity.
Wave drag increases according to the cube of the velocity.
Inefficient swimming technique and poor swimming pool designs produces waves. A
top rated swimming pool has specially designed gutters and lane dividers that
absorb waves and stop them from bouncing
and flowing from one lane to the next. This is
one of the criteria to classify a competition
swimming pool as a ‘fast pool’, as this design
reduces the wave drag and thus naturally
allows faster swimming time.
At high velocities, turbulent flow produces a

low pressure wake acting to the rear of an
object or athlete. This low pressure area is
used in sports for drafting, or slipstreaming. Designers working in high velocity
sports such as cycling, downhill skiing, auto and boat racing aim for a streamlined
‘teardrop’ airfoil shape that also have ultrasmooth surfaces.
In cycling time trial, the cyclist sat in an aerodynamic position, with back parallel to
the ground. The lowered head and extended arms in front reduces the frontal area
(and high pressure) to a minimum and help the cyclist simulate an an airfoil shape in
order to cut though the air with the hands and arms leading the way.
How Drag Affects the Flight of Baseballs, Tennis Balls, and Golf Balls.
If you examine what happens to a smooth-surfaced ball

as it travels through the air and what happens to a ball
with seams (like a baseball) or dimples (like a golf ball),
you’ll find some dramatic differences in the way drag
affects the balls. These variations play an important role
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in determining the flight of baseballs, tennis balls, and

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Balls moving through the air are very much affected by form and surface drag.
Increasing the surface drag can reduce the lower-pressure wake to their rear of the
ball: An increase in surface drag can help decrease the balls’s form drag. Dimples
on a golf ball increase its surface drag.
Lift
Athletes and objects are affected by lift forces that depend on the relative motion of
the object and the fluid, the angle of the object relative to the flow of the fluid, the
size of the surface area angled into the fluid flow, and the nature (eg. density) of the
fluid.
Swimmers angle their hands and feet to create lift, which can act as a propulsive
force. Modern research shows that the greatest propulsive force for a swimmer
comes from pulling and pushing back against the water as long as possible in a
direction parallel to the long axis of the swimmer’s body. This propulsive force is
called drag propulsion.
Vortexes
Vortexes are masses of swirling water produced by undulating lashing motions of a

fish’s body and tail. Athletes mimic this action particularly in the dolphin kick of the
butterfly stroke. Vertices generated in this manner are considered to reduce drag
and assist in propulsion. Vortex generators are a series of raised ridges placed
across the surface of full-body and partial-body swimsuits. They are intended to
reduce the form and surface drag of the swimmer particularly when the athlete is
moving below the surface of the water.
A spinning object (eg. a ball)

travelling through the air builds up
high pressure on the side spinning
into the airflow. Low pressure
occurs on the side spinning in the
same direction of the airflow. The
ball is deflected from high pressure
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Common Technique Analysis Approach
In biomechanics of sports, the two most common technique analysis approaches are
the qualitative and quantitative methods.
1.Qualitative Analysis
From a sports biomechanics perspective
• to identify and correct faults in skill execution using a minimum of

measurements
= Qualitative Video Analysis
This method is a systematic watching and thoughtful judgment of the quality of

human movement so as to provide the most proper intervention to pick up sports
performance.
To successfully analyze a movement, the very first step is to formulate one or more
questions regarding the movement. The following general questions might be
included:
1. Is the movement being performed through a suitable range of motion (ROM)?

2. Is the movement being performed with enough force?
3. Is the sequencing of body movements suitable for completing of the skill?
4. Why is the javelin thrower not getting better distance?
Besides, more definite questions might take account of these:
1. Is release of the handball taking place at the instant of full elbow extension?
2. Is there hyper trunk extension taking place during the execution of the shot?
Once one or more questions have been recognized, the following step in analyzing
human movement is to collect data. The most commonly data collected by teachers
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and coaches is qualitative visual or ocular observation data. In order to acquire the
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and viewpoint (s) from which to make the comments. Breaking down a whole
motion of performing a particular skill into phases will provide the teachers or
coaches with a more logical frame by frame study.
2.Quantitative Analysis
• Describing and explaining performance skills using measurement systems in

biomechanics
= Quantitative Video Analysis
The advancement of technology resulted in the ability to record, display and

evaluates dynamic movements both kinematically and kinetically. Quantitative
biomechanical analysis methods employ a wide range of data collection instruments
to observe, capture and evaluate athletes’ performance. These instruments include
high-speed cameras, force platforms, electromyography (EMG) and electro-
goniometers.
High-speed cameras offer teachers, coaches and sports biomechanists especially

with the capability to capture and record complex movements sequence. Once the
sequence of motion is captured, the location of the body markers of the athlete are
eventually converted into coordinates using a digitiser. During digitizing, kinematic
data such as displacements, velocities and accelerations of the recorded motion are
obtained.
Force platforms or force plate are examples of dynamometers normally used

nowadays to measure the ground reaction forces (GRF). The electrical energy
collected in the strain gauge, the transducers in the force plate will then transfer
kinetic energy into electrical energy. This electrical energy is then recorded in an
analogous form of force (Newton).
Electromyography provides information on athletes’ muscular activities by recording

changes in the electrical potential of a muscle during contracting or relaxing. These
signals will record indications of the electrical activity of a particular muscle.
Electro-goniometer provides instantaneous and reliable way of obtaining kinematic

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data on joint angular movements. The data obtained will eventually provide a good
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insight of angular movement characteristics and flexibility of joint segments before
any further diagnosis, rehabilitation or exercise prescription being made.
Qualitative Video Analysis of sports skill:
Introduction
As discussed in Level 1 and 2, there are a number of tools that allow coaches and
athletes to do an analysis on specific technique execution or sporting performance.
One of the easiest tool that coaches can use is digital videos. There are many types
of available digital video cameras in the market. Nowadays, even some handphones
are equipped with cameras that could capture videos as well.
Videoing Procedure:
1. A chalkboard or piece of paper with the name of the new person should be
displayed in front of the camera.
2. A proper number of fingers to indicate the trial number if the movements are
recorded repeatedly.
3. Determine and plan the best angle of a movement to be capture.
4. The plane of any movement will need to be perpendicular to the camera.
5. Lighting should be shown from behind the camera side towards the event.
6. A one meter scaling rod need to be put in the field of view. Once the scaling
rod has been videotape, you cannot adjust the zoom or focus on the camera.
7. The camera should be place at a distance from the subject. The image size
should be as large as possible.
8. Use the manual focus to avoid the camera focusing on an unwanted object in
the background or foreground as the subject moves.
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9. Use a high shutter speed to capture a clear image
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10. As the shutter speed increases, less light is allowed to reach the videotape,
causing the image to turn dark.
11. Spot lights is required to achieve the necessary lighting levels to video
indoors with a high speed shutter.
12. Record at least 2 minutes of videotape prior to videotaping any activity that
you want to analyze. When taping be sure to record plenty of tape prior to
and after the period of interest.
Kinovea – Video Analysis Software
Kinovea is an open source video analysis software

for sports. It is designed and targets primarily for
teachers, coaches, sports scientist or medical
professionals to provide meaningful feedback for their athletes or subjects. It can
also be useful in ergonomics and animation study.
When you first open Kinovea, this is the user interface that you'll see. In general, Kinovea workspace
is divided into five (5) main area:
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Kinovea Workspace. 1: Main Menu, 2: File Explorer, 3: Video, 4: Key images controls, 5: Playback
controls.
1. Main menu
The Main Menu allows you to access the main commands of Kinovea.
2. File explorer
The File Explorer has two tabs, the explorer tree, which is a direct view of your file system, and the
shortcuts tree, which let you bookmark frequently accessed folders.
3. Video
The video loaded is played in the central part of the workspace.
4. Key images controls

The Key Images controls displays drawing tools and thumbnails of key images you have added.
5. Playback controls
The Playback controls allow you to set the working zone and control the video.
Capturing and editing procedure
The video capture interface allows you to capture Digital Video and save it as a
movie file on your computer. The movies can be trimmed to remove unwanted
footage or compressed to speed up transmission over the Internet. The interface is
intuitive yet powerful enough to give you the flexibility you need to deal with different
formats and hardware specifications
Using the Capture Screen
The capture screen allows you to receive the live stream from your camera directly
in Kinovea. You can use it to record videos to your hard drive for later analysis. The
delay on the live stream allows you to perform self coaching, and unattended visual
feedback. You can also stop the live feed and browse the recent action.
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1. Selecting the capture screen
To start using the capture feature, simply open a capture screen by clicking the
Capture Screen button on the main toolbar.
If you have a camera connected to your computer you should start seeing its images
right away. If no camera is found, an error message will pop-up. Check that the
camera is correctly plugged into the computer and switched on. The camera itself
can be either in record or playback mode. If you have several cameras connected,
the first one will be selected automatically.
2. Supported devices
Kinovea capture screen supports the following type of cameras or devices:
Type of camera Typical connection

DV camcorder Firewire (IEEE1394)
HDV camcorder Firewire (IEEE1394)
Webcam USB
Network camera¹ Ethernet, Wifi
Analog-to-digital converter Firewire (IEEE1394)
HDMI capture card or box Internal card, USB 3.0
¹ Cameras streaming to MJPEG or JPEG streams are supported.
Current camcorders based on hard drive, DVD or Flash memories are often not
capable of streaming directly to the computer. Their USB cable can only be used for
post filming transfer.
3. Drawing tools
Many tools available in the Playback screen are also available in the Capture
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screen. They can be used to create reference frames and alignment guides for live
analysis.
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The drawings will appear on the videos and images you record through the capture
screen
een recording function.
4. Pausing capture
To pause the live feed from the camera use the play/pause button:
This will freeze the capture of images. To start capturing again, click the same
button.
Recording videos and images from live capture
You can record still images and videos of the live stream of the camera.
An important aspect of this function is that you always record what is shown on
screen (And not necessarily the action that the camera is currently filming). This
means that drawings will also appear on the image or video, and if you apply a
delay, it is the delayed action that will be recorded.
1. Recording still images
To record a still image use the Save image button

The image, including drawings, will be instantly saved in the configured directory
(see Saving directories below).
2. Recording videos
To record a video use the Start recording video button
The recording button will change in aspect, to stop recording the video, use the
same button.
After the recording completes, a thumbnail of the

recorded video will appear under the main image.
You can perform some operations on the recorded
file from the context menu of this thumbnail.
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Play video:: adds a Playback screen and loads the

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capture screen.
Hide:: hides the thumbnail without deleting the file.
Delete file:: sends the recorded file to the trash bin.
3. Saving directories
You can specify the he location of
saved images from the global
preferences dialog.Use menu
Options > Preferences…,, then go
to the Capture tab and the
general tab. Change the settings
to your preferred locations.
4. Image and video format
You can change the format of the saved images or video from the global
preferences dialog. Use menu Options > Preferences…,, go to Capture tab and the
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general tab. Select a format in the Image or Video format list.

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For video, the encoding used will be MPEG-4

MPEG 4 ASP (equivalent to Xvid or DivX).
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Observing and Showing
After we familiarize ourselves with Kinovea’s graphical user interface main working
area, now its time to starts with using the software to help the coaches to observe,
show, measure, compare and publish our work.
Watching videos
Opening and playing a video

Use the file explorer to navigate to the folder where your video is stored. The thumbnails panel, on
the right, displays the files that can be opened for the selected folder.
Double click on a thumbnail to open the video in a Player screen.
Once the video is opened, launch the

playback with the player controls or
browse to an arbitrary location with the
navigation cursor.
You can also use the menu File

> Open or drag a file from the
Windows Explorer to Kinovea
to open the corresponding file.
Slowing down playback speed

In order to better study the motion, slow down playback speed using the speed
cursor
To go back to 100% speed, double-

double
click on the percentage value.
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Observing Motion
Specifying a working zone for analysis

With the help of the selection cursors and set a small working zone around
the motion to observe
Once the working zone is short enough,

Kinovea will switch to Analysis mode.
mode In this
mode the frames composing the video are
extracted to memory for faster access. The
default duration is 12 seconds
Automatic switch to analysis mode
Breaking down motion
Analysis mode makes the video update in real time when using the navigation
cursor. This gives
s you total control on the timeline.
You can also use the mouse wheel to move a few frames forward or backward.
Using the magnifier
Kinovea has a zoom tool. This tool displays a small window that zooms in on the
portion of the screen where you have positioned the cursor. The zoom window can
also be stretched and repositioned
repositioned.
Click the magnifier button in the
drawings tool bar
Hover your mouse on the image:

the magnified zone shows up in the
top left corner of the image.
Click on image to temporary fix the

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source zone. Four little corners are

displayed around the source zone to resize it.
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Move the source zone to focus on another detail of the action. Move the
magnification result window to avoid hiding an interesting part of the image.
To change the magnification factor, right click on either the source zone or the
magnification result. Choose one of the other magnification factors available, from
1.5x to 2.5x of the original size of the source zone.
Using overlay grids

The overlay grid could be used to provide a point of reference on the video
1. Using the flat grid
Toggle the menu Image > Grid. A grid is then

displayed on the image.
The flat grid allows you to make observations on a

plane strictly perpendicular to the camera axis.
Move the grid by drag and drop and resize it using
the circular handles at corners.
Note: The number of divisions can be adjusted by right

clicking the grid then using the Configure menu.
2. Using the perspective grid
Toggle the menu Image > Perspective

Grid.
Use the circular handles at the corners to

map the grid on a rectangular plane,
visible or virtual.
For instance place the grid on a plane that

would be perpendicular to the ground to
make a visualization guide.
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To expand the grid while
le keeping the mapping on the same virtual plane, hold the
CTRL key down during the drag and drop. The number of divisions is also adjustable
through the context menu Configure.
Note: You can also toggle the perspective grid display with the dedicated button on the tool bar of the
player screen
Commenting and drawing on key images
A Key Image is a time position of special interest. It could be a reference image you
would like to enrich with comments, a technical pose you want to highlight with lines
orr arrows, a key point in the motion flow, etc.
Manipulating Key Images is done with the dedicated tool bar under the main video
display.
1. Adding Key Images
Move to the position of interest and click the Add Key

Image button
The Key Images toolbar unfolds and a thumbnail of the

current image appears. Each image from the video can
be turned into a Key Image.
To remove an image from the Key Image list, use its

close button in the upper right corner of the thumbnail:
2. Adding a comment to a key image

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When the video is stopped on an
existing Key Image, the Key Image
The image cannot be
display ed. Your
computer may not
hav e enough memory
thumbnail has a blue contour. Use
to open the image, or
the image may hav e
the Show Comment button to

been corrupted.
Restart y our
computer, and then
open the file again. If
the red x still appear
display the comments window.
By default, the title zone is filled

with the time marker of the image.
Change the title as you see fit and
add
dd a comment in the bottom zone
You can move and resize the

comment window for easier editing.
3. Adding drawings
Click on any of the following drawing tool button of

your choice and then click anywhere in the image. A
drawing is added. After a drawing has been created,
you can move and resize it. You can change the
color and style of the drawing using right-click
right and
Configure menu or by double clicking it.
Label
Double click the label to edit the text.
You can resize the label by dragging the lower right corner away or by changing the font size in
the configuration dialog.
Pencil (Free-hand
hand drawing)
Allows you to draw free-hand
hand drawing on the Key
Images by using your mouse
Line and arrows

To turn a simple line into an arrow (or double
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arrow),
right-click
click the line and use the Color and
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size…menu.
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Circle Cross Marker
Angle
The Circle tool allows certain
areas of interest to be
highlighted or emphasized
while the Cross Marker
features on the other hand,
allows a certain point or
points on the Key Image to
be tracked manually.
The Angle tools would enable

the coaches and athletes to
measure any angle of interest.
Note: Angle measurement is only meaningful when the angle measured

meas ured is on a plane perpendicular
to the camera axis.
4. Removing drawings
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If we need to remove a drawing (labels, circle, angles) on the Key Image, right
right-click
it and choose Delete.. When a Key Image is deleted, all the drawings that were
added to it are also deleted.
Measurements
A number of tools are available in Kinovea to enhance your analysis of a person’s

technique. These tools allow you to draw over a movie to highlight points of interest
and measure key variables such as distances, speeds and angles, including angles
from a vertical or horizontal reference line
Your analysis can be saved as a movie file as you go. It can then be played back,
saved to disk, CD, or sent over the Internet. The saved file incorporates the movie
with your drawings, measurements and comments that you add.
Measuring time
1. Adding a Stopwatch
Click on the Stopwatch button of the drawings tool bar
Click anywhere on the image to add the Stopwatch. The

Stopwatch will be visible from this image forward.
You can resize the Stopwatch label by dragging the lower right
corner away or by changing the font size in the configuration
dialog.
2. Measuring a timeframe
As long as you do not start the counter, the
Stopwatch displays zero (0:00:00:00)
To measure the duration of an event:

Move to the start of the event, right-click
right the
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Stopwatch and use the menu Start Stopwatch.

Stopwatch
Move to the end of the event, right-click

right the
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Stopwatch and use the menu Stop Stopwatch.

Stopwatch
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The last value displayed on the Stopwatch represent the event duration. This value
stays visible after the Stopwatch has stopped.
You can hide the Stopwatch after the measured event, use the Hide Stopwatch
menu. The stopwatch will then be only visible between the frame you added it and
this last frame. To permanently delete the Stopwatch, right
right-click
click it and use menu
Delete Stopwatch menu.
Measuring distances
1. Line length
Length measurements are done

through the line drawing tool.
You can set the physical length of a

visible segment by adding a line over
the segment, right clicking the line and
using the menu Calibrate Measure…
This effectively tells Kinovea how to relate pixels to real world units. Each line can
act as your reference
nce segment.
Note: When you change the calibration of a line, all other lines on all other key images of the video
are impacted.
Comparing and synchronizing two videos
Kinovea also have a feature that allows comparison and synchronization of two
video files. This feature would be beneficial to coaches who would want to compare
their athletes with model athletes, between two athletes or comparison of
performance over time.
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1. Opening two videos simultaneously

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Prepare the workspace using the menu View > Two Playback Screens.Screens Open
successively both videos you would like to compare. The lower panel holds a new
set of controls that will act upon both videos simultaneously.
The two
videos can be
controlled
independently
from one another
using the
controls placed
right under each
video.
2.
Synchronizing two videos
Move within each video until you get to a common reference event (e.g: jump take
off, jump landing, racket/ball impact, hand/ball impact, etc.). Click on the
synchronize button . The videos are now synchronized on the event.
Note: In each video, times are now relative to the synchronisation point. The
synchronization point is visible in the three timelines as a small red marker
marker:
Use the common navigation buttons for frame by fram

frame and as well as the
common navigation bar to compare key positions that led to the common event. Use
the common Play button for a dynamic analysis of the differences in the videos. You
can use this function in combination with the slow motion function, in order to
improve comparison quality.
Note: When you slow down one video, the other will also be slowed down accordingly.
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If you browse within one video independently using its individual controls, you can force the
other video to match the new position
positi by using the F9 key. To change the synchronization point,
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browse each video independently using its own playback controls, then use thesynchronizebutton
again.
Tracking objects or body joints
Kinovea have a feature that allows tracking of an object (or a body joint) that could
give an insight of a movement, from start to the finish. That could give a better
understanding on the path taken in a motion.
Tracking workflow
The steps involved in tracking an object (or a body joint) in

Kinovea are the following:
 Right click the object to track and use the menu

Track Path.
 Move the video forward using the Play button, the
Next Frame button or the Mouse Wheel.
 Adjust point location when necessary during the
Path creation.
 To finish tracking, right-click and use the menu End
Path Edition.
Tracking is a semi-automatic process. The points location is computed automatically

but you can adjust them manually at any time.
Publishing
After the coaches are done with using video for technical feedback and analyses
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session, coaches could easily publish the images and videos used in Kinovea for
archiving, instructional and training purposes for both personal and athletes as well.
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Saving images
Any image you have on screen in Kinovea can be saved as a .jpg file. This includes
all drawings and text. These images are ideal for preparing reports or assignments
1. Saving the current image

Click the Snapshot button from the export tool bar to launch the save dialog.
Note: All visible

ible elements will be exported on the image. Drawings,
Stopwatches, Paths, Grids, Magnifier, etc.
2. Saving a Sequence of Images

Use the Sequence button from the export toolbar to save a sequence of images
taken at regular intervals.
Using the frequency selector (indicated by the red arrow
on the following snapshot), choose the time interval
between each exported image.
Click the Save

button to choose
the file name.
Images filenames
will be
automatically
created from the
name you specify
and a suffix
corresponding to
the position in the
video. For example,
indicating "image"
in the saving dialog
may yield the
following series of
files:
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image-001.jpg, image-002.jpg,
002.jpg, image-003.jpg,
image etc.
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Note: The suffix format depends on the current time representation.
representatio You can also export only the Key
Images using the Export Key Images only option. In this case all the Key Images will be exported,
without taking into account the frequency specified.
Saving videos
Other than saving images, you can also save videos using Kinovea. You can access
the Video saving dialog by using menu File > Save… or using the Save Video button
of the export toolbar.
If you have added key images, tracked objects, or added

stopwatches, you will get to an intermediate dialog with
more options:
1. Saving videos
When using the saving dialog, the selected working zone will be saved to the file.
The current slow motion value will be applied to the output video.
The following formats are supported as output: MKV (Matroska), MP4, AVI.
Note: When using the option Combine video and key images data into the file, the only supported
format is MKV (Matroska).
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2. Combining video and drawings
When key images data were added to the video, the default saving option is
Combine video and key images data into the file.file. This option will create a video with
the original images untouched (apart from re re-compression),
compression), while the key images
data will be saved
ved in a different stream inside the file.
You will be able to open the file back in Kinovea and modify drawings, stopwatches,
paths, and comments. If you open the resulting file in a third-party
third party software, only the
original images will be displayed, drawings
drawings and comments will be ignored.
This option may be used to share your analysis data with another Kinovea user or for archiving
purposes, when it is desirable to keep only one file.
3. Painting drawings on the video
To export the video with the drawings,

drawings, stopwatches and paths painted directly on
images, use the optionPermanently
Permanently paint key images data on the video
video. When using
this option, the written comments you may have added to the key images are lost.
This option may be used to export video to people

people not using Kinovea or to upload to Internet
video sharing sites.
4. Saving the video only
To simply save the raw video without the drawings whatsoever, use the Save video
onlyoption.
This option may be used when you cut a long video into smaller pieces for later analysis
‘” When a person feels that they got what they deserve because that’s what they
earned - that’s Pride “
“ I will not say I failed 1,000 times , I will say that I discovered 1,000 ways that
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can cause failure “

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Physical ConditioningSPKK Level III
 Periodization Revisited
 Exercise Prescriptions
 Assessment and Monitoring
 Speed and Agility
 Power Training
 Olympic Lifts
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Periodization Revisited
• Periodization is the process of the dividing the annual plan into smaller
phases of training in order to allow a program to be set into more manageable
periods and to ensure a correct peaking for the main competitions of the year”
(Bompa, 1983).
• Periodization aims to peak the athlete whilst avoiding the over trained state.
Example of an Annual Plan
The Preparatory Phase has a ‘General’ (GPP) and ‘Specific’ (SPP) sub phase and
the Competitive period is also further divided into a Pre-Competition (PCP) and
Competition Phase (CP)
How to plan?
• FIRST
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Set LONG TERM goal and plan BACKWARDS from there

• SECOND
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SELECT & CLASSIFY the main comp(s) for that period/year
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• Determine the needs of your sport and competition and compare your
athletes.
• What are you planning for? Know your objectives and goals and plan how to
get there.
• Test the athletes to assess their present training status. Note that athletes
need to be periodically evaluated.
Common Mistakes During Planning
• Tendency to view periodization as ‘load prescription’ and not the holistic

planning process
• Short term focus
• Allowing pressure to dictate the planning process -> plan poorly or no plan at
all!
• Failure to plan for recovery and regeneration.
Exercise Prescriptions
• Before we start to prescribe any training programs to the athletes, we need to

do NEEDS ANAYLSIS (Level II)
• Learn all you can about the sport
– Rules and regulations
– Energy system requirements
– Physical requirements
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– Injury?
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Guidelines For Exercise Prescriptions
Strength and Power Sports

• Focus is to maximize strength and/or power output
• What about:
– Strength endurance?
– Power endurance?
• Should focus on multi joint exercises
– Squats, bench press, cleans, rows, etc
• Plyometric exercises can be added based on level of athlete and/or phase of
training
– SJ, CMJ, DJ, bounding, etc
• For strength: low reps (2-4), high % 1RM
• For power: higher reps (6-8), low-mod % 1RM
• Emphasis/goal changes depending on the phase you are on
Team Sports
• Multi factorial
– Mixed energy system
– Mixed physical parameters
• Position dependent
– Deferent requirements based on position of play (striker vs. midfielder
vs. defender vs. keeper)
• Need to develop all physical parameters to a certain degree
• Parameters to be developed:
– Strength/strength endurance
– Power/power endurance
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– Aerobic/anaerobic endurance
– Agility/speed
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– Flexibility
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Racquet Sports
• Similar to team sports
• Need to develop multiple parameters and energy system
• Aerobic endurance is crucial!
– Ability to last 5 sets of play (squash)
– Ability to recover after a long rally
• Need to address muscular imbalances between left and right side of body
High Skill/CNS Activity Sport

• Physical requirements not as high as other sports, but still important
• Focus on aerobic endurance and muscular endurance
• For sport like shooting and archery, balance and stability is important to
reduce postural sway
• Isometric strength is also important in these sports, as precision is key
Combative/Form Sports
• Need to develop multiple parameters and energy system
• Combative sports require speed, power and REACTIBILITY!
– Examples: TKD, Karate Kumite, Silat Olahraga
• Form sports emphasis on movement execution qualities.
– Examples: Wushu, Karate Kata, AG, RG
• Anaerobic/aerobic endurance is crucial.
– Ability to execute quality movement at/above anaerobic threshold
prolonged period (wushu)
– Ability to recover fast for next round of fight (kumite)
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Assessment &Monitoring
Why do we need to assess?

