Certificate of Industrial Training

Certificate of Industrial Training
For the fulfillment of Bachelor of Technology Degree

Particulars of Trainee:
Student’s Name: MUHAMMAD GHIYAS UDDIN
Father’s Name: MASHAHOOR KHAN

Program: Bachelor of Technology Technology: CIVIL
Registration Number: SUIT-12-01-079-0199
Detail about industrial training:
Organization: Pakistan Railways
Department: Bridge /Technical Head Qtr Lahore
Area/Field of Training:
LAHORE
Duration: (From: Till: ) Number of Month:

Factors Related to the Training of student:
S.No Factor Fair/Good/Excellent
1 Progress During Training
2 Independence of work
3 Ingenuity and Skill Development
4 Overall Learning
5 Complexity
Remarks by Supervisor:
Particulars of Supervisor:
Name:
Organization:
Designation: Contact Number:
Signature of Supervisor:
Office seal:
Date:
INTERNSHIP
Name: Muhammad Ghiyas Uddin

Reg no: SUIT-12-01-079-0199
Roll No: 12-FA-45971
Program: B-Tech
Technology: CIVIL
University: Sarhad University of science &
Information technology.
APPRENTICESHIP/FIELD TRAINING CERTIFICATE
This certificate is awarded to Mr. Muhammad Ghiyas Uddin S/O

Mashahoor khan student of sarhad university of information and
technology (Reg no: SUIT-12-01-079-0199) in token of having
successfully completed 03-Months apprenticeship/ field Training with
effect from (August 15-2015 to December 25-2015).
During the period of apprenticeship/field training, we found him full
time Devoted, dynamic & learning with interest.
Bridge inspector Technical

Head quarter office
Lahore
Industrial Training Report
A short report of 3 months experience in industrial training
program for the requirements of B.tech degree (Civil) in Bridges.
In the organization
Pakistan Railways (Bridge/Technical)
From
(August 15-2015 to December 25-2015)
Reg no: SUIT-12-01-079-0199
Roll no. 12-FA-45971
Introduction
BRIDGE:
A bridge is a structure over water, depression, valley, Road or any other obstruction providing
safe passage of the obstruction.
The bridge structure is divided into two major portions:
a) SUB STRUCTURE:
It consists of foundations, pier, abutments, wing walls and approaches of a bridge. They
all support the super structure.
b) SUPER STRUCTURE:
It consists of trusses, girder, arches, decking, and railing etc.
CLASSIFICATION OF BRIDGES:
Bridges are classified on the basis of:
1) Length of span.
a) Minor bridges:
Bridges having total water way of less than 60 lineal feet.
b) Major bridges:
Bridges having total water 60 lineal feet or more.
c) Important bridges:
Bridges with maximum water way 600 lineal feet or more.
2) Angle of crossing.
a) Square bridges.
b) Skew bridges.
3) Material of construction.
a) Wooden bridges.
b) Masonry bridges.
c) Steel bridges.
d) Concrete bridges.
4) Type of super structure.

a) Suspension bridges.
b) Girder bridges.
c) Arch bridges.
d) Truss bridges.
5) Function or purposes of bridge.
a) Foot over bridges.
b) Road over bridges.
c) Road under bridges.
d) Pedestrian
6) Relative position of floor of superstructure.

a) Deck
b) Semi through
c) Through
7) Intended life.
a) Permanent bridges.
b) Temporary
BRIDGES (SUB STRUCTURE) FOUNDATION:
1) Foundation:
- It is the lower most part of a structure on which the structure rests.
- Foundation is provide to:
Distribute the load over larger area of supporting soil.
To transmit load on the underlying soil at uniform rate.
To increases stability of structure against overturning.
To provide level surface for the construction of structure.
Principal of foundation design:
Foundation design is based on the concept of bearing capacity of soil. The load or
pressure developed under the foundation should be well within the bearing capacity of soil.
a) Stresses in any part of foundation must not be exceed bearing capacity of soil under any
combination of load.
b) Axis of load must pass through center of area of foundation and must not be eccentric
beyond permissible limit of 1/6th of width of foundation.
Different types of foundation:
1) Open foundation.
2) Raft foundation.
3) Grillage foundations.
4) Well foundation.
5) Pile foundation.
Experience gained during the 3 months
1) Site inspection.
2) Usage of level machine/theodolite
3) Determining the locations for provision culverts.
4) Understanding of bridge estimate.
5) Learn the layouts protection walls.
6) Understand of the bridge detailed architecture drawings.
7) Understand about the construction materials.
8) Understand about the bar bending schedule.
9) Understand about the detail and technical inspection of major and minor bridges.
10) Testing of steel girder bridges (Old and newly constructed).
11) Painting and scraping of steel structure.
12) Pre-stress and pre-cast concrete bridges.

Organization:
Department:

4 Overall Learning
5 Complexity
Name:
Organization:
Office seal:
Date:
INTERNSHIP

Reg no: SUIT-12-01-079-0199
Program: B-Tech
Technology: CIVIL
University: Sarhad University of science & Information
technology.
This certificate is awarded to Mr. Muhammad Ghiyas Uddin S/O Mashahoor khan
student of sarhad university of information and technology (Reg no: SUIT-12-
01-079-0199) in token of having successfully completed 03-Months
apprenticeship/field training with effect from January-15-2015 to April-25-2015.
During the period of apprenticeship/field training, we found him full time
Devoted, dynamic & learning with interest.

Head quarter office
Lahore
A short report on 3 months experience in the industrial training program
for the requirements of B.tech degree (civil) in Road.
In the organization
From
Reg no: SUIT-12-01-079-0199
INTRODUCTION
Building:
The word building is both a noun and a verb: the structure itself and the act of
making it. As a noun, a building is a structure that has a roof and walls and stands more or
less permanently in one place.
The definition of low - rise vs. a high-rise building is a matter of debate ,but
generally three storey’s or less is considered low –rise.
There are many type of buildings which are uses for different purposes e.g.
Residential building commercial building, educational building, industrial building ,military
building etc.
CLASSIFICATION OF BUILDINGS:
Building may either be single story or multi storey. Further they can be classified
according to their uses, some mentioned as following:
1. Residential
2. Commercial
3. Office buildings
4. Municipal building
5. Military building
Construction of building:
Orientation is a very important factor in the construction of a building. it means observing
the site and the direction of sunrise and sunset, direction of wind and determining the geodic
directions(north,south,east and west),these factors are involved in the construction of building for
making it more comfortable inside.
A building is composed of mainly the following terms.
1) Foundation:
It is the underground structure Sub Structure of the building that distributes the
whole load of the building equally and then transmit that load to the solid ground
safely.Foundation proves to be the base of the building to support it all the external loads.
Foundation may either be shallow Breadth> 2Height or Deep(Breadth <2Heihgt). There
may be, RCC, stone or steel foundations.
2) Basement:
It is that part of building that is under the natural ground surface and used by the
Humans for different activities they may be storage or living purposes.
3) Single or multi storey:
In single storey building there is only on roof over the ground level. In multi storey
building there are more than one roof over the ground. The most lower on the ground is
termed then 1st floor, 2nd floor, 3rd floor and so on, till top floor.
4) Beams and columns:
Beam and columns are the engineered structures that are built to support the live
and dead loads of the building of the distributing and transmitting them safely to the
foundation. Beams and columns are mostly constructed of R.C.C. They may also be
constructed from steel girders, stones are available materials recognized in engineering.
5) Walls:
Walls are constructed to support or create partitions in the building, to distribute it

into rooms, bathrooms, halls and other portions. Constructed from Bricks or PCC Blocks
generally using 1:3 or 1:2 cement mortars.
6) Doors, Windows and Ventilators:

Doors are used for entrance and exit, where as windows and ventilators are used for
Ventilation and inlet of sunlight into the building for minimizing the use of artificial light
and saving of energy. Doors, windows and ventilators are typically made of wood, but they
may also be composed of Aluminum, steel, or artificial.
7) Electrification:
The provisions of electricity and Telephone lines is needed to energize the building
and are necessary for different purposes.
8) Sanitation and water supply:

Sanitation in water supply is also a necessity of the human in thus a building made
sure to contain these necessities.
9) Plaster and paints:

Plaster is provided over walls to protect them from the harshness of environment
such as rain floods sun heat. The increases the durability as well as the looks of the building.
Paints are also applied to increase the life span and beauty of the building.
Definitions and Classifications of Building

Materials
1) According to the chemical components of building materials, they can be
classified into inorganic materials, organic materials and composite materials,
as follows:
Metal: Steel, Iron, Aluminum, Copper, Various Types of Alloys

Inorganic Metalloid: Natural Stone. Cement, Concrete, Glass, Uurncd Soil Products,etc.
material Metal-metalloid Composition: Reinforced Concrete, etc.
organic Wood, Plastics, Synthetic Rubber, Petroleum Asphalt. etc.