• To identify areas that need improvement
• For goal setting
• To monitor athletes’ progress
• To measure the effectiveness of the conditioning program
• Provide feedback to the athletes/coach(es)
Types of Assessment/Test
• Lab test
– Conducted in a laboratory
– Controlled environment
– May not reflect the actual condition of the sport
– Ex. VO2max test, Wingate test
• Field test
– Conducted away from the lab (gym, training ground etc)
– using minimal/inexpensive equipment
– Ex. 1RM squat/bench press, vertical jump, shuttle run
Validity and Reliability

• Validity
– The degree to which the test is measuring what it is supposed to
measure
– Ex. 1RM squat is a valid test for lower body max strength
• Reliability
– The measure of consistency or repeatability of a test
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• Tests chosen must be VALID and RELIABLE!

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Sequence of Test
When choosing testing battery, attention must be given to the sequence of test. This
is to ensure that athletes are not too fatigue early in the testing session thus
affecting the testing result at the end
• Non-fatiguing test (ex. weight, height, flexibility)

• Agility test (ex. T-test, pro agility test)
• Power and strength test (ex. 1RM squat/bench press, vertical jump)
• Local muscular endurance test (ex. Bridging)
• Anaerobic capacity test (ex. 400m run, repeated sprints)
• Aerobic capacity test (ex. Bleep test, yoyo intermittent)
Examples Assessments/Tests
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T-Test
• This test requires the athlete to touch a series of cones set out in “T” shape
whilst side stepping and running as fast as possible.
– Have the athletes warm up properly before starting the test
– Place 3 cones 5 metres apart on a straight line (A, B, C)and a 4th cone
(D) is placed 10 metres from the middle cone (B) so that the 4 cones
form a 'T'.
– The athlete stands at the cone (D) at the base of the “T” facing the “T”
– Coach gives the signal to 'Go', starts the stopwatch and the athlete
commences the test
– The athlete runs to and touches the middle cone (B) , side steps 5
metres to the left cone (A) and touches it, side step 10 metres to the
far cone (C) and touches it, side step 5 metres back to the middle cone
(B) and touches it and then runs 10 metres backwards to the base of
the 'T' and touches that cone (D)
– The coach stops the stopwatch and records the time when the athlete
touches the cone at the base of the “T”
– MACKENZIE, B. (2000) 'T' Drill Test [WWW] Available from:
http://www.brianmac.co.uk/tdrill.htm [Accessed 19/4/2012]
Yo Yo Intermittent Recovery Test
• This test requires the athlete to run 20m in time with a beep from a CD
recording. The athlete must place one foot on or beyond the 20m marker at
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– The tester measure out a 20 metre and 5m section and mark with
cones (A, B and C)
– When signalled by the CD the athlete runs from cone C to cone B
– The athlete then has a 10 second active recovery by jogging to cone A
and back to cone B
– The athlete continues running between the cones as signalled by the
CD
– The tester keeps a record of each completed lap
– A warning is given when the athlete does not complete a successful
out and back shuttle (cone B to C and back to B) in the allocated time,
the next time the athlete does not complete a successful shuttle the
test is stopped
– The tester records the total distance completed
MACKENZIE, B. (2008) Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test [WWW] Available

from: http://www.brianmac.co.uk/yoyoirt.htm [Accessed 19/4/2012]
Sit and Reach Test

• The objective of this test is to monitor the development of the athlete's hip and
trunk flexibility
– The athlete sits on the floor with their back and head against a wall,
legs fully extended with the bottom of their feet against the box
– The athlete places one hand on top of the other, reaches forward to
the ruler whilst keeping their back and head against the wall
– The tester adjusts the ruler so that the tip of the athlete’s fingers just
touch the edge of the ruler and secures the ruler with tape
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– The athlete slowly bends forward and reaches along the top of the
ruler as far as possible
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– The assistant records the distance reached (cm)
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Normative data for the Sit & Reach test
• The following table is for adults under 35 years of age (McArdle et al. 2000. p.
562):
• The following table is for adults between 35 & 49 years of age (McArdle et al.
2000. p. 562):
MACKENZIE, B. (2003) Modified Sit and Reach Test [WWW] Available from:
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http://www.brianmac.co.uk/sitreachmod.htm [Accessed 19/4/2012]

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Vertical Jump Test
• To assess athlete’s lower body power

– The athlete chalks the end of his/her finger tips
– The athlete stands side onto the wall, keeping both feet remaining on
the ground, reaches up as high as possible with one hand and marks
the wall with the tips of the fingers (M1)
– The athlete from a static position jumps as high as possible and marks
the wall with the chalk on his fingers (M2)
– The tester measures and records the distance between M1 and M2
– The athlete repeats the test 3 times
– The assistant calculates the average of the recorded distances and
uses this value to assess the athlete’s performance
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The following normative data (Chu 1996) has been obtained from the results of
tests conducted with world class athletes.
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The following are national norms for 16 to 19 year olds (Davis 2000)
The following table is for 15 to 16 year olds (Beashel 1997)

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The following table is for adult athletes (20+) (Arkinstall 2010)
Speed & Agility
Agility
• The ability to change direction in a efficient and effective manner, without
losing speed, strength and power
• Requires a combination of:
– Relative strength
– Balance
– Speed
– Coordination
– Technique
• Base of support (BOS)
– Important for balance, stability and proper change of direction
• Center of gravity (COG)
– Keep COG close of BOS to increase stability & the opportunity to
change direction
Training for agility
• Acceleration
– Increase in speed in any direction
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– COG must move away from BOS to initiate movement

– Involved concentric contraction
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• Deceleration
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– Decrease in speed in any direction
– COG move closer or behind BOS
– Involved eccentric contraction
• Stop
– A brief absence of movement in any direction
– COG is stopped in a position over the BOS that sets up the re-
acceleration
– Allow for proper balance and change of direction to occur
– Involved isometric contraction
• Re-acceleration
Basic techniques
• Forward sprint
• Backpedal
• Shuffle
• Carioca
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Examples of drills for agility:
• 40m square carioca
• 20m square shuffle

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• Z pattern run
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V drills
• Agility ladder drills

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Speed
• The skills and abilities needed to achieve high movement velocity
• Speed development is influenced by:
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– Stride length
– Stride frequency
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– Strength
– Power
– Functional flexibility
– Acceleration
– Proper techniques
Developing your speed

• All speed training must be done when the body is fully recovered from
previous training
• Proper sprinting technique must be taught to and mastered by the athletes
through execution of many perfect drill repetitions over a long period of time
• All sets and reps within a speed workout must be accompanied by adequate
rest. (1:4 work to rest ratio is recommended
• All speed workouts should be preceded by a dynamic warm up and flexibility
routines
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Examples of Speed Drills
Standing Stationery Arm Swing
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Ankling
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Ladder Speed Run
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Run Through
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Falling Start
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Power Training
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• Amount of work done over time
• Power= (force x distance)/time
• POWER = Force x Velocity
• Power can be increase by:
– Heavy strength training (80-90% 1RM)
– Explosive type training (30-50% 1RM)
• Olympic lifts
• Loaded jumps
• Plyometric
Force-Velocity Curve
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• Heavy ST, although technically can improve power, is not a preferred method
due to the slow speed of contraction
• Explosive type training, using moderate load and fast contraction speed will
elicit greater response in power development
Plyometric
• Refers to activities that enable a muscle to reach max force in the shortest
time possible
• It is a quick, powerful movement using prestretch or countermovement, that
involves Stretch-shortening cycle (SSC)
• The purpose of plyometric is to increase the power of a movement by using
both the elastic components of the muscle and tendon and the stretch reflex
Stretch-Shortening Cycle
• SSC uses the energy storage capabilities of the series elastic component and
stimulation of the stretch reflex to facilitate a maximal increase in muscle
recruitment in a minimal amount of time
• 3 phases of SSC:
– Eccentric: stretch of agonist muscle
– Amortization: time between ECC and CON
– Concentric: shortening of agonist muscle
Lower Body Plyometric

• Jumps in place (ex. Squat jump, tuck jump)
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• Standing jumps (ex. Vertical jump, jump over barriers)

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• Multiple hops and jumps
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• Bounds
• Box drills
• Depth jumps
Upper Body Plyometric

Limited exercises
• Plyo push up
• Various med ball chest throws
• Bench throws
Factors Affecting Intensity Of Plyometric

• Points of contact (double leg vs. single leg)
• Speed
• Height of the jump/drill
• Body weight (heavy vs. light)
Plyometric Volume
• Measured by foot contacts
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Olympic Lifts
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• Types of Olympic lifts:
– Cleans
– Snatch
– Clean and jerk
– And variations
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Functional Training
• Can be described as ‘purposeful training’
• It prepares an athlete for his/her sport by teaching them how to handle their
own bodyweight in all planes of movements
• Intentionally incorporates balance and proprioception into training
• It is a system that encourages training of balance and the balancing of
training
• Emphasis is on attaining the balance between pushing and pulling strength
and between knee dominant hip ext (quads, gluts) and hip dominant hip ext
(hams, gluts)
Designing a functional strength training program

• Learn basic exercises 1st. Master the basic movement before progressing to
more challenging exercises
• Start with simple body weight exercises
• Progress from simple to complex
Functional training tools

• Stability ball
• Half foam rollers
• Core board
• Slide board
• Airex mats
• Agility ladder
• Fitter board
• Medicine balls
• Weight vests
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The Functional Continuum
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Michael Boyle: Functional Training for Sports
References
• Chu, D.A. (1996) Explosive Power and Strength. Champaign: Human Kinetics
• Davis, B. et al. (2000) Physical Education and the study of sport. 4th ed.
Spain: Harcourt. p. 123
• Beashel,P. and TAYLOR, J. (1997) The World of Sport Examined. Croatia:
Thomas Nelson and Sons. p. 57
• Arkinstall, M et al. (2010) VCE Physical Education 2. Malaysia: Macmillian.
p.248
• McArdle, W. et al. (2000) Essentials of Exercise Physiology. 2nd ed.
Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
• Beachle, T.R. & Earle, R.W. (Ed) (2008) Essentials of Strength and
Conditioning Champaign: Human Kinetics
• Boyle, M. (2004) Functional Training for Sports. Champaign: Human Kinetics
• Brown, L.E & Ferrigno, V.A. (2005) Training for Speed, Agility and Quickness.
Champaign: Human Kinetics
• http://www.nsca-lift.org
Three Sentences for getting Success.

KNOW MORE THAN OTHERS
WORK MORE THAN OTHERS
EXPECT LESS THAN OTHERS
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6.1 Meal/Menu Planning
Meeting energy and nutrients need is very crucial for athletes' overall health and
athletic performance. Athletes need to have knowledge on how to eat well
because it will improve athletes' endurance performance, exercise intensity and
recovery from exercise. A good training diet must meet and balance the following
goals:
a) To promote an enjoyment of food and the opportunity to take part in social

eating occasions.
b) To keep the athlete healthy – now and long into their retirement.
c) To get the athlete ‘in shape’ – with body mass (BM) and body fat levels that
are good for performance.
d) To provide adequate fuel for training sessions.
e) To meet all requirements for protein, vitamins and minerals, including any
increase in requirements that results from heavy training.
f) To ensure the athlete is well-hydrated.
g) To promote recovery after training sessions.
h) To ensure the athlete practices and fine-tunes competition eating strategies,
particularly pre-event eating @ intake during events
A proper dietary plan can supply adequate nutrition for athletes following meal
planning principles of:
a) Adequacy – provide sufficient energy and nutrients.

b) Balance - Consume a number of different foods in appropriate proportion to
each other. Calorie intake and energy expenditure should be balanced to
maintain a healthy weight and body composition.
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c) Calorie control - Energy balance is essential for maintenance of lean muscle

mass, immune and reproductive function and optimal athletic performance.
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d) Nutrient density - Large amount of nutrients in a food with a small amount of
calories.
e) Moderation - In consuming foods that are not nutrient dense, athlete should
not eat too little or too much of any one food or nutrient.
f) Variety of food according to the guidelines given from the Malaysian Food
Pyramid.
6.1.1 Strategies in menu planning.

a) Generally, based on macronutrients percentage of CHO (> 55%),
protein (12-15%) and fat (< 30%).
b) Specifically, based on gram/kg body weight/ day for CHO & protein
according to types and duration of training session.
c) To ensure food served are high CHO, calorie, vitamins and minerals
throughout the day.
d) Cooking methods – boil, stir fry, bake, limit the usage of fats / oil and
sodium.
e) Free flow of fluids – mineral water, sports drink, fruit juices & cordial at
the dining hall.
For calculation on how to determine meal / serving size according to athlete’s

individual requirements on energy and macronutrients will be explained in
detail in powerpoint presentation and case study activity.
6.1.2 Guides to planning meals for athletes
The basic diet and what is eaten at times of strenuous sports activity are
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pieces in the jigsaw puzzle of performance capability. Those who understand

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athletic effort and provide it with what it needs immediately before, during and
after the performance. Nutrition in sport is one piece of the jigsaw, one among
the many elements that affect athletic capability. In addition to nutrition,
training, motivation and physical constitution also play an essential part. For
both professional and recreational athletes, a normal, balanced diet is the
foundation for optimum performance. The most important aspect of an
athlete’s diet is that it follows the basic guidelines for healthy eating.The food
pyramid serves as a basis for planning a healthy, well-balanced diet, gives
the nutrients required for athletic performance, and as an extra bonus, saves
the money that might otherwise be spent on energy bars or supplements.
The glycemic index (GI) is a scale that categorizes the glycemic response of
a carbohydrate or other type of food. The concept of GI has been widely
recognized as a reliable classification of foods according to their postprandial
glycemic effects, and it has received attention in a number of fields in
medicine. While, application of GI in sport nutrition getting more substantial
attention because of its relevance to postprandial blood glucose, insulin
responses, glycogen recovery, load and exercise metabolism.
Higher GI foods will raise blood sugar more quickly and to a greater extent
than lower GI foods. Higher blood sugar means that more insulin will be
secreted, pulling the glucose into working muscles and organs providing them
with energy. Following exercise, a high GI food will lead to greater storage
and replacement of glycogen (the storage form of glucose) in the muscles
and liver.
Prior to exercise, consuming low to moderate GI foods will steadily infuse the
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blood stream with needed energy. In order to sustain energy and blood
glucose levels during exercise, periodic ingestion of high GI foods will keep
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blood glucose at adequate levels in order to maintain blood glucose level.
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And, following exercise high GI foods are preferred in order to maximally
replace the glycogen stores that were utilized during the event. The figure
below indicates changes in blood glucose concentration over time after
ingestion of three different types of CHO representing sugars from high,
moderate and low GI categories.
Tables below show some example of GI values of different types of sugar and some
Malaysian local foods as well as the recommendation on when to ingest those
related food / beverages.
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PRE-TRAINING GI FOOD
LOW GI MODERATE GI
Curry puff1 Nasi lemak1
Red bean pau 2 Fried rice1
White bread with peanut Doughnut1
butter spread 3
Apple / carrot /orange Lotus seed pau 2
/pineapple / tomato juice 4
White bread with pineapple
Chapati 4
jam3
Pasta 4 White bread with margarine &
Source: sugar3
1 – Nik Shanita S (2004).
2 – Lee SY (2005) Apple / banana muffin 4
3 – Nor Muaiza AM (2005)
4 – Foster-Powell et al. (2002) Banana 4
Muesli bar4
Basmati rice 4
PRE-TRAINING SPORTS DRINK
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HYPOTONIC ISOTONIC
Mineralwater 100 plus / 100 Plus Power / 100 Plus Activ
Drinkscontain:
- Less than 4 g of sugar / 100 ml (4%) Gatorade
+ a pinch of salt(sodium chloride)
Powerade
PowerBar Endurance
Drinkscontain:
-Less than 4 - 8 g of sugar / 100 ml
(4-8%) + a pinch of salt(sodium chloride)
DURING TRAINING GI FOOD
MODERATE GI
Doughnut1
Lotus seed pau2
White bread with pineapple jam3
White bread with margarine & sugar3
Apple / banana muffin4
Banana4
Muesli bar4
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DURING TRAINING SPORTS DRINK

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ISOTONIC
100 plus / 100 Plus Power / 100 Plus Activ
Gatorade
Powerade
Power Bar Endurance
Drinks contain:
- Less than 4 - 8 g of sugar / 100 ml
(4-8%) + a pinch of salt (sodium chloride)
POST-TRAINING GI FOOD
HIGH GI
Fried rice noodle1
Fried macaroni1
Roti canai & dhal1
Sardine sandwich1
Chicken curry pau2
White rice5
Fragrance rice5
White /wholemeal bread without spread4
Cornflakes / breakfast cereal4
Potato4
Source:
5 – Lee MC (2005)
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POST-TRAINING @ RECOVERY SPORTS DRINKS
HYPERTONIC
Teh tarik
Livita Go / Livita X
Red Bull
Long Jack Gold
Shaklee Performance
Drinks contain:
- more than 8 g of sugar / 100 ml
( > 8%) + a pinch of salt (sodium chloride)
Glycemic Index of Various Carbohydrates (sugars)
Glucose 100
Fructose 12
Sucrose 65
Lactose 43
Honey 48
Orange juice 57
Soda 63
References
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Burke LM, Collier GR, Hargreaves M. Muscle glycogen storage after prolonged
exercise: effect of the glycemic index of carbohydrate feeding. (1993). J Appl
Physiol. 75:1019-1023.
Sherman, W.M. (1991). Carbohydrate feedings before and after exercise. In: D.R.
Lamb and M.H. Williams (eds.) Perspectives in Exercise Science and Sports
Medicine, Vol. 4: Ergogenic: Enhancement of Performance in Exercise and Sport.
Indianapolis: Benchmark Press, pp. 1-34.
Online document at: http://www.glycemicindex.
6.2 Nutrition For Travelling Athletes
Travelling away from home for training and competition is standard practice for most
elite and recreational athletes. Unfortunately, the disruptions and distractions of a
new environment, changes in schedule and exposure to different foods can
significantly affect usual eating habits. Major nutritional challenges faced by athletes
while travelling include:
 Achieving carbohydrate and protein requirements

 Meeting daily vitamin and mineral requirements
 Balancing energy intake
 Maintaining adequate hydration
 Food safety
It is essential that strategies are put in place to minimise the impact of travel on an
athlete's food intake. Whether an athlete is travelling overseas or on a long local bus
trip, the key to successful eating while on the move is planning and preparation.
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6.2.1 Strategies to minimize the impact of travelling

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a. Plan Ahead
A general plan consisting of where, when and what the athlete is planning to
eat on each day should be constructed around the anticipated daily
schedule. It is important to keep foods and meal times as similar as possible
to the usual daily routine at home.
b. Research the Destination
Food patterns at the destination should be investigated as thoroughly as

possible before leaving home:
 Are all important foods available?

 Is the accommodation self-catering or will it be necessary to rely on
restaurants or takeaways?
 What are the hygiene and food safety risks?
The internet, travel agencies, embassies, competition organizers or other

athletes who have travelled to the destination before can be used to gain
information.
c. Choose Your Catering Style
i. Self-Catering
Cooking skills, budget and access to shops will determine the meals
that can be served. The availability of food at local shops, the cooking
and storage facilities and available utensils need to be investigated
before leaving home. Ideally, the menu should be planned in
advance. Useful items to pack when self-catering includes a can
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opener, chopping knife, extra utensils and storage containers for

leftovers. For some locations, power cord adaptors, an in-cup heater
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ii. Restaurant Eating
Athletes often stay in hotels where all meals are provided in the hotel
restaurant. On other occasions, athletes or teams may choose to cater
for their own breakfasts and lunch and use a restaurant for the evening
meal. Where possible, restaurants location, facilities, menu served
should be investigated before leaving home. The meal options,
cooking styles, opening hours and hygiene of the establishment should
also be considered. It is useful to book restaurants ahead of time as
many businesses are unable to cater for specific requests or large
groups at short notice. Discussing the proposed menu with restaurant
staff in advance will minimize problems at mealtime. This is
particularly important when athletes have special dietary needs (e.g.
vegetarian, food intolerances).
Meals that focus on carbohydrate choices such as rice, noodles and

pasta are a good place to start. Add lean sources of protein such as
lean meat, fish, chicken, beans or tofu and include plenty of
vegetables. Avoid dishes that are spicy, deep fried or battered. Buffet
style eating can be a good option as it allows athletes a range of
choices. It is quicker than waiting for individual meals to arrive and is
cost effective. One of the pitfalls of buffet eating is that it is easy to
over indulge. This can be avoided by planning meals in advance and
leaving the buffet when full. If using the same restaurant for more than
a few days, vary the menu from day to day rather than within a meal to
avoid boredom. If possible, avoid being solely reliant on
restaurant/fast food options. They can be time consuming, expensive
and a nutritional challenge.
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iii. Snacks
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Snacks are an important component of eating and recovery nutrition
plans for most athletes, however access to quality snacks can be
difficult when travelling. It pays to take a supply of portable, non-
perishable snack foods that are unlikely to be available at the
destination. It may be useful to send a package of supplies ahead to
decrease baggage. Remember to check with customs/quarantine
regarding foods that are restricted from crossing certain borders or
entering certain countries.
Useful Food Items To Take
 cereal bars
 breakfast cereal
 canned snack pack fruits
 dried fruit
 instant noodles
 jam, honey, peanut butter]
 powdered sports drink
 powdered liquid meal supplements
 powdered milk
 concentrated fruit juice
 baked beans and spaghetti
Hotels usually only cater for 3 meals/day. Arrange for snacks such as
yoghurt, fruit and cereal bars to be placed out at meals so that athletes
can take them for snacks later in the day. Alternatively, arrange for a
communal area to be stocked with snacks (i.e. the manager's or “team”
room).
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6.2.2 Travelling by Air
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a. Meals and Snacks
Athletes are not used to forced inactivity therefore hours spent on a

plane may lead to boredom. It is important that athletes avoid over-
eating to relieve boredom. Taking other activities on board, drinking
water regularly and chewing sugar-free gum can decrease the
temptation to snack excessively on long flights. Alternatively, athletes
with high-energy needs may struggle to meet their needs if they rely
solely on in-flight catering. This may cause the athlete to arrive at the
competition destination with reduced fuel stores.
Several strategies can be taken to minimize these risks to

performance:
 Find out if special meals (e.g. sports, low-fat, vegetarian) are

available on the flight.
 Enquire about the in-flight menu and timing of the meal service
in advance. On long flights, try to adopt a similar meal and
sleep pattern so that anticipated at your destination. This may
help to reduce the effects of jet lag.
 Athletes with reduced energy needs should pay particular
attention to meals and snacks provided during the flight. It is
not necessary to eat everything offered. It may be better to take
your own snacks rather than be tempted by all the extra tid bits
offered in flight.
 It is advisable to pack extra snacks in carry-on luggage. Food
available for sale at airports tends to be expensive and it can be
difficult to find nutritious options. It is always useful to have
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The risk of becoming dehydrated on long flights is high as the
pressurised cabins cause increased fluid losses from the skin and
lungs. Symptoms of dehydration may include headaches or slight
constipation. It is inadequate to rely on cabin service for fluid as the
serve sizes of drinks is very small. Athletes should take their own
supply of bottled water onto the flight to supplement the water, juice
and soft drink provided in the air. Sports drinks are also a useful
choice as they provide a small amount of sodium that helps promote
thirst (therefore encourages a greater fluid intake), and decreases
urine losses. Aim to drink approximately 1 cup per hour during the
flight. Caffeine-containing fluids such as tea, coffee and cola drinks
may cause increased urine production, but can still contribute to a
positive fluid balance in athletes (especially in those who regularly
drink caffeinated drinks). Alcohol should be avoided on flights.
6.2.3 Food Safety at the Destination
Gastrointestinal problems are common when travelling to foreign

destinations. These can occur in both developing countries and 'safe'
destinations. Adopting good personal hygiene and food safety
practices will help to decrease the risk of infection and illness.
If the local water is unsafe to drink:
 Drink only bottled water or drinks from sealed containers.