Building
Materials
Material
Invoice Metal organic Cornposition : Polymer Concrete, Fiberglass
s Composite Reinforced Plastics, etc.
Materials Metal-Organic Composition: Light Metal Sandwich Panels, ctc.
2) According to the functions of materials, they can be divided into structural materials and
functional materials.
Structural Materials: mainly used as load-bearing members, such as the materials used for
beams, plates and columns.
Functional Materials: mainly possessing some special functions in construction, such as
waterproof, ornamental and heat-insulating functions etc..
MORTAR:
The paste prepared by the mixing of binding material, fine aggregate, course
aggregate and water in a suitable ratio is called mortar.
CONCRETE:
The artificial stone form from hardening a mixture of binding material, fine
aggregate, course aggregate and water in a suitable ratio.
Quality of good concrete:
 It should be durable.
 It should have good crushing strength.
 The concrete should have minimum creep.
 It should have good workability.
 The concrete should be economical.
 It should be sufficiently compacted having minimum voids.
 It should be hard and provide resistance to the load.
 It should be impermeable and will be resist the passage of water.
 The concrete should be providing the required finish.
Slump Test:
The slump test is done for the following purposes.
i) The slump test is done to check the workability of concrete.
ii) To control the water cement ratio of concrete.
APPARATUS:
The following apparatus is required for the slump test.
i) Smooth base plate, non water absorbent.

ii) Cone. 8” diameter at bottom, 4” diameter at top, 12” height.
iii) Measuring tape.
iv) Tamping rod 5/8” diameter, 24” long.
v) Trowel.
Procedure:
Take simple of concrete and fill the cone up to 3” and temped 25 times
through rod. The whole cone is filled by the applying of above method. After
filling the cone the concrete is leveled with the top of cone. After 5 to 7
seconds remove the cone slowly in vertical direction. Now immediately
measure the height of concrete after removing the cone give name H1. Also
note the height of cone H2. Now calculate the difference by subtracting H1
from H2.
This is required value of slump. This value range according to the following
requirement.
1) Concrete in wide area like road and dam. 1” to 2”.

2) Beam and slab. 2” to 4”.
3) Column and less thickness structure. 3” to 5”.
Requirements of ingredients of concrete:
1) Cement:
i) The compressive strength should be not less than 2800psi.
ii) Initial setting time should be not less than 45minutes.
iii) Final setting time should be not less than 10 hours.
iv) The color of cement should be uniform, it should be grey.
v) When cement is touched or rubbed in between fingers, it should give a
smooth feeling.
vi) If a small quantity of cement is thrown in water, it should sink and not
float on the surface.
2) Sand:
i) It should be clean and free of silt and clay.
ii) All sand should be passed through sleve#4.
iii) It should be strong and durable.
iv) It should be free from salt.
v) No organic matter should be present.
vi) It should be chemically inert. (Non reactive).
vii) It should consist of course, angular, sharp and hard grain.
3) Course aggregate:
i) It should be chemically non reactive.
ii) It should be clean and free from salt.
iii) It must be angular in shape.
iv) It must be hard and durable.
v) It should be free from organic matter.
vi) It should not consist of elongated particle.
4) Water:
i) The water should be fresh.
ii) It should not contain any organic and inorganic substance.
iii) The water should be fit for drinking.
iv) It should have no color.
Experience gained in the 3 months
1) Understanding survey
2) Understanding the use of level Machines in a more reliable manner.
3) Gained knowledge on managing of site.
4) Understanding of site plan.
5) Recording the activities of labors and masons.
6) Reporting to the site engineer.
7) Progress and completion of on job on time.
8) Understanding of building estimates.
9) Learn the building layout.
10) Using Auto and CAD for civil Engineering purposes.
11) Draw cross sections, plans and elevations.
12) Understanding the orientation of a building to be determined.
13) Enhancing the ability to architecturally design a building in congested and less area.

ATTOCK Bridge# 220 on Attock city-Peshawer Section,

4 Overall Learning
5 Complexity
Name:
Organization:
Office seal:
Date:
INTERNSHIP

Reg no: SUIT-12-01-079-0199
Program: B-Tech
Technology: CIVIL


Head quarter office
Lahore
In the organization
From
Reg no: SUIT-12-01-079-0199
WATER SUPPLY
Enough water to meet the needs of occupants must be available for all buildings. Further
water needs for fire protection, heating; air conditioning, and possibly process use must
also be met. This section provides specific data on all these water needs, except those for
use. Water needs for process use must be computed separately because the demand
depends on the process served.
WATER QUALITY
Sources of water for buildings include public water supplies, groundwater, and surface
water. Each source requires careful study to determine if a sufficient quantity of safe water
is available for the building being designed.
WATER TREATMENT
To maintain water quality within acceptable limits (Art. 14.3), water supplied to a building
usually must undergo some form of treatment. Whether treatment should be at the source
or after transmission to the point of consumption is usually a question of economics,
involving hydraulic features, pumping energies and costs, and possible effects of raw water
on transmission mains. Treatment, in addition to disinfection, should be provided for all
water used for domestic purposes that does not fall within prescribed limits. Treatment
methods include screening, plain settling, coagulation and sedimentation, filtration,
disinfection, softening, and aeration. When treatment of the water supply for a building is
necessary, the method that will take the objectionable elements out of the raw water in the
simplest, least expensive manner should be selected. Softening of water is a process that
must be justified by its need, depending on use of the water. With a hardness in excess of
about 150 ppm, the cost of softening will be offset partly by the reduction of soap required
for cleaning. When synthetic detergents are used instead of soap
WASTEWATER PIPING
Human, natural, and industrial wastes resulting from building occupancy and use must be
disposed of in a safe, quick manner if occupant health and comfort are to be safeguarded.
Design of an adequate plumbing system requires careful planning and adherence to the
codes in effect and to state or municipal regulations governing these systems.
WASTEWATER DISPOSAL
There are three main types of wastewater:
Separate plumbing systems are generally required for each type.
1) Domestic.
Domestic wastewater is primarily spent water from the building water supply, to which
is added wastes from bathrooms, kitchens, and laundries. It generally can be disposed of
by discharge into a municipal sanitary sewer, if one is available.
2) Storm.
Storm water is primarily the water that runs off the roof or the site of the building. The
water usually is directed to roof drains or gutters. These then feed the water to
drainpipes, which convey it to a municipal or private storm-water sewer system. Special
conditions at some building sites, such as large paved areas or steep slopes, may require
the capture of storm water in retention areas or ponds to prevent the municipal storm
sewer systems from being overloaded.
3) Industrial.
Industrial waste may present special problems because (1) the flow volume may be
beyond the public sewer capacity, and (2) local regulations may prohibit the discharge
of industrial waste into public sewers
.
SEWERS
A sewer is a conduit for water carriage of wastes. For the purpose of this section, any
piping for wastewater inside a building will be considered plumbing or process piping;
outside the building, wastewater lines are called sewers. Sewers carry wastewater. And
a system of sewers and appurtenances is sewerage. Sanitary sewers carry domestic
wastes or industrial wastes. Where buildings are located on large sites, or structures
with large roof areas are involved, a storm sewer is used for fast disposal of rain and is
laid out to drain inlets located for best collection of runoff.
Determination of Runoff
For figuring rates of runoff to determine storm-sewer requirements, the so-called
rational method may be used. It employs the formula
Q _ CIA (14.5)
Where Q _ maximum rate of runoff, ft3/s
C _ runoff coefficient of the runoff area
I _ rainfall intensity, in/hr
A _ watershed area, acres
The runoff coefficient C indicates the degree of imperviousness of the land. It ranges from
0.6 to 0.9 for built-up areas and paved surfaces and from 0.30 to 0.50 for unpaved
surfaces, depending on the surface slope. In storm-sewer design, however, it is necessary
to know not only rate of runoff and total runoff, but also at what point in time after the