 Avoid ice in drinks.
 Clean teeth with bottled water.
 Avoid salad vegetables unless washed in bottled or boiled water.
 Only eat fruit if it can be peeled.
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In 'high risk' areas:

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 Eat only from reputable hotels or well known franchises.
 Avoid street stalls and markets.
 Be wary of fish and shellfish.
 Only consume food that is steaming hot or has been
refrigerated adequately.
At all destinations:
 Avoid sharing cups, bottles or utensils as infections and illness

can be transmitted this way.
If vomiting or diarrhoea does occur, it is important to replace fluids and

electrolytes lost. Oral rehydration solutions (ORS) and a safe water
supply should be used. A bland diet consisting of dry toast, crackers,
biscuits and rice may help. Avoid alcohol, fatty foods and dairy foods
until the diarrhoea has ceased.
6.2.4 Food at the Competition Venue
Unfortunately, most sporting venues provide food choices such as

deep fried snack foods, crisps and chocolate. Nutritious options are
often hard to find. Athletes should carry pre and post exercise snacks
and drinks to the venue to ensure that appropriate choices are readily
available. Sandwiches, cereal bars, fruit, juice, liquid meal
supplements and bottled or powdered sports drinks are ideal. Check
that the venue has accessible water outlets and that the water is safe
to drink. Carry your own bottled water if the water supply is in doubt.
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6.2.5 Nutritional Concern At Extreme Environment

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Energy requirement is depend on the amount of exercise, but in the
extreme environments additional energy will be required especially at
high altitude and in cold weather. Hydration with water or sports drink
that provides from 5% to 7% of carbohydrate is recommended.
Increasing salt consumption will help with hydration status.
Heat and Humidity: athletes who train at this condition should pay
attention to hydration. Exercising in the heat requires the body to adapt
to several major physiological changes that occur at one time. These
changes affect cardiovascular equilibrium, thermoregulatory
maintenance, and muscular power (Murray 1996). Because
dehydration can significantly affect sports performance, athletes must
consume an amount of fluid close to the amount of sweat that they
lose (Murray 1996, 2002). Carbohydrate ingestion along with fluid
ingestion can help conserve muscle glycogen and further aid
performance.
Cold: fluid consumption is a key consideration in exercise in the cold.

The exerciser should match fluid loss with fluid intake. Another factor
to consider is that energy requirement may be greater during exercise
in the cold.
6.3 Nutrition During Injuries
An injured athlete is at risk of getting a range of complex nutrition problem.

Obviously, proper nutrition is vital to tissue healing and recovery. Therefore to
ensure an effective rehabilitation process, issues like gaining weight during injury
and delayed restoration of muscle mass post injury need to be resolved.
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Nutrition recommendations for athlete during injury are consumption of nutrient rich
and healthy diet that is sufficient to sustain energy balance. Athlete should
emphasize on low sugar, low fat, high fiber source of food that provide adequate
CHO, protein and fat, which in turn provide optimal vitamin and mineral intake.
According to some studies, athletes who are hospitalized or subject to long-term
disability may require increased protein (1.4 – 1.7g/kg/day) to prevent loss of lean
tissue and maintain immune function. This can be achieved through the selection of
low fat protein choices such as lean meat, fish and skimmed milk.
6.4 Nutrition For Special Population
6.4.1 Disordered Eating
Disordered eating is described as the spectrum or abnormal and harmful eating

behaviours that are used in a misguided attempt to lose weight or maintain an
abnormal low body weight. This phenomenal is more likely to occur in those
athletes involved in activities that emphasize body contours in competitive attire
and aesthetic emphasis in overall competition evaluation.
A few key signs that an athlete may be developing an eating disorder are a
decrease in sport performance and for female athletes they may experience
menstrual irregularity. Stress fractures and overuse injuries can also be the
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indicator.
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The female athlete triad is one of the common conditions experienced by athlete
with disordered eating. It is characterized as the combination of disordered eating
(including all levels of unhealthy eating behaviors), amenorrhea (the absence of
menstruation) and osteoporosis.
General recommendation for athletes with disordered eating:
a) To determine a realistic goal for body weight.

b) To educate them on the preferred fuel according to their respective
sport.
c) To avoid giving specific calorie recommendations.
d) To promote realistic and practical weight management techniques
e) To educate athlete that there is no good or bad food.
6.4.2 Vegetarian
The main reasons for adopting vegetarian diets reported by the general
population include cultural and religious beliefs, moral beliefs concerning animal
rights, health benefits and environmental issues. For athletes, reasons are likely
to be similar to those of the general population. However, some athletes may
adopt a vegetarian or ‘near-vegetarian’ diet to meet increased carbohydrate
requirements for training or to assist in weight management.
Some individuals, especially women, may switch to vegetarianism as a means of

avoiding red meat and/or restricting energy intake to attain a lean body
composition favored in some sports such as distance running. Commonly, these
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athletes replace meat (red meat, chicken and fish) in their diet with bulky, high
fiber foods or avoid eating red-meat, relying heavily on chicken and fish as
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protein staples. Failing to include suitable vegetarian meat alternatives in their
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daily meal plan, these athletes are at risk of inadequate dietary intakes to
maintain health and support the demands of daily training. Occasionally, this may
be a red flag for disordered eating and increase the risk for the female athlete
triad. Because of this association, coaches and sports medicine professionals
should be alert when an athlete becomes a vegetarian and should ensure that
appropriate weight is maintained.
Types Of Vegetarian Diets
Type Comments
Fruitarian Consists of raw or dried fruits, nuts, seeds, honey and vegetable
oil
Macrobiotic Excludes all animal foods, dairy products and eggs. Uses only
unprocessed, unrefined, natural and organic cereals, grains and
condiments such as miso and seaweed
Vegan Excludes all animal foods, dairy products and eggs. In its purest
form, excludes all animal products including honey, gelatine, silk,
wool, leather and animal-derived food additives
Lacto-vegetarian Excludes all animal foods and eggs. Includes milk and milk
products
Lacto-ovo- Excludes all animal foods. Includes milk, milk products and eggs
vegetarian
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Effect of Vegetarian Diets on Health Outcomes

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In general population, vegetarian diets are associated with a
decreased morbidity from chronic lifestyle disease prevalent in
industrialized countries. Lower mortality rates from coronary artery
disease and certain forms of cancer, and lower risk for obesity and
diabetes, are typical among vegetarian populations, compared with
non-vegetarians.
Effect of Vegetarian Diets on Exercise Performance
If a vegetarian diet was high in carbohydrate and met or exceeded

recommendations for other macronutrients, micronutrients and energy,
than it would match the ideal or recommended diet for training and
recovery, especially endurance athletes. In the few cross-sectional
studies conducted on vegetarian athletes and investigating
performance effects, the results have been equivocal. Study by Hanne
et al. (1986) showed that no different in aerobic or anaerobic capacities
of 49 lacto-ovo-vegetarian and lacto-vegetarian athletes were
detected, compared with non-vegetarian controls. Synder et al. (1989)
found out there are no difference in maximal oxygen uptake were
observed between nine female athletes following a modified vegetarian
diet (<100g of red meat per week), compare with controls on a mixed
diet.
Diet-Related Concerns for Vegetarian Athletes
i. Energy: Increase satiety due to high in fiber is associated with low

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energy intakes. Vegetarian athletes, particularly children and

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adolescents, may have difficulty maintaining weight and meeting the
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daily energy requirements of their sports and perhaps growth. For the
vegan, incorporating energy-densed foods such nuts, tofu, tempeh and
commercially prepared meat analogues helps increase energy density.
ii. Protein: Food sources from vegetables or plant sources need to be

combined in such a way to ensure all amino acids are consumed. For
vegetarian avoiding all animal foods, the Institute of Medicine (2002)
states that total protein intakes may need to exceed protein
recommendations to meet amino acid requirements. This
recommendation is largely linked with the low digestibility of vegetable
protein. In summary, vegetarian diet can, for most people and for
athletes, provide adequate protein and the complete set of
indispensable amino acids without the use of protein supplements of
special foods, provided daily energy demands are met (ADA 1997).
iii. Iron: Vegetarian athletes are at greater risk of low iron stores than
untrained people, which may impair performance capacity. Lower iron
store may due to bioavailability of iron from plant food and from a total
vegetarian diet is much lower than in meat-based diet because of the
presence of naturally occurring inhibitors in plants that bind iron from
plant sources.
iv. Calcium: Vegetarian athletes that avoiding dairy products are at risk
of inadequate calcium intakes. Individual who limit or exclude dairy
foods had few other alternative dietary calcium sources except for
green leafy vegetables, calcium-fortified tofu and cereal grains as their
main sources. But calcium absorption or bioavailability from vegetables
sources, including soy milk and its products is lower than that from
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dairy sources, because of the inhibitors naturally present in many plan

food.
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v. Vitamin B12: People consuming omnivorous or lacto-ovo-vegetarian
diets easily meet B12 recommendation, because active B12 is found
exclusively in animal foods and their products. No active B12 is
naturally found in any plant foods, including meat analogues or
fermented soy products.
vi. Zinc: Food source that supplies zinc for vegetarian are cereal grains
and their products, legumes, nuts, soy products, eggs and dairy
product. Zinc absorption is impaired by the concurrent consumption of
the same inhibitory components present in food (for example phytate,
oxalates, tannates) that inhibit iron and calcium absorption. Given the
high intakes of dietary fiber reported in people on vegetarian diets, zinc
absorption may be compromised.
vii. Riboflavin: For the vegan athletes who exclude soy milk and soy-
milk products, consuming adequate riboflavin may be difficult as soy is
also a good source of riboflavin. Research had confirmed that
riboflavin is a limiting nutrient in vegetarians who avoid dairy products.
Supplement That Benefit To Vegetarian
Creatine supplements in athletes as a mean of enhancing the ability of

athletes to train and recover more quickly from repeated high-intensity
workouts involving isolated muscular efforts followed by a short time to
recover between efforts. This effect offers some resistance to fatigue.
The performance-enhancing effects of creatine supplements are
greatest when creatine stores are low and then increase substantially
after creatine supplementation. Therefore the response to creatine
supplementation and uptake into muscle are likely to be high in
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vegetarians who already have low levels of muscle creatine as a

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consequence of meat avoidance.
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6.4.3 Disabled Athletes
i. Dietary Issues
Dietary intakes of athletes with disabilities have not been reported in

the literature. Dietary intake in this group were relatively higher in fat
and lower in carbohydrate than the dietary goals and targets, but were
not unlike dietary intakes of the general population. This low energy
intake makes it more difficult to achieve adequate nutrient intakes.
ii. Fiber, Timing of Food Intake and Bowel Control
Large bowel (and sometimes small bowel) function can be impaired if

mobility is limited and gastrointestinal tract damage has occurred. As a
result, frequency of bowel movement and stool formation and
consistency can be affected. Timing and frequency of bowel motions
need to be fairly well controlled to occur at a convenient time; therefore
the type and amount of dietary fibre may require modification.
iii. Fluid Intake
While maintaining hydration levels is important for all athletes, the

practical consequences of consuming adequate fluid require more
attention for many athletes with disabilities. Sweat rate estimations,
though potentially more difficult to undertake, are likely to be
particularly important in athletes with disabilities to guide fluid intake
recommendation.
iv. Weight Control

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Extremes of underweight and overweight are evident in athletes with

disabilities. While some weight issues are related to the disability itself,
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the genetic background of the athletes is also a contributing factor.
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Each athlete need to be considered on an individual basis according to
the nature of their disability and any impact their disability may have on
their metabolic rate.
v. Nutritional Supplements
The need for nutritional supplements in athletes with disabilities is

determined on a case-by-case basis. Vitamin and mineral supplements
may be needed if gastrointestinal tract function is disturbed or if
athletes have difficulty consuming a balanced diet. Sports nutrition
supplements or sports foods have the potential to improve overall
energy intake as well as support performance.
vi. Eating difficulties and behaviors observed in some athletes with

disabilities.
a) An amputee or someone with arm deformities may have to eat

using their feet; this needs to be accounted for when deciding on
accommodation and eating venues.
b) Some forms of cerebral palsy and classes of Les Autres will

experience general feeding difficulties, with some athletes known to
require enteral feeding to supplement their limited oral intake.
c) Athletes with visual impairments generally work on a clock

system to locate foods on their plates. Their hands are frequently
used to assist with serving food and eating.
d) Athletes with intellectual disabilities can display some unusual

responses to food and eating. Examples include unfounded fears of
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a specific food due to the way it looks, inability to use eating utensil
in the customary manner and eating excessive quantities of foods,
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but not comprehending why such behavior is inappropriate.
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References
Matthews H and Matthews M. 2010. Nutritional considerations for performance and

rehabilitation In: Sports rehabilitation and Injury Prevention. Editor Comfort P and
Abrahamson E. Wileys & Sons: West Sussex.
Beals KA. 2004. Disordered eating among athletes: A comprehensive guide for
health professionals. Human Kinetics: Champaign.
Cox G. 2006. Special needs: The vegetarian athlete. In: Clinical Sports Nutrition. 3rd
ed. Editor Burke L and Deakin V. McGraw-Hill: New South Wales
Broad E. Special needs: Athletes with disabilities. In: Clinical Sports Nutrition. 3rd ed.
Editor Burke L and Deakin V. McGraw-Hill: New South Wales
Volpe SL, Sabelawski SB and Mohr CR. 2007. Exercise in extreme environments.
In: Fitness Nutrition for Special Dietary Needs. Human Kinetics: Champaig
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1.0 RISK MANAGEMENT
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Risk is defined as the chance of something happening which will impact upon
objectives (Viney& Dog, 1999). It is measured in terms of consequences and
likelihood (Crockford, 1986). Managing risk refers to the efforts in avoiding, reduce
or transferring risk. Risk management is a method for identifying risks and
developing and implementing programs to protect the organization and prevent loss.
Appenzeller (1998) found out that most sports conceal a certain level of risk, ranging
from a small injury to a serious accident especially when people are not cautious.
Thus, it is important that operators and principal bodies within the sport and leisure
industry understand these risks and apply all regulations needed to manage them.
The management should not only implement a comprehensive risk management
process (Swarbrooke et al, 2003) but also ensure that practical safety measures are
applied, in terms of time, money, materials and people involved (GNVQ, 2000).
Asuccessful risk management process means that all risks are being controlled and
that no problems will occur. In order to control these risks though, it is necessary to
do identify and understand the risks, try to foresee any possible consequences,
predict who is going to be involved or affected and implement successful safety
measures that will minimize or even eliminate the risks (Dimitriadi & Dimitriadi,
2007).
1.2 SPORTS RISK MANAGEMENT

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Risk management is a key factor in an effective sport management process since it

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can predict and even avoid unpleasant situations, like accidents, injuries or even
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losses (Fuller & Drawer, 2004). The Australian Standard defines risk management
as the culture, processes and structures that are directed towards the effective
management of potential opportunities and adverse effects.
The key objective of a sports risk management program is to protect the assets and
resources of the sporting organization and its members by reducing risk and
potential for loss. Essentially, risk management is important because it protects
member safety, protects clubs from legal liability and provides a systematic, well
informed method of decision making, thereby implementing best practice for
organizations and providing a safe environment (Vicsport, 2010). Parkhouse (2005)
quoted that in an effective risk management process, it is essential that managers
provide all necessary safety measures and present all possible solutionsand
alternatives, with an aim to decrease or even eliminate the risks through a
comprehensive strategic plan.
Risk management in sports is to identify any possible hazard or risk that someone
could face during a sportand recreational activity and then to assess the possibilities
of these risks toappear. Swarbrooke et al (2003) have recommended a model of risk
management that can be helpful for the safety of sports. According to this model,
managers should first conclude a risk assessment process and then identifywhich
risk management strategy they will follow.
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Model of Risk Management (Swarbrooke et. al. 2003
1.3 MODEL OF RISK MANAGEMENT
1. Risk Assessment
Risk assessment is a process during which managers must evaluate the

circumstances of the environment they are functioning in; estimate possible dangers;
take precautions and measures according to legislation, and ensure that nobody,
personnel or customers, will get hurt (HSE, 2003 & GNVQ, 2000).
The first one is the recognition of all possible risk factors that managers might face
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during an activity. These risks can be associated with materials, substances,

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activities, equipment or the environment (Spengler et al, 2006 & GNVQ, 2000).
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The second stage looks into identifying the possible hazards and which participants
can actually be harmed by those risksand what might be the consequences.
The third stage involves evaluating the degree of risk that is, estimating the
likelihood of whether the hazards present in an activity can harm the participants and
if so, to what extent and severity. This information will determine whether more
precautions need to be taken (HSE, 2003 &Outhart et al, 2003). For estimating the
probability, it should be first definedwhether the hazard is current or potential, in
other words, if it already exists or if it might occur in the future (Outhart et al, 2003,
Lee and Jones, 2004).
The last stage of the risk assessment process is the revising procedure. It is
important for the organization to check constantly if all precautions are being taken
and that they work efficiently.
Additionally, this stage is essential, because new hazards can appear, the level of
risk may increase or a change in law measures could be realized (Outhart, 2003 &
HSE, 2003).
2. Risk Management Strategies
There are four types of strategies that are being exercised according to the level of
risk that exists: risk avoidance, risk reduction, risk transfer and risk retention.
a. Risk avoidance
Risk avoidance takes place when there are either poor preparations or hazards that
cannot be controlled, and hence, managerspostpone the activity or offer an
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alternative one (Swarbrooke et al, 2003, Parkhouse, 2005).

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b. Risk reduction
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Swarbroole et al and Outhart et al (2003) defined that in risk reduction, all activities
should be managed by skilled and well-trained leaders, who have the experience
and the aptitude to cope with possible risks.
c. Risk transfer
Executives often make use of the risk transfer method, in which the risk is
transferred to insurance companies, to the clients or to third parties (Centner, 2005
&Swarbrooke et al, 2003).
d. Risk retention
Risk retention is anapproach during which mainly low risks are being accepted either
unconsciously or because of failure to transfer them to others.There are a few areas
in which risk management is crucial to sports. These include sports injuries, etiquette
and moral, drug abuse and environment safety.
3. Risk Management Review
The risk management review is the revising procedure and constantly checking all
the above processess. It is because there is always new possible level of risks that
might arise or change.
1.4 ISSUES OF RISK MANAGEMENT IN SPORTS
1.4.1SPORTS INJURIES
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Sports injuries risk management deals with the prevention and management of
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injuries. The nature of sport means there will always be some injuries. However, by
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taking appropriate steps,organizations can limit the number and severity of injuries.
Injuries are the leading cause of death, illness and disability in Australia. In 1998,
injuries resulted in 7,946 deaths and over 403,000 admissions to hospital, resulting
in significant health system costs to the Australian community (Vicsports, 2010).
Sports injuries have been identified as the leading cause of injury and thus,
developing prevention strategies and minimizing risks associated with sport has
been at the keystone of national sports framework in recent times.
Results of recent research conducted by the University of Ballarat in conjunction with
Sports Medicine Australia's Smartplay (2006) revealed that safety policies and
practices were not considered a major concern for Victorian State SportsAssociation
(SSA). Of the 39% of SSA’s answered to a Risk Management survey, only 31%
have a safety plan implemented, indicating that over half do not.Below sees a chart
on sports injuries in the year of 1991 and 1998 in Australia.
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1.4.2 ETIQUETTES AND MORAL
Sport plays a major part in the lives of many Malaysians who are often participants
or spectators. For many people sport is a source of personal achievement and
national pride. For some however, the sporting experience is marred by the
presence of harassment that creates an environment that is neither welcoming nor
enjoyable.Sexual harassment is behavior that has a sexual element that is
unwelcome (Fasting, 2004).
Brackenridge and Fasting (2002) stated that during the last 10-15 years, many girls
and women have experienced sexual harassment and abuse in sport. It is behavior
that can be reasonably expected in the circumstances in which it occurs to offend,
humiliate or intimidate the person or group to whom it is directed. Sexual
harassment may involve physicalcontact and it may be verbal or non-verbal,clear or
hidden.
Sexual harassment can take form in many way and not restricted to onlyuninvited
touching, massaging,kissing, embracing, demeaning jokes and
commentspropositions, promises or threats in return for sexual favors, non spoken
behavior such aswhistling, sexual staring and leering, displays of sexually open
oroffensive material, sex-based insults, unkind, name calling, persistent or disturbing
questionsabout an individual’s personal life, repeated requests to go out,offering
sexual favors, engaging in behavior which is sexually embarrassing and humiliating
orintimidatingoffensive communications.
Sporting organizations are recognizing the importance of developing clear guidelines

on preventing sexual harassment and of sending the message that sexual
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harassment will not be tolerated under any circumstances. Sexual harassment may
occur once and on the other hand, unwelcome sexual conduct may take place
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repeatedly (Brackendridge et al., 2000).
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This is illustrated by a study from Norway among all the elite level female athletes
that found that 29 % had experienced sexual harassment from someone in sport
(Brackenridge, 2001).
In Turkey on the other hand, the first study that was carried out concluded that
56.2% of the sportswomen had been subjected to sexual harassment at least once.
In many other countries, findings show that every three to four sportswomen
experience sexual harassment before adolescence (Brackendridge, 1997
&Brackendridge et al., 2000).
Over the past few years some countries have also done a lot to prevent sexual
persecution and abuse from occurring in sport, particularly UK, Australia, New
Zealand,Canada, USA and the Netherlands. A series of codes of behavior have
been developed bysport and political organizations (Fasting, 2004).
1.4.3 DRUG ABUSE
Performance enhancing drugs are substances which are used by athletes to

improve their physical ability. Athletes,both elite and amateur, try to boost their
performance to gain a competitive benefit, sometimes to the extentwhere they are
willing to risk their health and careers by taking prohibited substances.
Performance enhancing drugs include substances which can significantly improve a

person’s stamina (EPO, insulin, growth hormone), muscle growth (anabolic
steroids), mask pain (narcotics), increase alertness and aggressiveness (stimulants
like adrenaline) and increase oxygen in order to work the muscles harder (Healey,
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2003). In the last few years, the first internationally accepted standards for prohibited
substances in sport have been developed by the World Anti-Doping Agency. Two of
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the following three criteria must be met for a substance to be prohibited: the
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substance is performance-enhancing; use of the substance poses health risks to the
user or using the substance violates the spirit of the sport. These criteria mean that
non-performance enhancing drugs such as cannabis are banned while social drugs
such as caffeine are allowed (WADA, 2003).
In Australia for example, the average age of initiation for use of steroids for
nonmedical purposes in Australia has increased in recent yearsfrom 19 years of age
in 1995 to 25 in 2004. In 2004, 0.3% of Australians aged 14 and over had ever used
steroids for nonmedical purposes and 58% of those sourced the drug from a friend
or acquaintance (AIHW, 2005). This age group is also the population most possible
to participate in sport or physical recreation (75% of 15-34-year-olds) (ABS,
2007).18 registered violations of anti-doping laws had been documented between
1st July until 1st February 2007. A total of 3822 samples for doping testing of elite
athletes were collected during that period by the Australian Sports Anti-Doping
Authority. (ASADA 2007).
1.4.4 ENVIRONMENT SAFETY
a. Lightning
Lightning is normally considered the most dangerous weather hazard for those who
engage in outdoor sport and recreational activities. It is estimated that lightning
strikes somewhere in the world about 100 times every second and kills
approximately 1,000 people a year worldwide (Long, 1999). The risk associated with
lightning is both a safety concern and a liability concern for sport and recreation
managers. Spengler et al (2002) stated that management is often faced with
complex decisions regarding the executionof lightning safety policies and
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procedures.
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Lightning safety issues are very crucial to sport and recreation managers who plan
and supervise organized outdoor sports activities. There are several reasons why an
understanding of lightning safety is essential. The reasons are related to the timing
of lightning strikes and when most outdoor sports and recreational activities
occur(Spengler et al., 2002). Studies point outthat estimated 70% of all lightning
deaths and injuries occur outside and in the afternoon (Bennett, 1997). In
particular,the utmost number of lightning casualties occurs between the hours of 10
a.m. and 7 p.m., withthe greatest risk concentrated between 2 p.m. and 6 p.m
(Schultz, Zinder&Valovich, 2001). Furthermore, the time of year is also a cause in
the probability of lightning strikes. Walsh et al (2000) found that lightning strikes are
most often to occurbetween late Spring and early Fall, the most popular seasons for
outdoor sport and recreational activities.
b. Weather Conditions
The combination of extreme environmental conditions and sustained vigorous

exercise is particularly hazardous for the athlete. The greater the intensity of the
exercise, the greater the risk of heat illness such as heat exhaustion, heat stroke
and dehydration.There are three phases to heat illness; heat cramps, heat
exhaustion, and heat stroke in which heat stroke is the most severe. Heat cramps
are due to muscle spasms and often occur in the arms, legs or abdomen. They are
thought to be caused by dehydration and loss of salt and other electrolytes.
Heat exhaustion is due to more profound loss of water and electrolytes. It is

described by generalized weakness, headache, dizziness, low blood pressure,
elevated pulse and temperature elevation as high as 40 degrees (C). Both can
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usually be treated by moving out of the sun, drinking fluids, and eating salty food
(Jenkins &Honig, 2005).Below is a chart that demonstrates the risk of thermal injury
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on sportsmen when training in high temperature weathers.
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Adopted from www.sma.org.au
1.5 Conclusion
Risk management not only can address the issue of accountability and harm, but it
can also be immensely valuable in helping organizations to position themselves to
better deal with change. Sport organizations face many challenges including sports
injuries of players, drug abuse among sportsmen, diminishing funding sources and
increasing expectations from the public. All of these factors make up to the rise in
risks, as well as opportunities and sport organizations are called upon to practice
risk management more productively.Managing risk is avital component of strong
management and good governance. It can help players and couches make better
decisions and connect them back to the organization’s core purpose. It helps the
organization to provide a safe environment for members and participants and
enhances delivery of quality sport experiences.
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2.0 DEVELOPING TOP LEVEL ATHLETES