start of a storm the rate of runoff reaches its peak. It is this peak runoff for which pipe
must be sized and sloped. (The conduit designed to handle the peak runoff is for
conveyance of runoff volume only and should not be considered for storage.)
The following list constitutes basic design criteria that must be considered during the
design of gravity sanitary sewer lines within the Boxelder Sanitation District (District).
These are general criteria and may be altered in view of site specific conditions.
Planning Considerations:
1. Coordination:
It is desirable that the planners and engineers communicate with the District staff to field
verify the locations of existing manholes and lines, and also to discuss infrastructure
contemplated for installation in the proposed subdivision.
2. Planning:
It is advisable that the engineers meet with the District staff for a pre-design meeting and
review of conceptual plans for the site, as well as off-site collector line locations.
Flows, Populations:
1. Residential Per Capita Flows: A domestic wastewater flow rate of 100 gal/capita/day
(CDPHE Policy 96-1), and a residential population of 2.5 persons/dwelling unit (Larimer
county information) shall be used for sizing sanitary sewer lines.
2. Commercial Flows: The development engineer must consult with the District during the
design process to identify anticipated flows from commercial developments.
3. Peaking Factors: Peaking factors used for computed wastewater flow shall be in
accordance with ASCE MOP 60 (1982) or Wastewater Engineering (Metcalf and Eddy) or
other generally accepted engineering references.
Easements:
1. Permanent Easements: Permanent easement width of 30 ft. is required for all lines.
Exceptions are possible but must be approved by the District.
2. Access along Easements: All easements not within roadways must have a 12-ft wide
gravel access roadway installed for District maintenance vehicle access. The access road
should be level and be capable of supporting and accommodating a cleaning vehicle with an
18,000 lb axle weight. Security: All easements not within roadways must have gates
installed at all access points. Temporary Construction Easement (TCE): TCEs of at least 50
ft. are advisable for constructability. Location of TCE relative to the permanent easement to
be determined based on site conditions. TCEs of up to 100 ft. may be needed depending on
conditions. District standard templates are to be used for all easement document
preparation.
Sewer Line
1. Alignment: Sewer lines, between manholes, must be straight. Curved sewer lines will not
be accepted by the District.
2. Slope: Minimum slope in accordance with that recommended in Ten States Standards.
3. Flow Velocity: Minimum average velocity of flow in pipe shall be 2 ft/s.
4. Sewer Line Size: Minimum size of sanitary sewer line main is 8 in.
5. D/d Ratio for Design: In accordance with ASCE MOP 60 (1982), pipes up to 15 in.
diameter should be designed as flowing half full (d/D = 0.5) at peak design flow. Pipes of a
larger size should be designed as flowing ¾ full (d/D = 0.75) at peak design flow.
6. Cover: Lines should have a minimum cover of 3.5 ft. (BSD standards/specs.)
7. Line Location in Easements: Sewer lines should be centered within the easement(s).
Manholes:
1. Separation: Manholes must be no more than 400 ft. apart, except in some special cases.
This is due to limitations of the sewer line cleaning equipment.
2. Manhole Location: The sanitary sewer manholes shall, when possible, be located in the
middle of the street, preferably at the crown or reasonably close to it. Under no
circumstances shall the sanitary sewer manholes be sited in areas where stormwater may
flow into the manhole. Similarly, sides/banks of water courses are areas where location of
manholes should be avoided.
3. Minimizing Manholes: Whenever possible, the number of sanitary sewer manholes must
be kept to a minimum.
4. Terminal Manholes: Manholes at the end of lines must be designed with the potential to
serve adjacent properties which are currently not served by sanitary sewer.
5. Rim Elevations: Manhole covers must be at grade.
Service Lines:
1. Disconnect Valves: The District requires the use of service disconnection valves (e.g.,
Elder Valves™) to be placed in the service lines.
2. Cleanout: The District requires a cleanout be installed immediately downstream of each
Elder Valve.
3. Connections to Manholes: Service connections to manholes should be avoided. If,
however, that is not possible, such as in cul de sacs, service connections may be
established through manholes, but with the use of A-LOK gaskets cast in place.
4. Tracer Wire: Tracer wires are required to run along the service line to clean out location.
Separation from Other Services and Water Course Crossings:

Sanitary sewer lines that cross water courses such as canals, streams, rivers, creeks, ponds
and such are required to be in a steel casing or concrete encased. The District Engineer will
make the final determination on type of protection to be used at each crossing.
1. Depth:
Top of sewer line should, preferably, be at least 1.5 ft. below the bottom of water
lines at any crossing.
General Aspects:
1. The gravity sanitary sewer lines shall be constructed in accordance with the District’s
Construction Standards and Specifications
Experience gained in the 3 months
1) Understanding survey
2) Understanding the use of level Machines in a more reliable manner.
3) Gained knowledge on managing of site.
4) Understanding of site plan.
5) Recording the activities of labors and masons.
6) Reporting to the site engineer.
7) Progress and completion of on job on time.
8) Understanding of sewer line estimates.
9) Learn the sewer line layout.
10) Using Auto CAD for civil Engineering purposes.
11) Draw cross sections, plans and elevations sewer line, man hole and other.
12) Understanding how to provide gradient in sewer line.

ATTOCK Bridge# 220 on Attock city-Peshawer Section,

4 Overall Learning
5 Complexity
Name:
Organization:
Office seal:
Date:
INTERNSHIP

Reg no: SUIT-12-01-079-0199
Program: B-Tech
Technology: CIVIL


Head quarter office
Lahore
In the organization
From
Reg no: SUIT-12-01-079-0199
What is railway
• It is an engineered structure consisting of two
metal guiding rails on which cars are self
propelled or pulled by a locomotive.
• A railroad consists of two steel rails which are
held at fixed distance apart on a road bed.
Vehicles guided by flanged wheels and
connected into trains, are propelled as a mean
of transportation.
What is railway
• 1. A road laid with parallel steel rails, along which
cars carrying passengers are drawn by
locomotive, 2. A complete system of such roads,
including land, rolling stock, stations etc, 3. The
persons or corporation owing and managing such
a system.
• First time developed in 1825 in England from
George Stephenson’s locomotive, speed was 12
mph. The first railway track developed was used
by horse drawn trains of wagons.
Old track
Track components
• Rail: It is the most expensive material in the track. Rail
is steel that has been rolled into an inverted T or I
shaped cross section. The first time rail used was made
of iron of length 15 ft weight 28 lb per yard. By early
1900’s the length standardised to 60 ft of 95 lb per
yard. The purpose of the rail is to:
• Transfer train’s weight to cross ties /sleepers
• Provide a smooth running surface
• Guide wheel flanges
• The standard gauge is about 1432 mm or 5feet 6 inches
Rail
Types of rails
• Double headed rails
• Bull headed rails
• Flat footed rails
• Double headed rails were the first stage of development,
consists of three parts ; upper table, web and lower table. The
upper and lower table are identical and they were introduced
with the hope that they will be used to double the life of rail
such that if the top is worn out, the rail can be reversed. This
type is no longer in use.
• Bull headed rails: this consists of head, foot and web. The size
is : H is 5 5/8 inches, bottomW is 2 ½ inch.
Types of rails
• Flat footed rails: In this type the foot is spread out to form the
base. This type is more stable, economical because of less
material in bottom flat part and it maintain a more regular top
surface than the bull headed rails. This type is used mostly
these days. The bottom plat w is 5 3/8 inches, H is 5 3/8
inches.
Wear at rail
• At the top rail
• At the ends of rail
• On side of the head of rail
• To reduce wear of rails: use of special alloy steel, good
maintenance of track, reduction of expansion gap,
exchange of inner and outer rails on curves, introducing
check rails, use of lubricating oil.
• The introduction of check rail holds the back of the flange
of the inner wheel and thus prevents the outer wheel to
damage the outer rail. The gap between the inner rail and
check rail should be equal to the flange thickness of the
wheel and required side plays.
• The rail may fail due to manufacturing defect, fatigue etc.
Coning of wheels
• Introduction
• Railway wheels are usually in a cone shaped with 1:20 slope.
The rails are also fixed at this identical angle to the
perpendicular.
• Advantages of coning the wheels
• (i) Coning the wheels reduces the damage in the wheel
rims and rails. Damage is caused because of the friction
action of rims with inner faces of the rail top.
• (ii) It gives an option of lateral drift of the hinge with its
wheels.
• (iii) It prevents, to some extent, the slipping of the
wheels.
Coning of wheels
Gauges
• Standard Gauge
Gauge is the measure of distance between the railroad
rails. The distance is usually measured from the inside top
edge of the parallel rails. Standard gauge throughout the
world is 1435 mm. This measurement was developed by
George Stephenson, a British railway engineer, using the