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2.1 Introduction
 Observe world-class athletes – tremendous abilities and skills.
 Analyse the results of Olympic and other world-class competition.
 Majority of medals and records are obtained by the athletes of a small number
of
countries.
 Those countries have developed systematic and comprehensive programs for
training their athletes.
2.2 Essential Requirements
2.2.1 Coaching
 the quality of coaching determines the quality of the training environment.
 the coaches commitment towards achievement or realistic goals sets the tone
of
training.
 the time a coach has available depends on the degree he can be paid for his
coaching responsibilities.
 the number of athletes a coach must train influence the quality of the training.
 the number of responsibilities (fund raising and administration), other than
coaching, a
coach must undertake distracts his/her ability to coach successfully.
2.2.2 Athletes
 having special talent, strong motivation, and a willingness to work extremely
hard, are all characteristics of the successful athlete. For this matter coaches
need to have a proper performance report: Example of a Performance reports
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is as follows:
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Performance Report
Sport: Age:
Team: Height:
Name: Weight:
Tournament: Results: Desired Performance
/Current Performance
Physical ( /10 )
1. Briefly explain your physical performance based on the 11 fitness
components:
Technical ( /10 )
2. List out your strengths and weaknesses based on basic and
advanced skills in your sport:
Tactical ( /10 )
3. Tactics employed and how successful you were:
Psychological Skills ( /10 )

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4. Briefly explain the distructions affecting you and the coping

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mechanisms you used:
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Overall Comments
5.
Remedial Actions
6.
CONCLUSION
7.
 finding such individuals, and encouraging them to pursue their talent to the
fullest
are often major challenges – TID must be implemented
 In countries that have a limited human resources, facilities etc, sports
administration may need to concentrate their limited resources on only a few
sports.
2.2.3 Facilities and Equipment

 the lack of facilities and equipment is a limiting factor to sport development.
 many Olympics athletes have been successful despite sub-standard facilities
and
equipment due to their high motivation and commitment.
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 some suggestions which may be of help in improving facilities and equipment;

o clearly identify your facility or equipment needs, give priority
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o try to make your sports need known to school officials, to
community officials or politicians, to businessmen etc.
o collaborate with other sports or community groups in developing a
plan or strategy to achieve your needs.
o consider whether corporate support may be available to provide
equipment or clothing under conditions that are reasonable.
o consider entering sponsorship or licensing agreement for goods or
cash, in return for corporations using your Olympic symbols or
official sponsor statement.
o approach specific International Sports Federations to determine if
they can assist in providing assistance in designing sports facilities,
or providing equipment.
o consider training for periods of the year in existing facilities in other
locations in order to improve the quality of training.
o knowing all available training facilities or possibilities in your
community, if you cannot get in there, get helps from somebody.
o Often, staging major games or competitions creates an opportunity
for government to provide facilities and equipment.
2.2.4 Athlete Support

 enough time away from school or work to train – top level athletes may have
to spend more than three hours a day in serious training, seven days a week.
 adequate rest and nutrition
 access to medical and physiotherapy support when needed
 continual stimulation and encouragement which creates a positive training
environment and shows support for the aspirations of the athlete.
2.2.5 Financial Support
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 Funds may be needed;

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o to pay for travel and competition expenses
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o to pay athlete educational expenses
o to compensate for time off from work
o to provide adequate coaching or access to facilities
2.2.6 Administrative Support

 there must be good planning and a fair degree or administrative support –
ideally, the coach should coach, the athlete train, and the administrators do all
the rest.
 administrative support could include handling correspondence, travel
arrangements, fund raising, arranging training facilities, contact with media,
promotion, meetings and so on.
2.2.7 Competition
 competition, at the right level and frequency, is essential for the development
of athletes.
 Competition provides a focal point for training, and an important motivation for
daily training.
 Competition provides the ultimate test, where all the factors such as skill,
physical conditioning, knowledge, motivation and strategy sre tested together.
 Careful evaluation of the results of competition can allow a coach to pinpoint
weaknesses or strengths, and to adjust training if necessary.
2.2.8 Planning a Training Program
a. Training Details
 the coach must have information on the players profile, training program and the
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competition period.
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1. Personal biodata
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 name of game
 number of trainees
 sex
 age
 team
 level of fitness
 level of skill
b. Training biodata
 phase of training
 duration of training
 commencement of training
 training frequency
 time of training
 place
 non-training days
c. Competition details
 name of competitions
 type of competitions
 date of competitions
2.2.9 Management of High Performance Team
Management everywhere focus the same problems. It has to organize work for
productivity; it has to lead the worker towards productivity and achievement. Above
all, it is responsible for producing the results – for the sake of which each
oraganization exists. Management functions consist:
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a. Planning
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b. Organization
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c. Leading
d. Controlling
e. Evaluating
f. Budgeting
a. Planning
 includes establishing goals for an organization and developing a strategy for
achieving those goals. It involves strategic plan and operational plans
b. Leading
 It is the use of the leader‟s influence to direct and coordinate the activities of
the members of an organized group toward the accomplishment of the
group‟s goals.
c. Controlling
 Monitoring activities and evaluating results to assure that planned objectives
are met
 Policies
 Procedures
 Rules and regulations
d. Evaluation
 It is essential to all organizations, whether this mean reflection, informal
assessment, a review, or a more formal evaluation
e. Organizing
 It is the determination of what work needs to be done
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 Who will do it

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f. Budgeting
 Making a proper budget
 Control the spending accordingly
2.2.10 High performance team

a. High performance consists:
 Team manager and assistant manager
 Chief coach and assistant coaches
 Team doctor and physiotherapist
 Physiologist/trainer
 Sports psychologist
 Nutritionist
 Video analyst/video technician
b. Preparation and performance
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c. Managerial expectations
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 Be aware of the objectives for their job
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 Be aware of how they are expexted to contribute toward them
Types of Managers in Sport
1. Autocratic manager
 says little unless something is wrong
 usually is not interested in the ideas of others
 decides what information people need
 changes demands unexpectedly
 is sometimes hard to talk to
 discourages people from taking risks
 set objectives for subornates
 personally determines performance standards
2. Developmental Manager
 considers ideas that conflict with his own
 allows a reasonable margin for error
 tries to help others learn from their mistakes
 has consistently high expectations
 encourages people to reach in new directions
 helps people understand the objectives of their jobs
 allows people to make their own commitments
 sets objectives with people
3.0 PLANNING AN INTERNATIONAL SPORT COMPETITION

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Introduction
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 opportunity for athletes to meet and compete with other athletes at a
world level
 For coaches and trainers to share ideas, knowledge and experiences.
 Competing abroad can also be an upsetting experience if the tour
members are not prepared for all the new experiences and
adjustments that they must face.
 It is important to plan ahead, organized and planned for in advance.
3.1 Start Planning
a. Chief de Mission
The duties of the CdM are:

 to supervise the co-ordination of clothing, equipment, finances,
transportation and scheduling
 to coordinate all efforts to meet the needs and desires of the athletes,
coaching staff and trainers and to minimize problems (at least in
players’ minds!)
 to act as liaison between Organization Committee and the sports team
 to head the team delegation and fulfill all protocol functions while on
tour
b. What to Expect
These include:
 other teams or individuals that have travelled overseas or travelled to
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the country you are going to


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the Ministry of External Affairs
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 universities personnel
 books and resources in the library
o Malaysia Consulate and Embassy in that country or area you
are going to
c. Questions to Ask
 food
 accommodation
 facilities
 transportation
 organization committee of the competition
 training and competition schedules and facilities
 certain customs and laws of the country
 geography
 language
 exchanges rates
 banking
 medical services
 leisure time
d. Travel Arrangement
1. Airline Travel
For the best flights and best available rates, you must know:
 the size of your group

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your budget for airfare

 date of departure and return
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 nearest airport to where you will be staying
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 the baggage limits (weight restrictions, number allowed for person,
extra baggage charges)
 the special arrangements for equipment that is to be shipped
separately, find out;
o how long it will take
o how much it will cost
o where to pick it up
o when and how to transport it
o what arrangements will you have to make with customs
2. Documents
 passport
 need a current passport
 leave plenty of time for passport approval
 manager should record all passport numbers and names and keep
them separately from the passport
 passport lost or stolen, contact Malaysia Embassy
 need to know the nearest Malaysia Embassy, who to contact, and
let them know you’re coming before you leaving
3. Entrance visa
 some foreign countries require an entrance visa
 find out how valid date of the visa and if it will allow to bring in any
medication or drugs required for the team and all the special needs
insurance
 check what the airline policy covers and add what extra coverage
you will need while away
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 it is good idea to have extra insurance for valuables such as

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e. Vaccinations
 May be required when entering or returning from the country you are
travelling to.
 Find out what is necessary and what is recommended.
 Plan to have vaccinations to all those travelling, ensuring plenty of time
for adjustment and recovery.
f. Customs Regulations
 certain countries may restrict what you may bring into the country and
what restrictions exist in bringing back items
 be sure to record serial numbers of all equipment and valuables such
as cameras, with your customs office before or as you are leaving.
 do not take letters of gifts of unknown contents for ‘friend’ to people in
the country you are visiting, you might be punished according to their
regulation.
3.2 What Else to Take
a. Document
 List all tour members and passport numbers, should have 3 – 4 copies
 complete travel itinerary
 complete schedule of events and timing
 medical:
o take full amount required for use during trip
o take typed document showing full generic name
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o register medication with officials in charge of competition

o get medical clearance to bring drugs into the country if
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b. Clothing and Equipment
 full medical kit should be packed
 team uniforms – playing, warm up, formal
 practice gear – anticipating extremes of weather
 leisure and formal wear – suitable to dress standards of the host
country
 nylon laundry bag for each person
 personal supplies to last the full trip
 own special equipment – don’t assume it will be provided
 video equipment to record team performance
 those wearing glasses, should bring an extra pair
c. Useful Extras
 official letterhead, carbons, papers and pens
 masking tapes and markers
 international adaptor
 non-electric alarm clock
 long extension cord
 gifts
 country’s flag and tape recording of national anthem
 international driver’s license
 maps of city and area
 extra non-perishable food
d. Finances
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 Find out the exchange rate and set up a liaison with a bank in the
country you are visiting
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 Take money in travellers cheques
 Take some small currency for use on arrival for taxis, tipping etc
 Have an international recognized credit card
 Caution: some countries will not allow you to purchase their currency
until in the country and will not allow you to take their currency out of
that country
3.3 The Trip
a. Briefing
Before you go, have a briefing session with athletes and coaches,
explains the:
 itinerary
 accommodation
 host country situation – religious, political, custom, culture, economic
etc
 adjustment – time zone, climate, food and water etc
 the expected code of conduct – sportsmanship, friendship, etc
 identify any security precaution
 express any team rules – disciplines
 public relations – language, dressing etc
 press interview – identify questions to expect and how to respond to
the media
 identify any technical matters concerning training and competition that
should be known before arrival
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3.4 Equipment and Baggage
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 each piece of baggage should be clearly marked
 be sure to know how many pieces were checked
 camera and film should be carried in hand luggage
 ensure that arrangement have been made for transportation of
baggage as well as team
 double check that nothing is left behind when moving on, leave a
forwarding address with the hotel
3.5 Media
 organize an opportunity for the media to interview the team prior to
departure
 have a team handbook ready with data and photos of each athlete
 prepare press releases as required
 have media contact telephone or telex numbers so you can transmit
results
3.6 Protocol
 attend all meetings, receptions and ceremonies given in your honour
 remember you are representing your country
3.7 Helpful Hints

 be a good sport – gracious if you lose, non-patronizing even if clearly
superior
 expect to be self-reliant and plan that way
 other countries may operate at a faster or slower pace of life

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keep your sense of humour, be forewarned and attempt to adapt

 relationships and goals are important – remember everyone is there to
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 have shared goals so you can focus on the objectives of the trip rather
than its distracting elements
 standardized routines before competition so the athletes have some
familiarity and security even in a foreign country
 you may need an interpreter but one may not always be with you. Try
to learn a few key phrases. Those of the host country will likely be
more responsive because you have made an effort. Don’t let the
language barrier dampen your positive attitude.
3.8 When You Return

 prepare press release or an interview opportunity for the media to review
your trip
 thank-you notes should be written to all who helped you – be sure to
obtain their addresses before you return home
 evaluation of trip by coaches, managers, and possibly athletes
 reports written for your sport governing body
4.0 Coaching Development and Presentation Skills
a. The Need for Trained Coaches

 The most essential requirement in developing top level athletes is the
availability of a world –class coach. If coaching is highly knowledgeable ,
motivating, intense and sensitive to individual needs and successful in
solving problems, the training environment should generate much success
for the athletes.
b. How to Organize a Coach Development Program.

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 Firstly, the teams must identify their needs very specifically. Which level of
expertise is needed and how many coaches are required over a period of
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 What resources and facilities are available to train them and are the
existing training plans efficient.
 Identify other quality coaches and sport associations in your area who can
help you with your planning.
 When you have established your needs, you can start to establish a plan.
Training coaches is a long term project requiring a systematic approach .
The plan must be flexible and sensitive to ever changing needs to the
coach’
c. Characteristics of a Coach Training Program includes

 providing different level of experience. The first level are very basic and
towards encouraging individuals to become involved and to be reasonably
competent in working with beginners
 coaches training is relate to three needs: sport specific techniques,
coaching theory and practical experience
 sport specific knowledge includes subjects such as techniques, strategy
and training plans
 theoretical knowledge includes subject areas such as psychology,

physiology,
biomechanics, principles of training, athletic injuries, diet and so on
 certification for accomplishing a certain level is important in motivating
training and in identifying accomplishments
 Coaching programs should encourage the development of more coaches
and better coaches.
d. Review the Possible Opportunities for Training Coaches:

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 having sport specific clinics.


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having sport coaching theory clinics
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 having apprentices programs whereby a promising junior coach works and
trains with a senior level coach.
 having physical training program in higher institutions.
 having practical experiences training in sports industries.
 access to coaching literatures and references
 organise monthly seminars .
e. Establish your Plan

 determine the amount and type of knowledge required at each level.
 resources must be established at each level.
 set up a training program to develop competent instructors.
 set up a structure to offer the courses.
 recognizing the coaches who had successfully compete a specific level
by some form of certification.
f. Characteristics of Coaching Candidates:

 intelligent and highly motivated.
 interested in a long term involvement with sport.
 prosses teaching skills.
 have excellent interpersonal relationships.
 have the necessary time.
 are practical, problem-solving types.
 ideally, have training in physical education, or extensive experience in
sport.
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g. Hiring Foreign Coaches:

The quickest way of achieving quality coaching is to import expert.
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 Advantage to hiring foreign coaches
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 Disadvantage of hiring foreign coaches.
h. Should Coaches be Paid?
i. The Relationship Between Coaches and Others.
4.1 PRESENTATION SKILLS
a. Introduction
 The material of your presentation should be concise, to the point and
you are able to present an interesting presentation.
b. Objectives
At the end of the lesson, participants should be able to:
 Understanding presenters’ personal skills.
 Preparation needed for good presentation.
c. Content
1. Presenters’ personal skills
2. Preparation needed for good presentation.
1.1 Presenters’ personal skills .
The following presenter’s personal skills are just as important for delivering
good presentation.
 Your voice- how you say it is as important as what you say
 Body language: your body movements express what your attitudes and
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 Appearance: first impressions influence the audience’s attitudes to you.
Dress appropriately for the occasion.
2.1 Preparation needed for good presentation.
a. Make the list of these two things as your starting point:
 Decide the objectives of the talk.

 What are the main points you wish to deliver.
b. Making the presentation
 Greet the audience

 Tell the audience what you are going to tell them
 Then tell them
 At the end tell them what you have told them
 Keep to the time allowed.
c. Delivery
 Speak clearly. Don’t shout or whisper

 Don’t rush, or talk deliberately slowly. Be natural.
 Deliberately pause at key points
 Avoid jokes unless you are a natural expert
 To make the presentation interesting, change your delivery, but not to
obviously, eg. Speed or pitch of voice
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 Look at the audience as much as possible, but don’t fix on an individual.

 Stand in apposition where you obscure the screen.
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 Keep an eye on the audience’s body language.
d. Purpose of having public speaking.
It govern the content and style of presentation and have the following
purposes:
 Informative: summarises problems, describes plan, reports the progress of
the team.
 Instructional: giving instruction to the athletes or team.
 Persuasive: persuade audience or team members.
4.2 How to be a Good Public Speaker
 Did you ever notice how the audience love public speakers that seem to be
born with the public speaking ability.
 We come across politicians and recall our old college professors who knew
how to keep us stupefied with their words.
 Nonetheless, most people are terrified when they are asked to address a
group even if they are good at making speeches.
 Anyone can be an excellent public speaker with proper rehearsal. In this day
of technology and information, even the burden of composing the speech can
be relieved since a variety of experts provide free online content.
4.3 Ways to Control Public Speaking Anxiety

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The 4 key suggestions here will do much alleviate the problem and assist
anyone
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to control and overcome public speaking anxiety:
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a. Thorough preparation
Thorough preparation! There is no short-cut. If you have carefully researched
your material so you are convinced it is worth delivering, and you firmly
believe your audience needs to hear it, and you have practiced and practiced
the delivery, you can stand up in front of an audience with confidence!
b. Breathing
Control nervousness by taking deep breaths to relax the body. Concentrate
on your message and the things you have prepared to present to your
audience rather than on your nervousness. Use positive speech, even in your
own thoughts. Instead of saying to yourself, "Boy, do I feel nervous", which
only reinforces the feeling, say, "My adrenaline is pumping and I'm going to
use it to deliver an unforgettable presentation!"
c. Confidence visualized
To increase confidence and combat uncertainty use visualization techniques.
These can be VERY effective. Running through the whole presentation
including the approach to the speaker's stand the initial pause, the first few
sentences, over and over again in your mind, will create great confidence.
d. End result visualization

Include the end result in your visualization exercise. See yourself having
successfully concluded an excellent presentation with the applause of the
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audience in your ears. See the smiles, hear the compliments afterwards and
make them real in your mind.
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4.4 Organise and Deliver your Content Effectively
Factors that you could consider in preparing your public speaking are as
follows:
 Planning your public speaking well.
 Knowing your content well.
 Analysing your audience.
 Knowing the venue and presentation room.
 Knowing the time allotted
 Writing and outline of your delivery.
 Deciding on the appropriate style of delivery.
4.5 Analysing your Audience
To succeed in your public speaking, you need to know your audience. An

audience analysis can help you to know:
 The background information of the audience.

 Education background
 Reasons for attending
 Expected number of audience.
4.6 Prepare and use effective visual aids for delivery.

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 Practice using your aids to ensure their successful integration into the content
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 If you are using objects, such as model, for the visual aids, practice
describing or explaining the actual objects or inventions.
 You must know what to do with them, how and what to explain and how long
you need to demonstrate the objects.
 Well prepared and skillfully used visual aids can reinforce your major points
and they enable message retention among the audience.
Example of visual aids:
 Transparencies
 Flips charts
 Models
 Photographs
 Other kinds of visual aids.
4.7 Things to Consider

 When preparing to speak publicly, you must concentrate on the people and
consider ways to hold their interest in listening to you to the end. Listen to
yourself during rehearsal.
 To improve your ability, record the length of your speech, set spots in
advance, where you can change your tone, your speed and rhythm and plan
your speech.
 How you walk in and the first three minutes of your public speech can make a
lasting impression on your crowd.
 The degree of confidence and calmness you portray will directly affect the
impact you create.
 Begin on a strong note and hold the people attention. Have an opening
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statement to grip your crowd.

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 Don't look tense, even if you are late, but portray a calm posture and attitude.
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 To wrap up this short article on speaking in public we can make two more
quick points
o prepare well in advance. Make sure you have all the information you'll
need and practice your public speech ahead of time. Try speaking into
a full length mirror; you'll begin to notice things about posture and hand
movements you may not have picked up on previously.
o Here's something else that has helped me also; tape or video record
your speech. Once done watch or listen to yourself and take notes. If
you try this once per day leading up to the big day you'll appear as a
polished speaker, even though you might be shaking in your boots.
4.8 Handle question and answer sessions
When you finish your presentation, invite questions from your audience. Techniques
to handle question and answer sessions are as follows:
 Always repeat questions posed to your audience

 Look at questioner when answering the questions
 Your response to the question should be short and to the point
 After the question and answer session, remember to close your presentation
with a strong note and a ‘thank you’.
However, if you do not know the answer:
 You say it or tell the audience that you will get back to it.
 You can offer to discuss it further afterwards
 Ask for the questioner’s contact number or e–mail.
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5.0 Problem Solving Skills

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5.1 What is a problem?
A problem is an obstacle which makes a difficult to achieve a desired goal, objective

or purpose. It refers to a situation, condition or issue that is yet unresolved.
a. Steps in Problem Solving Process

 Gather information
 Define the problem
 Develop solution
 Consider the consequences
 Make decision
 Implement and evaluate solution
b. Strategies to Resolve Problems

 Direct Intervention
 Indirect Intervention
 Delegation
 Purposeful Inaction
 Consultation or collaboration.
c. Steps to Problem Solving Techniques.

 Define the problem.
 Look at potential causes for the problem.
 Identify alternatives for approach to resolve the problem.
 Select an approach to solve the problem.
 Plan the implementation of the best alternatives(this is your action
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plan)
 Monitor implementation of the plan.
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5.2 Decision Making in sports.
a. Introduction
The decision making process requires information to be gathered and then

interpreted in order to make a correct decision, often under pressure. The difficulty
faced by the coach is to ensure that in the pressure situation of a game or contest ,
the athletes make the correct decisions in which skills to use when faced with the
appropriate cues.
b. Definition of decision making

The process of mapping the likely consequences of decision, working out the the
importance of individual factors and choosing the best course of action to take. It
involves in gathering opinion, judgment , considerations that results in reaching a
decision.
c. Steps Influencing to Effective Decision Making
One of the most practical decision making techniques can be summarized in these
simple decision making steps:
 Identify the purpose of your decision.
 Gather information.
 Identify the principle to judge the alternatives.
 Brainstorm and list different possible choice.
 Evaluate each choice in terms of its consequences.
 Determine the best alternative.
 Put the decision into action.
 Evaluate the outcome of your decision and action steps.
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1.6 References
1. Appenzeller, H. 1998. Risk Management in Sport: Issues and Strategies.USA:

Carolina
Academic Press
2. Australia’s Anti Drugs in Sport Strategy, Australian Government Department of
Communications, Information and the Arts
www.dcita.gov.au/tough_on_drugs/content.htm
3. Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) 2007, Participation in Sports and Physical
Recreation,
ABS, Canberra.
4. Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW) 2005, 2004 National Drug
Strategy
Household Survey: First Results, AIHW, Canberra.
5. Australian Sports Anti-Doping Agency (ASADA) 2007, ASADA’s new investigatory
powers
account for 25% of doping violations, media release, 12 February, ASADA,
Canberra.
6. Brackenridge, C.H. 2001 Spoilsports: Understanding and preventing sexual
exploitation in
sport, London, Routledge.
7. Centner, T.J. 2005. Examining Legal Rules To Protect Children From Injuries In
Recreational
And Sport Activities. Journal of Safety Research. Vol. 36, No. 1, pp. 1
8. Crockford, Neil 1986. An Introduction to Risk Management (2 ed.). Cambridge,
UK:
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Woodhead-Faulkner.
9. Dimitriadi A. &Dimitriadi S. 2007. A Conceptual Model Of Risk Management And
Page
Its
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Importance For Sports And Leisure. Xophtophtia-Choregia, Sport Management
International
Journal, SMIJ – VOL 3, Number 1.
10. Dorfman, Mark S. 2007. Introduction to Risk Management and Insurance (9 ed.).
Englewood
Cliffs, N.J: Prentice Hall.
11. Fasting, K. (2004). Preventing sexual harassment in sport - a need for
transforming
coaching education?Invited paper presentation at the 6th European Conference
on Women
and Sport.
12. Fuller, C. and Drawer, S. 2004. The Application of Risk Management in
Sport.Sports
Medicine. Vol. 34, No. 6, pp. 349-356
13. GNVQ (2000). Advanced Leisure and Recreation. Oxford: Oxford University
Press
14. Healey J 2003, Drug Use in Sport, The Spinney Press, Rozelle.
15. Health Safety Executive (HSE), 2003. Managing Health and Safety: Five Steps
To Success.
Suffolk: HSE Books
16. John 0.S, Penglerd, Aniefil C &Onnaughtjoefnf, E Arnshaw. 2002.Perspectives
On Lightning
Safety Risk Management In Sport And Recreational Activities. World Leisure No.
41.
17. Lee, E.M. and Jones, K.C. 2004. Landslide Risk Assessment. London:Thomas
Telford
Books
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18. Mark A. Jenkins, MD and Caryn Honig, RD –2005.The SportsMed Web -
Dehydration and
Heat Injury
19. Outhart, T., Barker, R., Colquhoum, M. & Crabtree, L. 2003. Leisure and
Recreation for
Vocational A level: formerly Advanced GNVQ. London: Collins Educations
20. Parkhouse, B.L. 2005. The Management of Sport.Its Foundation and Application.
NY:
McGraw - Hill International
21. Performance Enhancing Drugs-Human Growth Hormone Fact Sheet
www.nationaldrugstrategy.gov.au/internet/drugstrategy/publishing.nsf/Content/fs-hgh
22. Sport Injury & Risk Management (SIRM) Generic & Transferable SIRM Policy
examples
23. Swarbrooke, J., Beard, C., Leckie, S. and Pomfret, G. 2003. Adventure
Tourism.The new
frontier. Oxford: Elsevier Science Ltd
24. Schultz, S. J., Zinder, S. M., &Valovich, T. C. 2001. Sports medicine handbook.
Indianapolis:National Federation of State High School Associations.
25. Vicsports, 2010. sportsRisk.com.au
26. Viney C. & Dog P. 1999. A Sporting Chance, A Risk Management Framework for
the Sport
and Recreation Industry, Office Sports and Recreation Tasmania.
27. World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) 2003, World Anti-Doping Code, WADA,
Canada.
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UNIT 8
SPORTS PSYCHOLOGY
8.1 TEAM BUILDING AND COHESION

8.1.1 Team building
8.1.2 Team harmony
8.1.3 Positive environment
8.2 MEASUREMENT AND EVALUATION OF PSYCHOLOGICAL ATTRIBUTES

8.2.1 Psychological assessment tools
8.2.1.1 Mental Performance Inventory
8.2.1.2 Test of Performance Strategies
8.2.1.3 Competitive State Anxiety Inventory 2R
8.2.1.4 Profile of Mood States
8.2.1.5 Ideal Performance State Card
8.3 Plan and application of psychological skills program in training

8.3.1 Implementing psychological skill training
8.3.2 Off-sites pre-competition strategies
8.3.3 On-sites pre-competition strategies
8.3.4 Competition strategies
8.3.5 Types of mental plan
8.3.6 The mental skill training approach
8.3.7 Periodization approach to mental training
8.4 TACTICS, MATCH ANALYSIS, MATCH PLAN

8.4.1 Tactics
8.4.2 Match analysis
8.4.3 Match plan
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8.5 PERCEPTUAL MOTOR INTELLIGENCE

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8.5.1 Developing Thinking Athletes
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OBJECTIVES
Participants are able to:

 Explain the concept of team cohesion
 Design a psychological skills training program
 Measure and evaluate psychological attributes
 Explain and apply match analysis
 Explain and how to develop thinking athlete
8.1 TEAM BUILDING AND COHESION
8.1.1 Team Building
The importance of cohesion in sports team is recognized by even those who are
best known for their individual prowess. It is defined as the strength of the bond
uniting group members. It can also be defined as the force that brings the group
together. Cohesion is critical for group development group maintenance, and the
group‘s collective pursuit of its goals and objectives. In fact, cohesion has been
identified as the most important small group variable (see Golembiewski, Hilles, &
Kagno, 1974).
The core of any team building program is the expectation that the intervention will
produce a more cohesive group. Coaches, either alone or with the help of a sport
psychologist, invariably need to build an effective team.
Consequently, coaches or sport psychology specialist often engage in what is known

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as team building. Team building can be defined as team enhancement or team

improvement for both task and social purpose.
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Bruce Tuckman (1965) proposed a 4 stage of team building that consist of forming-
storming-norming-performing
performing.
1. Forming: team members get to know each

other, work out their roles and where they
stand in relationship to one another. Crucially,
Tuckman points out how people at this stage
test their relationships (rivalries begin, etc.).
2. Storming:conflict
conflict and polarisation brews and
there may be a rebellion against the leader;
members jockey to establish their own roles
and status. This is usually an unhappy time for the group, but it is a vital stage in
the group’s development.
3. Norming: cooperation replaces conflict as members work towards common

goals: this is where GROUP COHESION occurs, increasing mutual respect.
People feel comfortable expressing intimate personal opinions in his stage.
4. Performing: roles become flexible and functional. Relationships

hips have stabilised
and the main goal now is group success.
8.1.2 Team Harmony
Team cohesion requires that the possess team harmony. Communication is the core
of team harmony. In order to enhance and build team harmony, the following
strategies can be used.
 Get to know the team members

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 Give positive feedback to your colleagues whenever you get the chance
 Give 100 percent effort, and work hard on your weaknesses
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 Both negativism and positivism are highly contagious, thus
 Resolve conflicts as quickly as possible
 Get your attitude and disposition right before going to work
 Don‘t be a loudmouth or show-off
 Go out of your way to help your colleagues whenever you can
 Be fully responsible for yourself
 Be your own best igniter
 Communicate clearly, honestly, and openly with your boss
 Having fun
8.1.3 Positive environment
A positive environment is important in developing team cohesion. Positive

environment is characterized by :
 Personal satisfaction
 Strong team identity
 Team cohesion
 Effective communication
There are at least five ways that can be used in the development of a positive
environment:
a) Plan for long term involvement in sport

b) Offer multiple incentives
c) Set goals
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d) Develop team harmony

e) Communicate effectively
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Plan for long Term Involvement in Sport
When you plan for long term involvement in sport, you are also taking steps to give
athletes a sense of personal satisfaction. For sport to be personally satisfying it must
continuously change expand and progress. Athletes might experience personal
satisfaction in sport by:
 Continually improving their performance level

 Contributing as a leader in the organization
 Becoming more self-directed and depending less on coaches.
Offer Multiple Incentives

There are various ways of offering multiple incentives such as recognize
achievement in areas other than performance:
 Effort – put forth in training and competition

 Skill development – improving skill and rate on improvement
 Task execution – supportive behavior such as attendance and punctually.
 Work volume – the amount of work completed.
 Performer interaction – positive relationship among team members.
Coaches should also use social acceptance, recognition, responsibility,

advancement, or growth within the sport as incentives.
Set Goals
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When you encourage athletes and coaches to set goals to exchange thoughts,
aspirations and idea, you are developing a positive environment. In addition, the
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goals provide direction for the team.
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Both team and individual goals can be used to deal with discipline issues. Focusing
on goals, rather than on an athlete‘s violation avoids accusation, reduces the
chances that the athlete will get defensive and gives the athlete a chance to explain
his or her side of the story. In using this approach, you should:
 Focus on team goals

 Discuss the means of attaining these goals
 Described how the athletes has been neglecting on violating these goals
Develop Team Harmony

Team harmony refers to positive interpersonal relationship among team mates. It is
characterized by effective communication, respect for one another, a feeling of
closeness, a friendly atmosphere, mutual acceptance and mutual encouragement.
For team harmony to develop, athletes must appreciate and understand one
another, communicating honestly and sharing ideas, philosophies and goals is the
first step in developing team harmony. The following strategies may be used to
develop team harmony.
a. Team slogans or sayings

Another way to highlight interdependence is to have athletes come up with a
team slogan or saying. Here is one way to develop such a slogan:
 The team divides into groups of 3 or 4
 Each group develops a slogan
 Each group present slogan to entire team
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 Athletes discuss the value of each slogan

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 The team develops one slogan that combines the strengths of each
group‘s slogan
b. Reciprocal Teaching
This technique provides athletes with an effective way to coach one another.
It transfers the responsibility for instruction to athletes. The role of the coach
is to guide positive interactions among athletes. Reciprocal teaching
facilitates the development of effective communication and mutual
acceptance.
It is important to practice reciprocal teaching systematically otherwise feelings

may get hurt, and discord may occur. Athletes must adopt attitudes of co-
operation, appreciation, responsibility and interdependence.
Communicate effectively
Effective communication is both a product of and a contributor to a positive
environment. Athletes should be encouraged to:
 Listen well
 Speak clearly
 Stay expressive
 Encourage one another during practice and competition
PRACTICAL
 Heart to heart talk (I like you because...)

 Sharing my Strengths
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 Team Problem Solving Activities

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 Team Cohesion Activities
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8.2 TEST AND MEASUREMENT IN SPORT PSYCHOLOGY
Test and measurement is a critical exercise in identifying individual or team

strengths and weaknesses. Some objectives of psychological assessment include
 Diagnosis and prescription

 Determination of status for grades
 Aiding of skill learning
 Determination of method effectiveness
 Aiding of research
 Construction of norms and scoring scales
 Classification
 Program evaluation
8.2.1 Psychological Assessment Tools

A common method in assessing psychological construct is by using questionnaire.
Selected questionnaires are included in the list below;
1. Mental Performance Inventory (MPI)

2. Test of Performance Strategies (TOPS)
3. Competitive State Anxiety Inventory -2R (CSAI-2R)
4. Profile of Mood State (POMS)
5. Ideal Performance State Card
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8.2.1.1 Mental Performance Inventory (MPI)

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The mental performance inventory is a specially designed questionnaire to help you
get a clearer idea of your mental strengths and weaknesses relative to the following
7 variables:
 Self confidence
 Negative energy
 Attention control
 Visual and imagery control
 Motivational level
 Positive energy
 Attitude control
8.2.1.2 Test of Performance Strategies (TOPS)

This is a 64-item inventory to measure psychological behaviors of athletes during
competition as well as practice. It also provides indicators of performance strategies
used by athletes in various competitive and training situations. Eight variables are
measured relative to competition and practice behaviors. The eight variables are;
 Activation
 Relaxation
 Imagery
 Goal setting
 Self-talk
 Automaticity
 Emotional control
 Attentional control
See APPENDIX 1 for the questionnaire.

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8.2.1.3 Competitive State Anxiety Inventory – 2R (CSAI-2R) (APPENDIX 1)

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This is a 17 items measuring somatic anxiety, cognitive anxiety, and self-confidence
among athletes in competitive setting. Refer to Appendix 2
8.2.1.4 Profile of Mood States (POMS)
This questionnaire contains 24 simple mood descriptors, such as angry, energetic,

nervous, and unhappy. Respondents indicate whether they have experienced such
feelings on a 5-point scale (0 = not at all, 1 = a little, 2 = moderately, 3 = quite a bit, 4
= extremely). It measure the following variables: Confusion, Anger, Vigor, Fatigue,
Tension, Depression
8.2.1.5 Ideal Performance State (IPS)
Athletes can‘t control whether they get into flow but they can set the stage to make it
more likely to happen through Mental Skills Training (MST). Ideal performing state
refers to attributes or qualities we want athletes to develop in order to be mentally
ready for training and competition. Ideal Performance State (IPS) is the ability to play
one‘s best in any situation, particularly when encountering problems, adversity or
failure. The coach can make use of the IPS form in order to monitor the athlete‘s
performance and make sure the ideal mental conditions prevail.
8.3 PLAN AND APPLICATION OF PSYCHOLOGICAL SKILLS PROGRAM IN

TRAINING
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Psychological Skills Training has been approached from a variety of perspectives

and has been studied as a cognitive process, as an educational aid, as a diagnostic
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or therapeutic tool, in conjunction with the various forms of altered states of
consciousness.
They have noted that the mind is a virtually untapped reservoir in terms of its
relationship to and control over many bodily functions and processes. The state of
mind directly affects how athletes perform. The body responds to the thoughts. For
peak performance, athletes need to be in a state of readiness: mentally and
physically neither too tense nor too relaxed.
8.3.1 Implementing Psychological Skills Training
Most athletes have developed core mental skills to a sufficient degree that they can
function well in day to day situations or even in low- level competitive events. But
when confronted with more demanding, pressure packed situations, those without
sufficient psychological attributes may falter. This can be most frustrating to athletes
and their coaches because they know they have the potential to perform well.
Not recognizing that the performance problems are due to a lack of mental skills,
coaches may encourage athletes to work even harder on their physical skills. A
basketball player may spend extra time shooting free throws after practice. Distance
runners may pound their bodies even harder, sometimes to the point of overtraining.
Indeed, some performance problems might stem from physical issues, such as
inadequate training or poor biomechanics. However, in many cases inadequate
psychological skill could be the cause.
Coaches from all sports are increasing recognizing that athletes can learn and
improve the mental skills needed to achieve excellence in sport by incorporating
PST into their athletes training program.
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8.3.1.1 What Are Mental Plans?
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Terry Orlick (1986) proposes that mental plan involves a series of systematic,
individualized strategies designed to build mental skills into an athlete‘s game.
Mental plans help athletes develop maintain or regain their flow mind-set so that
they can remain mentally tough during the ebb and flow of competition and play their
best.
Mental plans are a means of implementing mental training tools and skills so that
your athletes become more systematic in their mental, as well as physical,
approaches to practice and competition.
Athletes move deliberately through the steps – which might include goal setting, self-
talk, imagery, energization, or any other mental training tool or skill – in an order that
helps them personally create a flow mind-set.
8.3.1.2 Critical Mental Situations in Sport
Identifying mental distractions in sport

An analysis and study of mental distractions in sport is vital so that athletes are not
derailed in achieving optimum performance. The coach must be able to help the
athletes identify the internal as well as the external distractions affecting athletes
during competition.
An exercise or activity must be done in order to identify the distractions and minimize
their influence on performance. This activity is further reinforced by suggesting
coping measures to the distractions faced in competition. Examples of distraction in
sports:
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 Unable to sleep
 Thinking of former loss
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 High expectations
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 Lack of confidence
 Fear of failure
8.3.2 Off-site pre-competition strategies
A pre competition strategy contains all the behaviors which need to be performed
prior to the commencement of the competitive performance. The central feature of
the strategy is preparation for all circumstances so that a player‘s attentional control
is maintained towards goal achievement.
Normal planned routine prior to arriving at the competition venue is categorized as

the off-site pre competition strategies.
Factors to be considered during this phase of competition should include:
 Wake-up procedures
 Events of the day
 Rest
 Maintaining confidence
 Control of activation
 Self-oriented thoughts
 Method of eliminating anxiety and negative thoughts
8.3.3 On-site Pre-competition Strategies
The interval between arriving at the competition site and starting the competition is
crucial. At this time, athletes are susceptible to the influence of minor events. The
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primary concerns at this site are completing preparations, controlling emotions and
focusing thoughts.
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At the competition site, the activities preferred should constitute competition
preparation. The amount of time for doing that is planned. The preparation for
competition should be planned, practiced and predictable (planning and coping
strategies.
The activities at this stage should focus on task relevant factors and to deny any
distractions. Pre-competition activities include:
 Determine when to report to the coach

 Breathing Exercises
 Relaxation Exercises
 Physical Warm-up
 Mental Rehearsal
 Simulation Exercises
 Using positive self-talk
 Monitoring activation
 Distractions control
 Refocusing
8.3.4 Competition Strategies
The purpose of a competition strategy is to develop sufficient information and mental

activation to consume totally the time of the competition. The opportunity for
distractions to occur is minimized if a proper attentional focus is achieved. The
activities at this stage include:
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 Concentration on task relevant factors

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 A major portion of any competition strategy should involve concentration
on the technical aspects of the activity, such as:
 Skills
 Plays
 Offensive moves
 Defensive moves
 Pacing
 Other relevant tasks
8.3.4.1 Controlling thoughts using Cue words
Studies have shown that actions are accelerated when an individual thinks of self-
commands. If a player wants to be fast in action, then he should think fast word
while performing. If a player wants to be strong, then he should think strong words at
the appropriate time. Thus, the assertion that ―how you think is how you perform.
Use strong words to control mood of actions in performance. Some common cue
words are listed below:
Strength : Crush, solid, force, squash, powerful and muscle

Power (force) : Heave, smash, blast, bang, and explode
Speed : Fast, alert, whip, flick, jab, smack, thrust and dash.
Persistence : Press, pressure, drive,drag,smother,and continue.
Confidence :Great,bold,push,superb,beautiful,fantastic and
concentrate.
Balance : Solid, firm, anchored, rigid, block, and hard.
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8.3.4.2 Controlling thought using Positive Self-statements

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These are positive statements which encourage the player to continue with the
performance. Positive self-statements should be used at critical times in a
performance when fatigue is increasing, during a session of lost points and during a
monotonous period.
 Segmentation - In sport which spans a long duration such as hockey, football,

marathon running, and distance swimming, it is difficult for players to be
flexible and to adjust to situational tactics if the final outcome is the only goal.
Segmentation is a strategy to avoid fatigue and boredom by breaking into
phases, parts, sets, ends, etc.
8.3.4.3 Benefits of a competition strategy.
Some benefits of competition strategies are
 Cope with pain

 Cope with fatigue
 Recover from a loss of concentration
 Control anger
8.3.4.4 Mental Warm Up
Sport and exercise psychologists have long studied the causes and effects of
arousal, stress and anxiety in the competitive athletic environment. In order to
perform at peak level, you want to be in a state of physically and mentally ready.
It is highly evident that a good physical warm up often regulates the physical and
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physiological signs associated with activation or arousal of the body. It is the mental
components which have yet to be addressed effectively prior to competition.
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Relaxation routine
 Sit comfortably in a relaxed position with your back straight, your legs apart,
your feet flat on the floor
 Inhale slowly and deeply through your nose as you expand your abdomen
 Hold your breath for a count of 10 second
 Exhale slowly through your nose, pull your abdominal muscles in as you push
all the air out of your lungs
 Now slowly inhale again and repeat the sequence practice this for 2-3
minutes
Self Talk
The feeling of being positive during competition can determine the rate of success or
failure. The following are examples of positive statements.
 I am a strong and fluid athlete

 I am as good as any other athlete at the competition today
 I am confident and ready
 I am in control and focused
 Enjoy training and competing
 I am successful and winning
Imagery
Imagery refers to the process of seeing yourself on a screen in your mind‘s eye,
consciously evoking and guiding thoughts in which you appear towards a specific
and successful conclusion.
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8.3.5 Types of Mental Plans
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The role of mental plans is to develop, maintain and regain a flow mind-set. Mental
preparation plans help performers create a flow mind-set before practice and
competition. And mental recovery plans help competitors regain their emotional
composure and get back into a flow mind-set when they‘ve been taken out of their
game.
8.3.5.3 Mental Preparation Plans
Mental preparation plans help athletes to warm up mentally by using a structured

routine to promote a flow mind-set that will enable them to practice and play at their
best. Most athletes find it helpful to integrate their warm-up into their physical one,
thus readying their mind and body together.
Preparation plans include a basic plan for ideal conditions and a backup plan for use
when the warm-up is constrained by time or circumstance. Preparation plans for
practice and competition should be quite similar, with changes made only in those
steps that must differ based on the situation. This continuity helps athletes
seamlessly transfer skills from practice to competition.
8.3.5.4 Mental Performance Plans
Mental performance plans are used during practice and competition to help athletes
perform their best by maintaining and using their flow mind-set. They typically
include a standard mental performance plan for use when things go well and backup
mental performance plans to cover several common contingencies when problems
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occur or when the standard plan proves ineffective.

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Standard mental performance plans focus on athletes‘ goals for practice or
competition and on action plans for attaining them. These plans are usually tailored
to one of three main categories of competition: races or routine, self-paced tasks,
and interactive sports.
For races and routines, standard mental performance plans focus on developing
specific strategies to maintain a flow mind-set during each major segment of the
event.
Self-paced task (e.g., golf, field events, archery, basketball free throws and tennis
and volleyball serves) are repetitive, and athletes should construct and automate
pre-performance and between-performance routine that will happen, standard
mental performance plans should focus on strategies for anticipated critical points
the contest (e.g., last 3 minutes of the game, or first play after a time-out) or for
reacting to specific good or bad performance trends (e.g., after a turnover, or a run
of point) plans can be devised for interactive sports with breaks in the action, such
as tennis and American football.
8.3.5.5 Mental Recovery Plans
Backup mental performance plans address recurring or predictable problems;

mental recovery plans help you recover from unexpected or uncommon setbacks
where you become emotionally flustered and get taken out of your game.
Mental recovery plans don‘t necessarily allow performers to completely return to

form, but they do help them make the best difficult situations and perform as well as
circumstances allow.
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Mental recovery plan is a simple routine designed for the wide range of unexpected
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practice and competitive situations that occasionally catch competitors off guard and
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cause them lose composure (e.g., distracting nonsport problems, controversial
officiating decisions, trash talking by opponents, or stupid mistakes of their own).
Mental recovery plans are general in design to provide a standard coping routine
that can be used regardless of the problem that caused the loss of composure.
8.3.6 The Mental Skills Training Approach
MST is the systematic and consistent use of mental training tools – goal setting,
imagery, relaxation and energization, and self-talk, to build the mental skills, or
psychological attributes that coaches want their athletes to have - motivation,
energy, management, attention, stress management, and confidence.
The fundamental premise behind MST is that using mental training tools or
techniques can enable athlete to develop the desired mental skills
Table 8.1 illustrates a few of the potential applications of each mental training tool
and how it affects several mental skills..
Table 8.1 Using the Four Mental Training Tools to Develop A athletes‘ Mental Skills
GOAL SETTING
Setting realistic but challenging short-term goals provides a sense of direction,
thereby increasing motivation as reflected in increased effort and persistence
Challenging, realistic goals help athletes get into their optimal energy zone and direct
that energy to the task at hand.
Effective goals direct athletes attention to what they need to focus on to succeed
Although striving to win is important, focusing on winning can create excessive
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stress. When athletes perceive the challenge not as winning but as achieving their
own realistic set performance goals, the challenge will always be near the athletes
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present skill level and will create on optimal skill challenge balance
Consistent goal attainment raises self-confidence
IMAGERY
Teaching athletes to image themselves attaining their goals help raise their
motivation
By imagining previous strong performances, athletes can identify their optimal energy
levels and strategies for getting into an effective energy zone prior to performing
Using imagery effectively requires the ability to focus on desired images and thus can
be used to develop attentional skills
Imagery can be used to help athletes manage competitive stress. Athletes are less
likely to experience elevated stress if they have imagined themselves dealing
effectively with obstacles and unanticipated events that create stress
RELAXATION AND ENERGIZATION

Learning to energize when feeling flat and developing the ability to relax when over
aroused can help build motivation
Relaxation and energization technique can help athletes consistently enter and stay
in their attention to the task at hand. Relaxation and energization techniques help
athletes improve their concentration skills
Learning to purposefully relax when experiencing stress can help athletes manage
their emotions. And energizing techniques can be used when athletes feel that low-
level stress is preventing them from getting into their ideal mental state for performing
By learning to control their energy levels through relaxation and energizing athletes
will develop a sense of control which in turn enhances self-confidence
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SELF-TALK
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Athletes can use self-talk to help motivate themselves
Self-talk can either raise or lower energy. Athletes can use effective self-talk
strategies to reach their ideal mental state before competing
Focusing on task relevant cue words can help athletes focus their attention or regain
focus if they are momentarily distracted
Stress level is strongly influenced by athletes perception and interpretations of event
that happen before and during competition. Athletes can use self-talk to develop a
positive outlook on event that normally result in elevated stress
Positive self-talk can be used to raise self-confidence, whereas negative self-talk can
lower it.
8.3.7 Periodization Approach To Mental Training.
Periodization refers to the process of dividing the yearly training plan into periods
and phases. It does not make sense, for example, for a basketball team to
emphasize pre-competition preparation and competition strategies at the start of the
season-players are mainly building general fitness. Athletes first learn a basic mental
skill such as relaxation (in a quiet darkened room). Then they learn how to adapt it to
a sport (for instance, taking a penalty kick, using a brief breathing technique to relax
before each kick in practice).
Finally, athletes develop a strategy for using relaxation in a game situation (using
progressive relaxation before a game, taking centering breaths as they walk on to
the field, then shaking out their legs just before the kick). The coach must be aware
of the different focus during each phase of the training period.
 The General preparatory phase focuses on the evaluation of mental skills as

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well as learning basic mental skills

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 The Specific preparatory phase will focus on adapting and practicing mental
skills in sports-specific situation and to maintain basic skills
 The Pre competition phase will develop and practice focus plan, use focus
plan in simulations and maintain basic mental skills
 The Competition phase will evaluate and refine focus plan, use mental skills
to prepare for specific opponents and competitions, use mental skills for
stress management
 The Transition phase will focus on the use of mental skills to aid regeneration
and lower stress, maintain fitness and prevent staleness through recreational
activities.
Practical
a) Chart the Mental Skills Training in your periodization plan. Explain why you
choose these skills in your training.
b) Plan a short term and long term mental training for your athletes.
8.4 TACTICS, MATCH ANALYSIS AND MATCH PLAY (DEVELOPING THINKING

PLAYERS)
8.4.1 Tactics
This is the ability to use specific strategies in a match to give your team an
advantage:
 Strength and weaknesses of the opposition

 Strength and weaknesses of your team
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For a tactic to be successful:
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 Your players understand the reason for such a tactic
 The players involved understand the specific roles they must play
 your players is capable of fulfilling the role required to use the tactic
Tactics can be applied to many situations in the game such;
 At an individual level
 To a group level
 To the team as a whole
 When your team has possession
 When the opponent has possession
 At the restarts or in open play
 In particular areas of the pitch
 During particular phases of the game
Examples of tactics
 Reduce players effectiveness by using man to man marker

 Force the ball to a particular part of the pitch
 Stopping the play when the opposition have the ball
 Placing high pressure on a particular opponent
 Forcing a particular opponents to drag one way
 Using overhead into a specific zone of the ground
 Closing off a game
 Using very wet conditions to advantage
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 Using a psychological weakness of an opponent to your advantage

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8.4.2 Match Analysis:
The purposes of match analysis are:
1. To get feedback from the match or competition

2. To plan strategies and tactics
3. To counter strengths of the opposing team or opponent.
The 4W’s to structure the match analysis.

1. Who – Individual , group, team
2. What – Passing , control, attack playleft/right
3. Where – ‘d’ , 25 yards, defence, attack
4. When – First 5 minutes , goal for them/ against them
8.4.2.1 Type Of Match Analysis:
1. During Pc (Attack/Defense)
2. Penetration Of Opposing Team
3. The Link Man
4. Goal Scoring Patterns
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Match Analysis Worksheet (Team and Individual Games)
Match Analysis Worksheet

Name:_____________________________
_
Team Evaluating:
System of Play (i.e., formation – 1:4:4:2, 1:3:5:2, 1:3:4:3, 1:4:3:3, etc.):
1st
a. Forwards Half
b. Midfielders
c. Defenders
d. Goalkeeper
Defending Tendencies:
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a. Team shape and balance

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b. Man-to-Man
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c. Zonal
d. High or low pressure
e. Pressing
Attacking Tendencies:
a. Team shape and balance
b. Direct
c. Indirect
d. Patterns of play
e. Counter attacking
Transition:
a. Team’s immediate reaction to losing or regaining possession of the ball
Restarts or Set Pieces: 2nd Half
a. Attacking
b. Defending
c. Are they slow or quick to organize
d. Specialists and range (i.e., long throw-in)
Key Players:
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a. Strengths
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b. Tendencies
c. Role
Team Strengths and Weaknesses:
a. Technical and tactical proficiency
b. Individual and team speed

c. Size and physical presence
d. Psychological make-up
Personnel Adjustments:
a. Score
b. Time of game Technical Training Topic:
c. Cautions or ejections
d. Injuries
Tactical Training
e. Individual match-ups Topic:
Defining Moment:
a. A point in which the momentum or outcome was influenced

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MATCH ANALYSIS FORMAT BADMINTON
PLAYER OPPONENT
Front Court: net – sn, cn Strength / Weakness

Clear-scl, ccl
Mid court : drive- sd, cd
Block – sbl, cbl
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Back court: lob def– sl,cl

Lob attack- sal, cal Pattern of games
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Smash – ss.cs
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Drop – sdrp, cdrp
Chop- schp, cchp
ERROR :
Most frequent Defence and attack angle
error:___________________
___________________
____________
Classified ERROR: Force
error:__________
___________
Unforce
error:________
__________
Why the player make the mistake? Pace of player/opponent
Movement:
Services : Return Services: Receive
Defence and attack angle Winning point:

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Recomendations:
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Please make sure cues and feedback given to players : short and positive statement.
8.4.2.2 Analysis of competition situations
External Physical Factors: Such As Playing Surface, Spectators, Weather Conditions,

Time, Sound, Lighting
Competition: Mode, Schedule, Rules, Time, Umpiring And Judging
Strategy: Opponents, And Own
Physical: Fitness Level, Fatigue
Psychological: Anxiety And Aggression
8.4.3 Match Plan
A match plan is like a blueprint of what you would like to happen in a game. Contents
of match plan:
 The style of play required for the match

 Specific tactics and strategies
 Set price discussion making sure all players are clear of their involvement
Pointers to a Match Plan:
 Predicting what will occur in match is very difficult. However with good
planning the match can be orchestrated in an effective way
 Be realistic when setting up a match plan
 Should be given at least 2 hours before match
 Allow for creative thinking and on filed decisions.
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Match Plan - Use of video

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 Able to watch the movements (with the ball / off the ball) of a talented players,
to plan a tactic to close off the player
 Better prepared to attack or defend pc
 Attacking patterns of opponents
 Defensive positions of opponents
 Better understanding of opponents patterns
 Analysis of competitive situation
8.5 PERCEPTUAL MOTOR INTELLIGENCE
It is not an uncommon sight to observe equally skilled players perform differently

during a match. One seems to be making accurate decision and reacting
appropriately to the demand of the match. However, the other one seems be making
bad decisions, slower reaction, and losing concentration. It is usual expression
among coaches to label the former being ‘playing with brain’ while the later is just the
opposite.
The concept of ‘thinking athletes’ and ‘sport intelligence’ has attracted questions and
discussions over how to train players to be one. While it is not a straightforward
concept, sport intelligence refer to the mental ability needed to complete the
demands of a sport task successfully. Sporting intelligence includes knowledge of the
sport, knowledge of where and when important cues are likely to occur, the ability to
search for and detect task-relevant cues, identification of cue patterns, short-term
memory recall, and decision-making ability.
In competitive situation, players’ ability to quickly and accurately perceive relevant

information will facilitate decision making and allow more time for preparation and
organization of motor behaviour. Successful performance in sport requires not only
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efficient execution of motor behaviour but also a high level of perceptual ability.
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A growing number of studies have found that expert performers are superior to
novices in perceptual skills, such as detecting the presence of a ball in briefly
presented sport scenes making efficient search for relevant informative parts of the
opponent’s body and fields, anticipating the ball direction and the opponent’s action
from advance information recalling and recognizing structured scenes of game and
play.
In short, sport intelligence reflect perceptual motor abilities such as;
 Reaction time
 Perceptual motor
 Sustained attention
 Decision making abilities
8.5.1 Developing Thinking Athletes
Sport intelligent, like any other abilities are both nature and nurture. While some
athletes are born with it, others require extensive training and experience to become
one. A fundamental requirement in developing a ‘thinking athlete’ is that athletes
must have sufficient knowledge of the game. Therefore, engaging athletes in
discussion over tactical aspect of the game, rather than a one-way instruction may
help athlete to foster their decision making abilities.
Attention refers to the ability to give focus on relevant cues related to tasks. Human
attention capacity is limited to one at a time. Attending to multiple stimulus will
decrease the proportion of attention given to each stimulus. Three important mental
skills in attention are concentration, visualization and re-focusing. Concentration
refers to the ability to attend to performance relevant cues and block irrelevant cues
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in competition. Related to other mental process, such as, feelings, nerves and
memories. Strategies that may be used to help athlete developed this ability include
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grid exercises, thought stopping, shuttling from external to internal and likewise
(zoom-in and zoom-out).
Given that athletes state of mind is a product multiple factors, equipping athletes with
related psychological techniques such as goal setting, self-talk, relaxation, and
imagery may be beneficial in ensuring their mental readiness.
APPENDIX 1: TEST OF PERFORMANCE STRATEGIES (DURING COMPETITION)
Each of the following items describes a specific situation that you may encounter in
your training and competition. Please circle how frequently these situations apply to
you in the following 1-5 scales.
During competition….
Strongly disagree neutral agree
strongly disagree
agree
1 I talk positively to myself to get the most
out of competition
2 My emotions keep me from performing
my best
3 I usually perform without consciously
thinking about it
4 I usually set personal performance goals
5 I imagine competitive routine before I do
it
6 I can increase my energy to just the right
level
7 I imagine screwing up during
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competition
8 I am able to relax if I get too nervous
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competitive performance
10 My emotions get out of control under the
competitive pressure
11 I don‘ t think about performing much, I
just let it happen
12 I set very specific goals
13 I rehearse the feel of performance in my
imagination
14 I do what needs to be done to get
psyched up
15 My self-talk is negative
16 I find it difficult to relax when I am too
tense
17 I can manage my self-talk effectively
18 When something upsets me, my
performance suffers
19 I perform on `automatic pilot‘
20 I set specific result goals for myself
21 I rehearse my performance in my mind
22 I psych myself up to get ready to
perform
23 I have thoughts of failure
24 When the pressure is on, I know how to
relax
25 I say specific cue words or phrases to
myself to help performance
26 When I make a mistake, I have trouble
getting my concentration back on track
27 I play/perform instinctively with little
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conscious effort
28 I evaluate whether I achieve my
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competition goals
29 I can visualize competition going exactly
the way I want it
30 I can raise my energy level when
necessary
31 I keep my thoughts positive
32 When I need to, I can relax to get ready
to performance
Scoring Sheet Performance Strategies During Competition
Date:
Ite Item Item Item Total Total/20

m x100
Self Talk 1 9 17 25
Emotional 2 10 18 26
Control
Automaticit 3 11 19 27
y
Goal 4 12 20 28
Setting
Imagery 5 13 21 29
Activation 6 14 22 30
Negative 7 15 23 31
Thinking
Relaxation 8 16 24 32
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APPENDIX 2: TEST OF PERFORMANCE STRATEGIES (TRAINING)
Directions: Each of the following items describes a specific situation that you may
have encountered in your competition. Think back to the prime of your career, read
each statement, and circle the appropriate number to the right of the statement to
indicate how you usually felt.
During training ….
Strongly disagree
neutral agree strongly
disagree
agree
1 I set realistic but challenging goals
2 I have trouble controlling emotions
when things are not going well
3 I seem to be in a flow
4 I use practice time to work on
relaxation technique
5 I talk positively to myself to get the
most out of practice
6 I imagine watching myself as if on a
video replay when I visualize my
performance
7 My attention wanders while training
8 I have trouble raising my energy if I
feel slow
9 I have very specific goals
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10 I am frustrated and emotionally

upset when practice does not go
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well
11 My movements and skills seem to
flow (happen) naturally
12 I practice relaxation techniques at
workouts
13 I motivate myself to train through
positive self-talk
14 I visualize successful past
performances
15 I have trouble maintaining
concentration during long practices
16 I practice increasing my energy
during training sessions
17 I set goals to help me use practice
time effectively
18 When things are going poorly, I stay
in control of myself emotionally
19 I am able to allow whole skill or
movement to happen naturally
without concentrating on each part
of the skill
20 Relax myself to get ready
21 I say things to myself to help my
practice performance
22 I rehearse my performance in my
mind
23 Focus attention effectively
24 I have difficulty increasing energy
level during workouts
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25 I don‘ t set goals for practices, I just

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26 I lose my focus when I perform
poorly
27 I don‘ t think about performing much
just let it happen
28 I practice a way to relax
29 Manage self-talk effectively
30 When I visualize my performance, I
imagine what it will feel like
31 I am able to control distracting
thoughts when training
32 I practice a way to energize myself
Scoring Sheet Performance Strategies During Competition
Date:
Ite Item Item Item Total Total/20

m x100
Goal 1 9 17 25
setting
Emotional 2 10 18 26
Control
Automaticit 3 11 19 27
y
Relaxation 4 12 20 28
Self-talk 5 13 21 29
Imagery 6 14 22 30
Attentional 7 15 23 31
control
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Activation 8 16 24 32
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APPENDIX 2 Competitive State Anxiety Inventory – 2 Revised (CSAI-2R)
Name ____________________________________ Age _________Gender M/F

Sport ____________________________Event / Position ____________________
Number of years you have involved in this sport ____Today’s date______________
Direction: A number of statements that athletes have used to describe theirfeelings

before competition are given below. Read each statement and then cir le the
appropriate number to the right of the statement to indicate how you feel RIGHT
NOW – at this moment. There are no right or wrong answers. Do not spend too
much time on any one statement, but choose the answer which describes your
feelings RIGHT NOW.
Some what
Moderately
Very much
Not at all
1 I feel jittery
2 I am concerned that I may not do as well in this
competition as I could
3 I feel self-confident
4 My body feels tense
5 I am concerned about losing
6 I feel tense in my stomach
7 I’m confident I can meet the challenge
8 I am concerned about choking under pressure
9 My heart is racing
10 I’m confident about performing well
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11 I’m concerned about performing poorly

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13 I’m confident because I mentally picture myself
reaching my goal
14 I’m concerned that others will be disappointed with
my performance
15 My hands are clammy
16 I’m confident of coming through under pressure
17 My body feels tight
APPENDIX 3 PROFILE OF MOOD STATES (POMS)
Name: _____________________________Age:________Gender: M / F
Sport: ________________________Event / Position: _________________
Number of years you have involved in this sport:____Date:________________
Below is a list of words that describe feelings. Please read each one carefully. Then
tick in the box that best describe HOW YOU FEEL RIGHT NOW. Make sure you
answer every question.
No Feelings Not at A little Moderately Quite a bit Extremely

1. Panicky all
2. Lively
3. Confused
4. Worn out
5. Depressed
6. Downhearted
7. Annoyed
8. Exhausted
9. Mixed-up
10. Sleepy
11. Bitter
12. Unhappy
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13. Anxious
14. Worried
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15. Energetic
16. Miserable
17. Muddled
18. Nervous
19. Angry
20. Active
21. Tired
22. Bad tempered
23. Alert
24. Uncertain
IDEAL PERFORMANCE STATE CARD
NAME: ______________ DATE: _____________ TIME: ___________
MUSCLE RELAX 1 2 3 4 5 MUSCLE TIGHT

HEART BEAT CALM 1 2 3 4 5 HEART BEAT FAST
LOW ANXIETY 1 2 3 4 5 HIGH ANXIETY
HIGH ENERGY 1 2 3 4 5 LOW ENERGY
POSITIVE THINKING 1 2 3 4 5 NEGATIVE THINKING
HIGHLY ENJOYABLE 1 2 3 4 5 UNENJOYABLE
EFFORTLESS 1 2 3 4 5 GREAT EFFORT
AUTOMATIC 1 2 3 4 5 DELIBERATE
CONFIDENT 1 2 3 4 5 NOT CONFIDENT
ALERT 1 2 3 4 5 DULL
IN CONTROL 1 2 3 4 5 OUT OF CONTROL
FOCUSED 1 2 3 4 5 UNFOCUSED
PLAYED WELL 1 2 3 4 5 PLAYED
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POORLY
POSITIVE ENERGY 1 2 3 4 5 NEGATIVE
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UNIT 9
MOTOR BEHAVIOUR
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OBJECTIVES
State factors that facilitate learning and performance

1. Identify activities that apply the Transfer of Learning (TOL) principle in their
chosen sport.
2. Diagnose the learning situation design a learning experience for their sport
3. To differentiate experts and novices in sports
Facilitating Learning and Performance

• Transfer of Learning
• Diagnosing Learning Situation
• Designing Learning Experience
• Human Motor Expertise
Transfer of Learning - The transfer of learning refers to the influence of a
previously learnt skill on a current learning process of a skill
Concepts of the Transfer of Learning

Positive Transfer - Previous experiences assist in the acquisition of a new skill
Negative Transfer - Previous experiences hinder the acquisition of a new skill
Zero Transfer - Previous experiences have no influence on the acquisition of a new
skill.
Effects of Transfer- Transfer of Learning occurs with a directional component

Proactive Transfer - Improvements of current skill due to previously acquired skill
Retroactive Transfer-Improvements in learnt skill due to acquisition of a new skill
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Effects of Transfer
Transfer of Learning occurs with
a directional component
Proactive Retroactive
Forward ‘Backwards’
Improvements of Improvements in
current skill due to learnt skill due to
Importance of Transfer
• Sequence of skill being taught

– Simple to Complex
• Teaching Method
– Safe environment for learning before performance in realistic environ
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ments
• Inferential Learning
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– TGfU – Teaching game concepts through modified games
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Identical Elements Theory
– Skills that have similar elements assist in the acquisition of one another
INTRODUCTION
 Growth refers to measurable changes in size, physique and body composition,
and various systems of the body.
 Maturation refers to progress toward the mature state. Maturation is variable
among bodily systems and also in timing and tempo of progress.
 The processes of growth and maturation are related, and both in
inﬂuence
physical performance.
mance.
Facilitating Learning and Performance

• To design an effective plan of instruction, practitioners must know something
about the:
• Background
• Abilities
• Experiences of learners
• The underlying mechanisms of human performance
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• The learning goal and target context

• Feedback
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Checklist for Diagnosing a Learning Situation (Who, What, Where?)
Who? What? Where?
Learner Characteristics Task (Target skill) Characters Target context

o Age o Discrete, serial or o Recreational
o Previous experience continuous o Competitive
o Motivation o Motor or cognitive o Clinical
o Stage of learning o Closed or open o Home
o Abilities o Closed-Loop control o Presence or absence
o Attention o Exteroceptive of others
o Arousal feedback
o Memory o Proprioceptive
o Information – feedback
processing capability o Open-loop control
Goal(s) of Learning o Motor program
o Program Learning o Generalized motor
o Parameter learning program
o Error detection and o Speed accuracy trade-
correction off
o Skill refinement o Spatial accuracy
o Generalization o Temporal accuracy
o Object manipulation
o Information-processing
demands
o Risk of injury
Checklist for Designing the Learning Experience Prepartion, Practice presentation,
Practice feedback)
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Practice Preparation Practice presentation Practice feedback
o Goal setting o Clarifying o Intrinsic feedback

o Outcome goals expectations o Extrinsic feedback
o Performance o Managing arousal o Knowledge of results
goals o Focusing attention o Knowledge of
o Process goals o Providing performance
o Stage of learning instructions o Instructional decisions
o Transfer of o Providing o Type of feedback
learning demonstrations o Program or parameter
o Target skills o Offering guidance o Visual. Verbal, or
o Target behaviors o Providing physical manual
o Target context practice o Descriptive or
o Performance o Simulations prescriptive
measures o Part practice o Amount of feedback
o Outcome o Slow-motion o Average feedback
o Process practice o Summary feedback
Practice structure o Error detection o Precious feedback
o Schema practice o Frequency feedback
development o Providing mental
o Constant practice practice
o Varied practice o Procedures
o Facilitating o Imagery
transfer
o Blocked practice
o Random practice
o Consistent and
varied mapping
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Applying the Principles of Skill Learning
• Suppose you are a coach teaching a tennis team. If you are teach your
players to serve in tennis.
• How do you determine if they are actually learning what you are taught them?
• What will you look for to assess their progress in learning to serve?
• How can you be certain that what you are observing is the result of learning
and not just luck?
SKILL LEARNING
• A solid understanding of the principles and process underlying skill learning

and of the factors successful practitioners consider when diagnosing,
designing, and assessing a person’s learning experience.
• The best way to evaluate your comprehension of this information is to see how
well you can apply it in providing instructional assistance for an actual learner
(athletes).
- How do you think you might respond to the challenge?
- How well can you diagnose a learning situation?
- How well can you design a learning experience?
- How effectively can you assess that experience?
- What type of rational and research documentation might
you offer in support of your decisions?
Practical (questions?)
Assessing the learning experience

• The final piece of the working strategy pertains to assessment.
• If we can evaluate improvement in skill learning accurately, we will be able to
provide the athletes with helpful information about achievement as well as
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MOTOR EXPERTISE
HOW DO WE PRODUCE THE NEXT LEE CHONG WEI OR NICOL DAVID!
Experts vs Novice
• Greater task specific knowledge
• Interpret greater meaning from available information
• Store and access information more effectively
• Better detect and recognize structured patterns of play
• Utilize situation probability data better
• Make decisions that are more rapid and more appropriate
Nature Vs Nurture?
• Relative contributions of genetics (nature) and environmental (nurture)

• Nature
– Personality, strengths & weaknesses and ultimate potential determined
by genetics
• Nurture
– Everytning that occurs after birth is a result of experience and learning
Inter relationship of nature and nurture?

• Both play an important role…..
– Would we be able to produce badminton champions if we don’t have
badminton courts?
– Why isn’t Jesse Owens son running in the Olympics?
Development of Elite Performance
• Factors affecting the development

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– Primary Factors
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• Genetics
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• Training Factors
• Psychological factors
– Secondary Factors
• Socio cultural factors
• Cultural Importance
• Instructional resources
• Familial support
• Contextual Factors
• Sport Maturity
PRIMARY FACTORS – GENETICS

• GENETICS
– HERITAGE study
• Health, RIsk factors, exercise Training And Genectics
• Maximum aerobic capacity; resting blood pressure; resting heart
rate are related to genetic factors
• Response to exercise – influence by genetic make up
• Events where above factors (eg marathon) are important will be
aided if you have the genes!
• The above study suggest that genetics play a role….. But more
questions remain!
PRIMARY FACTORS-TRAINING FACTORS
• Power Law of Practice

– Learning occurs at a rapid rate after the onset of practice but this rate of
learning decreases over time as practice continues (Newell &
Rosenbloom, 1981).
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–
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• Deliberate Practice
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– Well defined task with an appropriate difficulty level for the particular
individual, informative feedback and correction of errors Ericsson, 1996.
DELIBERATE PRACTICE IN ATHLETE TRAINING (Quality, Quantity, Balance)
QUALITY QUANTITY
Performing enough
of the right type of
training at the
optimal time to
maximize training
adaptations.
BALANCE
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PRIMARY FACTORS-PSYCHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
• NECESSARY FOR ACQUISITION OF EXPERTISE
– HIGH LEVELS OF MOTIVATION
– ACHIEVEMENT GOAL THEORY
– SELF EFFICACY THEORY
– ATTRIBUTION THEORY
– SELF DETERMINATION
• NECESSARY FOR MANIFESTATION OF EXPERTISE

– FOCUS ON GIVEN TASK
– ANXIETY CONTROL
– SELF CONFIDENCE
– REBOUND FROM MISTAKES
– RISK TAKERS & COMPETITIVENESS
–
INTERACTION OF PRIMARY FACTORS
• NATURE & NURTURE
– An athlete with an advantageous genetic makeup but without the desire
to train at sufficient intensity is not pre disposed to higher levels of
performance than an athlete who has completed significantly more
intense training Davids et. al , 2003
Secondary Factors
• Primary factors are INFLUENCED by secondary factors
• Cultural ties promote social resources for increased involvement &
development in a chosen sport
– Running in Kenya
– Cricket in India
Secondary Factors-SOCIO CULTURAL FACTORS

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High cultural importance, increased training resources, increased exstrinsic

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Increased
Training
Resources
High Cultural Greater Ease Higher

Importance of Ultimate
Inreased
Exstrinsic
Motivation
(Baker,J & Horton, S. (2004). A review of primary and secondary

influences on sport expertise. High Ability Studies, 15 (2) pp 211-228)
• Cultural importance
– Importance society places on a sport
• Ice hockey in Canada
– 3.5 times more children than Rusia
• Alpine skiing in Austria
• African American majority is sports
– Basketball, track & field
Socio Cultural Resources
• Instructional Resources
– Knowledgeable Coaches
• Application of developmental appropriate activities
• Creating environments that fosters optimal learning
• Maximizing practice time
• Accurate feedback
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Familial Support
• Expert athletes depend on parental support in different roles along their path
to success
– Early years
• enrolling into programs
• providing transportation
– Specializing years
• Monetary assistance
• Sometimes coach
– Investment years - support & motivation
Studies on deliberate practice tell us that

• Practice that is always effortful but not inherently enjoyable (Ericsson, K.A. &
Charness, N. 1994)
• Requires maximum concentration and exertion during training conditions (ibid)
• Sport context – practice is effortful but also enjoyable (Starkes, J.L. et al.
1996)
• Approximately 10 years/10000 hours of deliberate practice is needed to
achieve expertise (Ericsson, K.A., Krampe, R.T., & Tesch-Roemer, C. 1993)
What is needed for deliberate practice?

• Resources
– Environment – Formal = Expenses
• Motivation
– Internal motivation …..for children?
– Coaches – Development vs Master
• Effort
– Physical
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Mental
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Deliberate Play
• No adult involvement
• Modified rules – by the children
• No coach = no formal skills practice
• Enjoyment and immediate gratification
• Eg. Any games created and played by children
What can we conclude

• Early years
– Deliberate play
– Involvement in multiple sports
– Minimal formal competitions/practice
• Sampling years
– Balance between Deliberate play & deliberate practice
– Introduction to formal competitions
• Investment years
– More deliberate practice
– More formal competitions
LONG TERM ATHLETE DEVELOPMENT ISTVAN BALYI
Seven Stages of Long--Term Athlete Development (Active start, Fundamental,

Learning to Train, Training to Train, Training to Compete, Training to Win, Active for
Life ) 279
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Playground to Podium
CONCLUSION
• Development is a long term process
• There are no short cuts or instant results
• INSANITY
– DOING THE SAME THING OVER & OVER AGAIN AND EXPECTING
DIFFERENT RESULTS!
• THERE MUST BE A SHIFT IN DEVELOPMENTAL PLANS FOR RESULTS
TO CHANGE!
“Thinking good thoughts precede good actions”

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UNIT 10 SPORTS MEDICINE LEVEL 111
CONTENT
10.1 COMMON MEDICAL CONDITION IN ATHLETES
10.1.1 ASTHMA
10.1.2 DIABETES
10.1.3 HYPERTENSION
10.1.4 CARDIOVASCULAR EMERGENCIES
10.1.5 VIRAL INFECTIONS
10.1.6 ANAEMIA
10.1.7 OSTEOARTHRITIS
10.1.8 HAEMATURIA
10.1.9 TRAVELLER’S DIARRHOEA
10.1.10 SEXUAL TRANSMITTED ILLNESSES
10.1.11 SKIN INFECTION
10.2 CONTRAINDICATIONS IN SPORTS

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10.3 MEDICAL PREPAREDNESS: COMPETITION AND TRAVEL

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10.4 SPORT INJURY REHABILITATION
10.1 COMMON MEDICAL CONDITION IN ATHLETES
Introduction
Some medical conditions can affect sport performance and vice
versa.
Coaches are expected to have a basic understanding and
knowledge of the following common medical conditions:
a) Asthma
b) Diabetes
c) Hypertension
d) Cardiovascular diseases
e) Viral infections
f) Anemia
g) Osteoarthritis
h) Hematuria
i) Traveller’s diarrhoea
j) Sexual transmitted diseases
k) Skin infections
Modifications of the sporting program may be necessary.

Coaches should be aware the nature & severity of the illness.
Medical conditions can affect performance and aspirations of the
athlete.
For prevention purposes, athletes
a) Should complete a medical examination.
b) Get clearance from the doctors.
c) Notify the coaches or trainer of any changes to training
d) Notify coach on medical condition and treatment
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10.1.1 Asthma
It is defined as narrowing of the airways due to spasm and/or
swelling of the airway walls causing difficulty in breathing.
Exercise – induced asthma (EIA) refers to asthma that is
triggered during or shortly after exercise:
a) Cold air
b) Cigarettes
c) Allergens
d) Emotions
e) Virus
f) Stress
Treatment of an asthmatic attack:
a) Be calm and reassuring
b) Help administer puffs of an inhaler if available
c) If there is little or no improvement, call an ambulance
immediately and send to emergency department.
Pre – exercise advice.
- Well–controlled asthmatic should not be prevented from
exercise and participation in sport.
 Avoid :-
a) Allergy trigger.
b) Exercising in cold air
c) Vigorous exercise
d) Exercise if the athlete is wheezing
Always warm – up adequately:
a) Take medication 10 – 15 minutes before training
b) Do 10-15 minutes of stretching
Post – exercise
- Ensure adequate cooling down.
- If EIA continues, see a doctor.
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10.1.2 Diabetes
Diabetes is a disorder in which the body does not produce
enough insulin to regulate blood sugar levels.
Regular exercise can help to maintain blood sugar level,
decrease insulin requirement and increase well being.
If an athlete is over exerted, his blood sugar level may drop
resulting in diabetic coma
Type 1 Diabetes
o an autoimmune condition where the beta cells in the
pancreas fail to produce insulin
o Usually starts in childhood.
o Patients require insulin replacement via injection to
survive.
Type 2 Diabetes
o Generally affects people over the age of 40
o Lifestyle factors are major contributing factor.
o Can be controlled by diet and exercise.
• Signs and Symptoms of low blood sugar (Hypoglycemia):-

– Pallor
– Excessive sweating
– Rapid pulse
– Feeling shaky or tremulous
– Dizziness, loss of concentration
– Tingling around lips
– Headache
– Seizures
Travelling with Diabetic Athletes

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- The excitement of a trip may affect an athlete’s blood

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- More frequent blood testing required.
- All medications, syringes for injections, testing equipment
and insulin must be kept in hand luggage.
10.1.3 Hypertension
High pressure (tension) in the arteries. (Arteries carry blood from
the heart to all body tissues).
Normal blood pressure is below 120/80
Blood pressure between 120/85 and 139/89 is called "pre-
hypertension",
Blood pressure of 140/90 and above is considered hypertension.
Risk factors for Hypertension:-
a) Being overweight or obese
b) Lack of physical activity
c) Too much salt in the diet
d) Stress
e) Older age
f) Family history of high blood pressure
Signs and symptoms of Hypertension:-

a) Blood Pressure of 140/90 and above
b) Dizziness
c) Blurred vision
d) Nausea
e) Headache
Prevention and Treatment for Hypertension

a) Be physically active (walking 30 minutes each day can
help)
b) Eating more fruits, vegetables and low-fat dairy foods
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c) Lose weight (if you're overweight, even losing 10 pounds

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d) Take less salt
e) NB Treatment for hypertension is for life
10.1.4 Cardiovascular Emergencies
Cardiovascular emergencies encompass diseases affecting the
heart and circulatory system.
Most likely presentations are chest pain and cardiac arrest.
Risk factors for cardiovascular diseases include :-
o Smoking
o High blood pressure
o High blood cholesterol
o Diabetic
o Obesity
There are several cardiovascular emergencies that may present
in athletes such as:-
a) Angina (chest pain)
b) Hypertension
c) Heart attack (Myocardial Infarction)
d) Stroke (Cardiovascular Accident)
10.1.5 Viral infection

Viral infections are the most common infections that affect both
the general community and sport people.
The symptoms and effects vary in severity, ranging from minor
cases fever, running nose), sore throat, body ache to severely
debilitating illness such as chronic fatigue syndrome.
Signs and symptoms of Upper Respiratory Tract Infections
(URTI):-
– Fatigue
– Sore throat
– Running nose
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– Cough
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– Headache
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– Fever
– Flushed or pale skin
– Unwell appearance
Exercise and Viral llnesses
o Intense exercise can temporarily inhibit the immune system.
o Elite athletes indulging in vigorous activities are more
vulnerable to infection.
o Stress of competition as well as the physical demand of
sport can impair immune function.
NB Athletes with fever should not indulge in vigorous
exercise.
Management of Viral Illness

a) Reduce or cease all physical activity.
b) Seek medical advice.
c) Do not allow participation without a medical clearance.
d) Gradual resumptiom of activity as tolerated.
Specific Viral Illness

Hepatitis A
Hepatitis B
Hepatitis C
Human Immuno-deficiency Virus
Hepatitis A
 Hepatitis A (Hep A) is the most common type of hepatitis in
young people. It is caused by Hepatitis A virus and is
transmitted by faecal–oral route.
 Signs and Symptoms of Hepatitis A are fever, abdominal
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 Management of hepatitis A
o Any athlete who presents with these symptoms should
be referred to a doctor for diagnosis and appropriate
management, which usually involves:
a) Rest until the symptoms subside
b) Gradual resumption of activity, as tolerated
Hepatitis B
 Hepatitis B (Hep B) can have serious long-term
complication. It is transmitted sexually or by direct contact
with contaminated needles or infected blood.
 Athletes with Hep B should avoid exercise until symptoms
have completely disappeared and blood tests return to
normal. Occasionally, athletes with Hep B may develop life
threatening liver problems.
 Those infected with Hep B virus can transmit the disease to
others during contact sport (through blood spread).
 Preventive immunization with Hep B vaccine should be
made compulsory for athletes in contact sports.
Hepatitis C
 Hepatitis C (Hep C) is the major causative agent of post –
transfusion hepatitis. The transmission and recognition
resembles that of Hep B. The major method of transmission
is through sexual contact or blood product.
 Generally the chance of being infected from a Hep C carrier
low, but if infection occurs, there is a high rate of chronic
complications.
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Human Immuno–Deficiency Virus (HIV)

 Human immuno-deficiency virus (HIV) is a virus that
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cause acquired immuno deficiency syndrome (AIDS), a
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condition where there is progressive failure of the immune
system. This condition allows life threatening opportunistic
infections to occur.
 Infection with HIV occurs by the transfer of blood, semen,
vaginal fluid or breast milk.
 Acute HIV infection is the earliest and shortest stage of HIV
infection.
 Signs and symptoms include:
a) A blotchy red rash, usually on the upper torso that
does not itch
b) Headache
c) Aching muscles
d) Sore throat
e) Swollen lymph glands
f) Diarrhea
g) Nausea
h) Vomiting
10.1.6 Anemia
Anemia is a term used to describe insufficient red blood cell in
the blood, resulting in impaired oxygenation. Anemia is a medical
condition in which the red blood cell count or hemoglobin is less
than normal.
Signs and Symptoms of anemia:-
a) Pale skin
b) Tiredness
c) Lethargy
d) Shortness of breath
Management of anemia

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Iron deficiency should be suspected if an athlete complains

of tiredness and their performance is impaired. It is
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during menstruation. The athlete should be referred to a
doctor for assessment and management.
10.1.7 Osteoarthritis (OA)

Osteoarthritis is characterized by damage to the joints,
particularly at the cartilage-covered articulating surface.
Signs and Symptoms are joint pain and linitation of movement.
Treatment:-
 Osteoarthritis cannot be cured. However OA symptoms can
be controlled by losing weight and protecting the joint.
 Medications:-
a) NSAIDS include aspirin, ibuprofen, ponstan
b) Corticosteroid
c) Glucosamine & chondroitin sulfate.
 Physical therapy
 Braces & splints
 Surgery
10.1.8 Hematuria
Hematuria is the presence of red blood cells (RBC) in urine.
Often the urine appeared normal to the naked eye but
examination under a microscope shows a high number of RBCs.
Signs and symptoms
a) Blood urine with many RBCs presence
b) “smoky” colored urine
c) Discomfort, frequency or urgency in urinating
d) Colicky pain in either flank
e) Decrease urine output after prolonged, strenuous exercise.
Causes of Hematuria
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a) Prolonged exercise
b) Kidney disease
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d) Stone in the ureter, kidney or bladder
e) Infection
f) Tumor
Diagnosis can be done by doing the following investigations:-
 Simple urine dipstick test
 IVP: An intravenous pylogram
 Cystoscopy
 Ultrasound
Treatment – depends on the cause.
o - Refer to Doctor.
Prevention
 Obtain treatment for any illness of the kidney or urinary tract
 Don’t get dehydrated
10.1.9 Traveller’s Diarrhea

Definition – Gastrointestinal distresses caused by food or water
that contains bacteria, viruses or parasites.
Signs and symptoms:
a) Bloody and mucus in the feces
b) Fever
c) Abdominal cramps
d) Vomiting
Treatment:
a) Drink plenty of water
b) Oral rehydration salt
c) See doctor if symptoms become worse
Prevention;
 Avoid:
a) Uncooked vegetables
b) Unboiled milk or dairy products
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c) Insufficiently cooked fish, meat or chicken

d) Raw food
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e) Ice cubes
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 Drink only bottled water
 Do not swallow water while swimming
 Boil water
10.1.10 Sexual Transmitted Diseases
• STD are term used to described infections that are transmitted through
exchanged of semen, blood and other body fluids or by direct contact with the
affected body parts of people with STD.
• STD are also called Venereal Diseases (VD).
Syphilis
 Syphilis is a sexually transmitted disease caused by
bacteria. The highly infectious disease may also be
passed, but much less often, through blood transfusions
or from mother to fetus in the womb. Without treatment,
syphilis can cause irreversible damage to the brain,
nerves, and body tissues.
 Causes - Syphilis is an infectious, often sexually

transmitted, caused by the bacteria Treponema pallidum.
The bacteria penetrate chafed skin or
the mucous membranes.
o Transmission most often occurs when one person
comes into contact with lesions on an infected
person through sexual activity.
o Men are more vulnerable to contracting syphilis
than women.
o The active disease is found most often among men
and women aged 15-39 years
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 Sign and symptoms :

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a) Joint pain
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b) Muscle aches
c) Sore throat
d) Flulike symptoms
e) Whole-body rash (usually involving the palms and
soles)
f) Headache
g) Decreased appetite
h) Patchy hair loss
i) Swollen lymph nodes
 Treatment of syphilis
- Penicillin is the preferred drug for treating all stages
of syphilis. For early treatment, penicillin may be
injected into the muscle. For late treatment,
penicillin may be given through an IV, and may
need to be administered in the hospital.
Gonorrhea
 Gonorrhea is a sexually transmitted disease (STD).
Gonorrhea is caused by Neisseria gonorrhoeae, a
bacterium that can grow and multiply easily in the warm,
moist areas of the reproductive tract, including the cervix
(opening to the womb), uterus (womb), and fallopian
tubes (egg canals) in women, and in the urethra (urine
canal) in women and men. The bacterium can also grow
in the mouth, throat, eyes, and anus.
 Sign and symptoms

 Symptoms in young women can include a painful
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and burning sensation when passing urine and

discharge from the vagina that is yellow or bloody.
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These symptoms appear 2-10 days after becoming
infected.
 Young men more frequently show signs of infection
than young women. Typical symptoms include a
discharge from the penis and a severe burning when
passing urine.
 Men and women with rectal infections may
experience discharge from the anus, anal discomfort
and pain on anal intercourse.
 Treatment – antibiotics can successfully cure gonorrhea.
Non – Specific Urethritis

 Non-specific urethritis (NSU) means any inflammation of a
man’s urethra (the tube that carries urine from the bladder
to the outside) that is not caused by gonorrhoea (a
sexually transmissible infection). It is sometimes called
non-gonococcal urethritis (NGU).
 Causes:
a) Sexually transmitted infection
b) Damage of urethra
c) Antibacterial liquids
d) Sensitivity or irritation
 Signs and symptoms :
a) A clear or white discharge from the penis
b) A burning sensation while urinating. Sometimes the
pain occurs without the discharge
c) Pain and swelling in the testicles. This may be a
sign of an advanced infection
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 Treatment - Non-specific urethritis is treated with

antibiotics.
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10.2.1 Skin Infection
Skin Infection are inflammatory diseases of the skin caused by bacteria, virus
or fungus.Example - Viral warts, Taenia Infection, Onychomycosis, Impetigo
Preventive measures:
a. Isolation and treatment of infective athlete
b. Closing affected areas of skin
c. Hand washing
d. Personal Hygiene
e. Treatment
• Depends on organism (anti-viral, anti-fungal and antibiotics)
• See your doctor
10.2 CONTRAINDICATIONS IN SPORTS
In certain medical conditions, participation in sports may predispose the athlete to

further harm and danger. Coach needs to identify situations that may put the athlete
at risk. He must consult the Doctor if athlete has any of the contraindications
Contraindications can be absolute or relative. Athletes with absolute contraindications

should not be allowed to participate in competitive sports. Those with relative
contraindications may be allowed to participate with close supervision by the medical
team.
10.2.2 Absolute Contraindications to Sports
Absolute contraindications include:

• Sensory: Detached Retina, Severe Hearing Loss (tympanic perforation),
Severe Myopia, Seizure Disorder (depends on sport), Concussion, Brachial
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Plexus Injury;
• Spine: Spondylosis, Spondylolisthesis, Cervical Spine Instability, Cervical
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Stenosis, Herniated Disc with Cord Compression
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• Abdominal: Enlarged liver or spleen, Active Hepatitis, Inguinal Hernia;
• General Illnesses: Acute Febrile Illness, Uncontrolled Diabetes, Severe and
Moderate Hypertension
• Cardiovascular: Coronary Arterial Disease, Valvular Heart Disorders, Cardiac
Arrhythmias;
• Pulmonary: Pneumothorax, Hemothorax, Tuberculosis,
• Blood disorder: Hemophilia & bleeding tendencies; severe anaemia;
• Skin: Herpes Simplex, Measles, Chicken Pox, viral warts, tinea infection
(fungal);
• Single Organ: Eye, Ear, Kidney, testicle (for contact sports)
10.2.3 Relative Contraindications
Relative contraindications include medical condition such as Hypertension, Diabetes

Mellitus, hyperthyroidism and anaemia. Others include Delayed Onset Muscle
Soreness, Cramps, Overuse injuries, tendinopathy and mild osteoarthritis.
10.3 MEDICAL PREPAREDNESS FOR COMPETITION AND TRAVEL
10.3.1 Pre-Event Preparation

Sports injuries and medical emergencies can be prevented with
adequate preparation before the sporting event. The role of a coach is
essential in ensuring that the risk of such injuries and emergencies are
minimised.
10.3.2 Role of Coach:

a) Ensure that athlete undergoes pre-participation medical examination
and identify athletes with medical conditions.
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c) Identify nutritional supplements and medication used by athletes
and inform Medical Officer and notify Anti-Doping Agency
(MASDOC).
d) Appoint Medical Personnel responsible for the team.
e) Inform injury risk and medical conditions.
f) Prepare first-aid box, taping kit and coolman (Ice box).
g) Identify medical facilities and support (include referral) available at
the event.
h) Identify time for food intake, warm-up, cool-down and rest.
*Coaches are advised to undergo training in Cardio Pulmonary Resuscitation

(CPR).
10.3.3 Event Coverage

a) Identify medical facility and person-in-charge at the venue.
b) Ensure that Medical Personnel is present during warm-up and cool-
down.
c) Ensure that athletes are well-hydrated.
d) Ensure that open wounds are covered with wound dressing.
e) Tape injured parts before warm up and ensure tape is removed after
cool down.
f) Ensure that protective devices are properly applied by athletes.
g) Accompany injured athlete to hospital (if medical personnel is not
available).
10.3.4 Preparation For Travel

a) Pre-participation medical examination to certify fitness of
participation and to identify risk of injury and medical conditions.
b) Vaccination of team members (at least 2 weeks prior to travel).
c) Briefing of team members.
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e) Sleep hygiene during travel: adjust to time of destination; avoid
alcohol intake, carbonated drinks and fatty foods.
f) Prepare medical first-aid kit, taping kit and Coolman (ice box).
g) Arrange for Insurance Coverage during travel and competition.
*NB: Some insurance policies do not cover for participation in competitive

sports
10.3.5 Jet Lag
10.3.5.1 Definition of jet lag.

 Jet lag, also called flight fatigue, is a temporary disorder that causes
fatigue, insomnia, and other symptoms as a result of air travel
across time zones. It is considered a circadian rhythm sleep
disorder, which is a disruption of the internal body clock.
 One aspects of team preparation prior to touring overseas is the
ability to cope with jet lag and finding suitable programs to ensure
the athletes are able to perform to the best of their ability in the
shortest recovery time.
 Causes of Jet Lag

a) Crossing time zones.
b) Dry atmosphere.
c) Stale air.
d) Alcohol.
e) Food and drink.
f) Lack of exercise.
g) A disruption to your circadian rhythms.
h) Airline cabin pressure and atmosphere.
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10.3.5.2 Signs and Symptoms of Jet Lag

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a) Apathy.
b) Daytime sleepiness.
c) Difficulty concentrating.
d) Impaired judgment.
e) Insomnia.
f) Irritability.
g) Restless sleep (sometimes with frequent awakenings).
h) Upset stomach.
i) Diarrhea or constipation.
10.3.5.3 Treatment of Jet Lag

 Medications (Melatonin, Ramelteon, Sedatives and Stimulants).
 Light therapy.
10.3.5.4 Prevention of Jet Lag

 Recommended Program before Departure:
a) No caffeine – i.e. coffee, tea
b) No coke, also diet coke
c) No chocolate, Mars bars etc.
d) Less Salt.
e) Reduce Alcohol drinks.
 During Flight.
a) As above – before departure.
b) No carbonated drinks.
c) Little concentrated orange juice
d) Fewer calories – don’t eat everything that is put in front of you
on the plane - avoid excessive peanuts etc.
e) Drink lots of fluid – mineral water – Not carbonated.
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f) No Alcohol drinks.
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 Other Points to Remember on the Plane.
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a) Walk around every 1- 2 hours.
b) Stretching exercise – Hamstrings, quads etc.
c) Back flexibility exercise after sitting and sleeping for a long
time.
d) Ankle and foot mobility exercises.
10.4 Sport Injury Rehabilitation

10.4.1 Definition of sport injury rehabilitation
Rehabilitation is defined as the process of restoration of the injured
athlete to full function as required by the sport.
Multi-disciplinary approach to treat injuries sustained through sports
participation so the athlete can regain normal pain-free mobility.
10.4.2 Rehabilitation Goals

The ultimate goal is the return to his/her former activity.
The return should be:
Safe yet quick;
Effective yet efficient;
Pursued in an aggressive yet guarded manner.
10.4.3 Objectives of Rehabilitation

Rehabilitate the injured part.
Prevent deconditioning as a result of the injury.
Return the injured athlete to full activity as quickly and safely as
possible.
10.4.4 Focuses of Rehabilitation

Muscle Conditioning
Restoring Range of Motion
Flexibility
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Neuromuscular Control
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Functional Exercises
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Sports Skills Training
Correction of Abnormal Biomechanics
Maintenance of Cardiovascular Fitness
Psychological Aspects
10.4.5 Principles of Rehabilitation

The SAID Principle
(Specific Adaptation to Imposed Demand)
-The SAID principle states that when an injured structure is subjected to
stresses and overloads of varying intensities, it will gradually adapt over
time to whatever demands are placed upon it.
-Each sport and athletic activity places a unique demand on the
body.
The Wolff’s Law

-A law that states that hard tissue (e.g. bone) remodels itself and
provides increased strength along the lines of the mechanical forces
placed on it.
The Davis’s Law
-A law that states that soft tissue (e.g. tendon, ligament) remodels itself
and provides increased strength along the lines of the mechanical
forces placed on it.
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10.4.6 The Rehabilitation Team
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Sports Medicine Specialist
Athletic Trainer
Physiotherapist/Physical Therapist
Strength and Conditioning Specialist
Exercise Physiologist
Dietitian/Nutritionist
Psychologist
Coaches
10.4.7 The Rehabilitation Process

1. Patient Assessment
-The physician will assess the patient’s injury to diagnose severity of
the
injury.
2. Treatment Selection
-Design, select, and plan the appropriate treatment program.
3. Implementation
-Carry out the treatment plan and rehabilitation program under
supervision.
4. Functional Exercises
-Training will focus on therapeutic exercises to help the injured part to
resume the normal function.
5. Return to Activity
-Must be released by the attended physician after confirming the injured
individual is safe to return to activity.
10.4.8 Phases of Rehabilitation

Phase I - Controlling pain and swelling
-Athletic trainer can effectively modulate acute pain by using P.R.I.C.E
technique after injury.
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-A physician can also make use of various medications to help ease
pain e.g. NSAIDs, and several modalities e.g. cryotherapy, ultrasound,
thermotherapy, electrical stimulating currents.
Cryotherapy
-Cryotherapy is the use of cold in the treatment of acute trauma and
subacute injury and for the decrease of discomfort after reconditioning
and rehabilitation
-Ice is the most common cryotherapy agent.
Techniques:
1. Ice packs, compression wraps are most
common (Application time: 20 to 30 min.)
2. Ice massage (Application time: 7 to 10 min.)
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Phase II – Reestablishing Neuromuscular Control

- Regaining the ability to follow previously established sensory pattern.
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-The mind’s attempt to teach the body conscious control of a specific
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movement.
-Strengthening exercises such as closed-kinetic-chain exercises are
essential.
Phase III - Restoring Full Range of Motion (R.O.M)
-Stretching techniques are used with tight musculotendinous structures
to
improve physiological range of motion.
-Joint mobilization and traction techniques should be incorporated into
the
rehabilitation program if accessory motion is limited.
Phase IV - Restoring Muscular Strength, Endurance, and Power.

-Strength-training program using free weights or exercise machines,
isometric, isotonic, isokinetic and plyometric exercises can be used to
restore muscular strength, endurance, and power.
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Phase V - Restoring Postural Control and Stability (Balance).
-The ability to maintain postural stability and balance is important to
acquiring
or reacquiring complex motor skills.
-Functional exercises that incorporate balance and proprioceptive
training that
prepares the athlete for return to activity.
Reestablishing Proprioceptive Input 306
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Ankle Knee
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Phase VI – Maintaining Cardiorespiratory Fitness.
-Every rehabilitation program must include some exercise designed to
maintain cardiorespiratory fitness.
-Running, swimming, and cycling can positively stress the
cardiorespiratory
system.
Therapeutic exercise to maintain cardiovascular fitness and

strength should be incorporated into the rehabilitation program as
soon as it is safe to do so.
Phase VII – Functional Progressions.
-A series of gradually progressive activities designed to prepare the
individual
for return to a specific sport.
-Gradually help the injured athlete achieve normal pain-free range of
motion,
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restore adequate strength levels, and regain neuromuscular control to

return
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to full activity.
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The sport-specific needs of the athlete must be met.
10.4.9 Criteria for Full Recovery

No sign of injury
The injured athlete should have no sign of injury before return to
play.
Pain Free
The injured athlete must assure that he/she is pain free after
attending rehabilitation program.
100% Range of Motion (R.O.M)
The injured athlete must obtain 100% range of motion after
rehabilitation process.
Psychologically Prepared
The physician must not only make sure the injured athlete recovered
physically, he/she must also be prepared psychologically in order to
return to play.
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APPRECIATION
SPORT SCIENCE CURRICULUM IMPROVEMENT AND REVIEW PANEL MEMBER
Advisor
En. Ahmad Zawawi Bin Zakaria

Master in Nutrition - University Kebangsaan Malaysia
Bachelor Degree in Science (Nutrition) - University Kebangsaan Malaysia
Professional Sports Qualification

CPCS Level II, National Sports Institute, 2001
ISAK II Level II, Singapore Sports Council, 2006
Personal trainer to SPBYDA, National Palace, 2007-2011
Nutrition & Coaching Advisor, Malaysia Body Building Federation, 2002 till current
National Coaching Academy President of Advisory Panel

Chairman of Improvement and Review Panel
Dr. Balbir Singh a/l Bhagwan Singh

PhD in Sports Science (Sports Psychology) - University Melbourne Australia.
Master in Education (Sports Psychology) – University Kebangsaan Malaysia.
Bachelor Degree in Education (Health and Physical) – University Putra Malaysia.
Senior Lecturer, University Malaya Sports Center

i) Hockey Instructor (Malaysia Hockey Federation) Level I, II and III (1998-2001)
ii) Federation International Hockey (F.I.H), Instructor for 2012
iii) Tennis Coaching Course 1979, Level I
iv) Cricket Coaching Course 1978, Level I
v) Handball Coaching Course 1999, Level I
vi) Soccer Coaching Course 1986, Level I
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HEAD OF DEPARTMENT NATIONAL COACHING ACADEMY
Vice Chairman and Coordinator of Improvement and Review Panel
R.Vivekanandan a/l K.Ramiah

Master in Education ( Planning and Management in Education) - University Malaya.
Bachelor Degree in Sports Science – University Malaya.
One Year Specialist Course in Physiacl Education– Maktab Perguruan Ilmu Khas Kuala
Lumpur (MPIK) Specialist Teachers Training Institute (STTI).
Diploma in Teaching Health and Physical Eduction– Specialist Teachers Training Institute
i) Federation of International Hockey High Performance Coaching Course, New Delhi India
2010.
ii) Federation of International Hockey and Asia Hockey Federation Workshop -
Development, Umpiring & Coaching Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 2010.
iii) Federation of International Hockey High Performance Indoor Coaching Course Vienna,
Austria 2007.
iv) Federation of International Hockey High Performance Coaching Course, Rotterdam,
Holland 2005.
v)Federation of International Hockey Special Coaching Course, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 2003.
vi) Malaysia Hockey Federation(MHF) Coaching Course Level I (1990),II (2001) and III (2001)
vii) Malaysia Hockey Federation Hockey Goal Keeper Coaching Course, 2005.
viii) ) Malaysian Hockey Federation Instructor for Hockey Level I, II & III Coaching Courses
(2006-2014)
ix) Fitness Instructor Ministry of Youth and Sports 1986.
x) National Facilitator for Fitness Instructors Ministry of Youth and Sports (1987-1992)
xi) MAAU and Selangor Amateur Athletic Coaching Course, 1982.
xii) Bronze Medallion ‘Persatuan Penyelamat Kecemasan Diraja’, 1985.
Sports Science Head Coordinator of Improvement and Review Panel
YM Dr. Tengku Fadilah Bt. Tengku Kamalden

PhD. In Sports Psychology and Nutrition (University Sains Malaysia)
Master in Sports and Exercise Sicence (University Sheffield, United Kogdom)
Bachelor Degree in Science (Hons) (University Sains Malaysia)
Senior Lecturer, Sports Education Department, Faculty Education Studies, University Putra
Malaysia.
310
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Topic 1 and 2 : Sport Philosophy and Sports In Malaysia
Leader : En. M P Haridas D Menon

Diploma in Teaching (KPM).
Diploma in Sports Management, United Kingdom.
Former Lecturer of Health and Physical Education (Maktab Perguruan Teknik).
General Manager Olympic Council Malaysia (1994-2009).

Hockey (Organized by Ministry of Youth and Sports/ Malaysia Hockey Federation),
Advanced 1972.
Athletic (Course by Bill Miller, USA), Preliminary, 1962 & 1963.
Athletic (Course by Charles Taylor, UK), Advanced, 1965.
Athletic (Course by Tom Rosadich, USA), Advanced, 1968.
Athletic (Course by Manfred Lokhen, Ger), Instructors, 1969.
Instructor of Athletic Coaching Course, Preliminary, 1963 hingga1983.
Volleyball (Organized by Ministry of Youth and Sports/ Malaysia Volleyball Association),
Preliminary, 1964.
Football (Organized by Ministry of Youth and Sports/Asia Football Confederation),
Preliminary, 1965.
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Wee Eng Hoe

Associate Professor Sports Science and Physical at Arts and Science School, Tuanku Abdul
Rahman College, Kuala Lumpur
PhD in Physcial Education, University Malaya, Kuala Lumpur.
Master in Physical Education, University Malaya, Kuala Lumpur.
Bachelor Degree in Humanities, University Science Malaysia.

i) Basic Volleyball Coaching Course, Penang, 1977.
ii) FIVB Volleyball Federation Coaching Certificate, IOC, 1984.
iii) FIVB Volleyball Coaching Certificate-International Level I, 1988.
iv) FIVB Mini Volleyball Coaching Certificate, FIVB & MAVA, 1990.
v) Basic Basketball Coaching Course, 1978.
vi) SRAM Course– Squash Racquets Association Malaysia, Level I, 1987.
vii) National Facilitator for Fitness Instructors, Anjuran KBS (MOE & MYS), 1980
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Tn Hj. Gapor Ahmad

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Certificated Special Teacher Physical Education –
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Maktab Perguruan Ilmu Khas Kuala Lumpur (STTI).
Bachelor Degree in Physical Conditioning, University Pertanian Malaysia.
Former Head Department of Physical Education MPIK, Kuala Lumpur.

i) Sepak Takraw Level I & II, 1996 - 2013
ii) National Facilitator for Fitness Instructors Ministry of Youth and Sport (Level 1-3)
Topic 3 : Sports Anatomy and Physiology
Leader : YM Dr. Tengku Fadilah Bt. Tengku Kamalden
En. Gordon Nicholas Jemat Anchang

Master in Arts (Physical Education) University Columbia.
Bacherlor Degree in Education (TESL) University Malaya.
Head of Sports Science Education Center, University Teknologi MARA, Sarawak.
Mr. Tan Kok Siang

Bacherlor Degree in Science (University Putra Malaysa)
Bachelor Degree in Education (Physical Eduction) – University Putra Malaysia
Topic 4 : Basic Biomechanics’
Leader : Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ong Kuan Boon

PhD in Biomechanic, Australia
Master in Science (Biomechanic) , USA
Bachelor Degree in Education (Physical Eduction) – University Putra Malaysia

i) Johor Athletic Coaching Course, Level I, 1992.
ii) Perak Handball Coaching Course, level I, 2004
En. Ahmad Pharmy Jalil

Bachelor Degree in Sports Science, University Malaya.
312
Youth and Sports Officer, High Performance Department, National Sports Institute Malaysia
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Rowing Coaching Course, Level 1, 2013.
Topic 5 : Training and Physical Preparation
Leader: Dr. Nur Ikhwan Mohamad

PhD in Strength and Physical Conditioning
Lecturer, Faculty of Sports Science and Coaching UPSI, Tanjung Malim, Perak.
Master in Sports Science, University Technology MARA
Bachelor Degree in Sports Science.
Diploma in Health and Fitness, University Technology MARA

License C AFC (Football), Level 1, 2013.
En. Erik Tan Check Hiong

Master in Strength and Physical Conditioning, Edith Cowan University Australia.
Bachelor Degree in Exercise Science, Universiti Griffith, Queensland, Australia.
Youth and Sports Officer, Physical Conditioning Center, National Sports Institute Malaysia

Power Plate, Level I, 2007.
Certified Strength & Conditioning Specialist (CSCS), 2003.
CPCS, Level III, 2006.
Topic 6 : Sport Nutrition
Leader : Assoc. Prof. Dr. Nik Sanita Safii

PhD in Nutrition– University Kebangsaan Malaysia.
Master in Human and Metabolisme Science Nutrition – University of Aberdeen.
Bachelor Degree (Hons) in Dietetic – University Kebangsaan Malaysia.
Diploma in Science – UniversityTechology MARA.
Doctor Nutrition Philosophy, UKM.
Lecturer in Dietetic Program, Pusat Pengajian Sains Jagaan Kesihatan Fakulti Sains
Kesihatan, UKM.
Cik Azimah Ahmad

313
Bachelor Degree in Dietetic – University Kebangsaan Malaysia.

Master in Sports Science – UniversityTechnology MARA.
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Head of Satelit Center Perlis, National Sports Institute Malaysia.
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Topic 7 : Coaching Competencies
Leader : Prof. Dr. Abdul Hafidz Omar

Ph.D (Health)
M.Sc (Education-Leadership)
B.Sc (Physical Education),
Director of sports innovation center, University Technology Malaysia

Athletic Coaching Course Level 1, 1982
Hockey Coaching Course Level 1, 1990
Badminton Coaching Course Level 1, 1988
Rugby Coaching Course Level 1, 1988
Intermediate Swimming Coaching Course, 1988
Dr. Chin Ngien Siong

PhD in Sports Psychology, University Malaya,
Lecturer, Health and Physical Education Department, Institut Pendidikan Guru, Campus Tun
Abdul Razak, Sarawak
United States Professional Tennis Registry (USPTR), Level I, 1992.
United States Professional Tennis Association (USPTA), Level III, 1999.
En. Ravi a/l Margapandu
Master in Science (Human Resoursce) UNIMAS.
Bachelor Degree in Education (Physical Education) University Putra Malaysia
Certificated Teaching (TESL) MPMK.
Head of Department, Health and Physical Education, Institut Pendidikan Guru Kampus Gaya,
Sabah
Hockey Coaching Course, level III, 2008.
314
AHF Coaching Course Hockey, 2011.

IHF High Performance Coaching, 2010.
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Topic 8 : Sport Psychology
Leader : Dr. Lim Boon Hooi

PhD in Sports Psychology (University Malaya).
Vice Director of Sports Center, University Malaya.
Advance Certificated in Health and Physical Education – Institut Perguruan Darul Aman.
Diploma in Teaching – Maktab Perguruan Temenggung Ibrahim Johor Bahru.
Master in Sports Psychology – University Pertanian Malaysia.
Bachelor Degree in Sports Science – University Malaya.

Volleyball, Level I, II & III, 2005 -2013.
Power weight lifting, Level I & II, 2011.
Hockey, Level I & II 2005 - 2013.
Dr. Hairul Anuar Hashim

PhD in Psychology and Exercise, Australia.
Master in Sports Psychology, Springfield, USA.
Bachelor Degree in Psychology, University Islam Antarabangsa.
Coordinator of Sports Science Unit, University Science Malaysia.
Lecturer, Sports Science Education Unit, University Science Malaysia, Kubang Kerian,
Kelantan.
Dr. Ong Kong Swee
PhD in Psychology – University Pendidikan Sultan Idris,Tanjung Malim, Perak.
Master in Human Resource Management, St. Clement University West Indies, USA.
Bacherlor Degree in Physical Education, University Putra Malaysia.
Excellent Lecturer of Physical Education, Institut Pendidikan Guru Kampus Rajang, Sarawak.

Badminton Coaching Course, Level I 1989, Level II 2007, Level III 2013.
315
Hockey Coaching Course, Level I, 2001.

Volleyball Coaching Course Level I, 1985.
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Athletic Coaching Course Level I, 1992.
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Tennis Coaching Course Level I, 1996.
Topic 9 : Motor Behavior
Leader : En. Patmanathan K. Supiah

Special Tecahing Certificated (Physical Education), Institut Pendidikan Darul Aman, 1993.
Diploma in Athletic Coaching, Universiti Johannes Guthenberg, Germany, Athletic
Federation , Mainz, Germany.
Master in Physical Education, UPM.
Lecturer, Social Development and Education School, University Malaysia Sabah.

Diploma in Athletic Coaching, 2007.
Dr. Jeffrey Low Fook Lee

Bachelor Degree in Physical Education.
Master in Sports Science, University Putra Malaysia.
PhD in Motor Behavior, University John Moores, Liverpool, UK.
Senior Lecturer, Faculty of Coaching and Sports Science, University Pendidikan Sultan Idris
(UPSI), Perak.

Basic Archery Course, Malaysia Archery Association – MSN, 1996.
Basic Hiking Course, Malaysia Hiking Federation, 2003.
Cricket Coaching Course, Malaysia Cricket Association, 2000.
Cricket instructor Course, Malaysia Cricket Association – MSN, 2003.
Cricket Coaching Course, Asia Cricket Council (ACC), 2012.
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Topic 10 : Sport Medicine and Sport Injuries
Leader : Mej. Jen. Prof. Dato’ Dr. Mohd Zin Bidin (Retired)
DPMS, PAT, JSM, DSM, SMP, KAT, KMN, MD, MPH, MScCTM, FACTM, FAOEMM, FFTM,
FPHMM, AM, DTM&H, DISM, Dipsmed DipAeromed MMIM psc
Dean, Faculty of Health and Medical, University Pertahanan Nasional, Kem Sungai Besi.
(Retired)
Kolonel (Dr) Zainal B. Othman

M.D (UKM), M.P.H (UKM),
Master in Sport Medicine, (University Nottingham, United Kingdom).
Science Physic Member, Hospital Angkatan Tentera Kem Terendak, Melaka.

Symposium of Sports Health in Industry, 2010.
FIMS Advance Emergency Sports Medicine Course, 2010.
FIMS Team Physician Development Course, 2011.
4th AFC Conference on Seminar Football Medicine, 2011.
AFC Elite Education Seminar, 2012.
21st Conference on Sports Rehabilitation and Traumatology, 2012.
3rd International Football Medicine Conference, South Africa, 2010.
Dr. Mohd Nahar Azmi Mohamed

Bachelor Degree in Medicine, Padjadjaran University, Bandung, Indonesia, 1995
Master / Special Degree in Sports Medicine, University Malaya, 2003
Head of Sports Medicine Department, University Malaya Medical Center

Master Trainer of National Facilitator for Fitness Instructors KBS, 2005 317
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PENGHARGAAN
PERHARGAAN JUGA DIPANJANGKAN KEPADA SEMUA YANG

TELAH MENYUMBANG SECARA LANGSUNG DAN TIDAK
LANGSUNG TERUTAMA PENULIS-PENULIS MODUL SAINS SUKAN
TAHAP I, TAHAP II SEHINGGA TAHAP III YANG TERDAHULU
SEHINGA BERJAYANYA MENGHASILKAN MODUL INI.
318
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AKADEMI KEJURULATIHAN KEBANGSAAN

SKIM PERSIJILAN KEJURULATIHAN KEBANGSAAN (SPKK)

1) MAKLUMAT AM KURSUS SAINS SUKAN TAHAP III 2

2) UNIT 1 SPORTS PHILOSOPHY 13

3) UNIT 2 SPORTS IN MALAYSIA 29

4) UNIT 3 ANATOMY AND SPORT PHYSIOLOGY 50

6) UNIT 5 PHYSICAL CONDITIONING 114

7) UNIT 6 SPORTS NUTRITION 154

8) UNIT 7 COACHING COMPETENCIES 180

9) UNIT 8 SPORTS PSYCHOLOGY 223

10) UNIT 9 MOTOR BEHAVIOUR 266

11) UNIT 10 SPORTS MEDICINE 281

12) SENARAI PENYELARAS DAN PENGHARGAAN 309

2. PENDAFTARAN DAN PEMBAYARAN KURSUS TAHAP III

BIL KURSUS BUKAN AHLI (TIADA

1 Tahap III RM200 RM250

yuran sebanyak RM 250.00 (Bukan Ahli) dan RM 200 (Ahli).

2.4 Wang pendaftaran perlulah dijelaskan semasa pendaftaran di tempat kursus.

BIL TOPIK JAM

a. Kelas akan berjalan selama enam (6) hari.

Jadual dan Instruktur maka akan diberitahu kepada peserta.

5.1 UJIAN OBJEKTIF (50%)

5.2 UJIAN LISAN (10 %)

5.2.1 Semua peserta diwajibkan mengambil bahagian dalam satu ujian

5.2.2 Tujuan Seminar ialah untuk melihat keupayaan peserta untuk

5.2.3 Setiap peserta dikehendaki mengambil ujian lisan secara individu.

5.2.4 Ujian akan diberikan secara spontan oleh penemuduga.

5.2.7 Aspek-aspek yang akan dinilai adalah seperti berikut :-

PEMARKAHAN UJIAN LISAN

5.3 PROJEK ASPEK PRAKTIKAL KAJIAN (30%)

5.3.1 Setiap peserta akan diwajibkan menyediakan satu projek/kajian

5.3.2 Cara pemilihan tajuk/aspek akan ditentukan oleh peserta sendiri

5.3.4 Format Susunan Buku Laporan Projek adalah seperti di lampiran.

5.3.5 Penilaian untuk kajian ini adalah berdasarkan aspek-aspek berikut :-

BIL ASPEK PERATUS

5.4.4 PENILAIAN SESI VIVA

BIL BAHAGIAN MARKAH MARKAH YANG

1.3 KHUSUS (Berkenaan Sukan)

PENGETAHUAN SAINS SUKAN

2.5 LATIHAN FIZIKAL

KOMPONEN MARKAH MARKAH LULUS

c. Markah LULUS keseluruhan ialah 50%

KURSUS SAINS SUKAN TAHAP III

FORMAT SUSUNAN BUKU LAPORAN PROJEK ASPEK PRAKTIKAL KAJIAN

KURSUS SAINS SUKAN

(Akhir) Muka Surat

BIL ASPEK PENILAIAN PERATUS MARKAH

KANDUNGAN TAHAP III

1 SPORTS PHILOSOPHY 2 hours

2 SPORTS IN MALAYSIA 2 hours

5.5 Power Training.

5.7 Functional Training.

6 SPORTS NUTRITION 4 hours

cutting their own “

a. Coaching ethics are based on your conduct behavior,beliefs and

1.1.1 Fair Play

What do we mean by 'fair play' and 'level playing field'?

In ethics, the concept of fairness involves treating everyone equally and

A 'level playing field' is a situation in which competitors are required to follow

Five Basic Elements in Fair Play

1. Respect the rules.

4. Give everybody an equal chance to participate.

5. Maintain your self-control at all times