width of coal wagons that were in use before the invention
of the steam locomotive. In the United States, gauge can
vary slightly between 4 feet, 8.5 inches to 4 feet, 9.5 inches
(1,460 mm). All rail cars and locomotives built to this
specification can use any standard gauge railroad line in the
world. However, not all railroads have been built to
standard gauge.
Types of gauges
• Narrow Gauge (2 ft to 2 ft 6 inches)
Some railroads use smaller distances, known as narrow
gauge railroads. Narrow-gauge railways are cheaper to
build and better adapted to mountainous terrain. Some
narrow gauges are in use in mining operations, and in
short-run railroads that must account for sharp curves
and steep slopes. However, narrow-gauge railways are
limited in their weight capacity and operating speed.
• Meter Gauge
This type is 3 ft 6 inches or 1.069 meter, mostly used in
Japan, South Africa and New Zealand
Types of gauges
• Broad Gauge (5 ft to 5 ft 6 inches)
Broad gauges are useful for heavy loads and higher
rates of speed. Broad-gauge railways are standard in
Russia, Finland, Ireland, India, Sri Lanka, Pakistan,
Nepal, Bangladesh, Portugal, and Spain. When different
gauges adjoin, for example at a nation's border, a break
of gauge occurs. Some lines solve the problem by
building dual gauge lines, which contain several
different rails on a single rail bed for different gauges.
Dual-gauge railways are in use in Australia, Argentina,
Brazil, Vietnam, and Switzerland. Some locomotives
and rail cars are built with adjustable wheels that can
adapt to different gauge sizes
Difference in Gauges
• Gauge should be uniform otherwise it will cause problem
for passengers as they have to change train where there
are two different gauges
• No suitable for commercial goods. There will be load and
unload of goods and will increase the cost of goods
imported or exported
• Will require wagons of different gauges, thus create
shortage or over crowed of wagons
• Difficult in an emergency or in war if it is needed to transfer
army or people from one corner of the country to the other
• For different gauges, there will require a station consist of
duplicate facilities such as platform, siding etc.
Check rail or guard rail
• A guard rail (check rail) is a short piece of rail
placed alongside the main (stock) rail opposite
the frog. These exist to ensure that the wheels
follow the appropriate flangeway through the
frog and that the train does not derail.
Generally, there are two of these for each
frog, one by each outer rail.
Check rail
Check rail
Sleepers/ties
• Timber sleepers: These are commonly 254mm
wide by 127mm thick in cross section by 2600mm
long. The sleepers are first seasoned (drying for
up to 12 months so that to remove the juice/sap)
and treated with preservative. Creosote is an oil
generally used/ sprayed on the surface. They are
either hard wood or soft wood type. Advantages:
• Good resilience
• Ease of handling
• Adaptability to non standard situation
• Electrical insulation
Switch Ties/sleepers
• The primary use for switch ties is to transfer load
(as from the name) and are made of hard wood
• This type is preferably used in bridge approaches,
heavily travelled, railway crossovers and as
transition ties.
• Softwood Ties: softwood timber is more rot
(decay) resistant than hardwood, but does not
offered resistance to spike hole enlargement,
gauge spreading, also are not as effective in
transmitting the load to the ballast section as the
hardwood tie.
Switch Ties
Softwood Ties
Sleepers/Ties
• Softwood ties and hardwood ties should not be
mixed on the main track.
• Softwood ties are typically used in open deck
bridges
• Concrete Ties: Concrete tie are rapidly gaining
acceptance for heavy haul mainline use as well as
for curvature greater than 2 degree. They are
made of RCC or pre-stressed concrete containing
reinforcing steel wires. An insulator plate is
placed between rail and tie to isolate the tie
electrically.
Concrete sleepers
• They have design life of up to 40 years
• Can easily moulded into the required/design
shape to withstand stresses induced by fast and
heavy traffic
• The added weight helps the rail to resist the
forces produced due to thermal expansion and
which can buckle the track
• The weight of concrete sleepers is about 2.5 to 3
time the wooden sleepers.
• Pre-tensioned concrete sleepers are usually
preferred now days
Concrete sleepers
Sleepers
• Sleepers also holds rails to the gauge and inclination
• transmit the lateral and longitudinal forces
• Insulate the rail electrically
• Provide a base for the rail seats and fastenings
• Reduce noise and vibration on non ballast bridge deck
Softwood treated sleepers on the surface can be
expected 15 to 25 years.
Renewal is required because of the bad split or rot
occurred. Random renewal is recommended , because
it do not stop rail service.
Individual renewal of sleepers
Steel Ties/sleepers
• Steel ties are used where wood or concrete is
not favourable for example in tunnels with
limited headway clearance
• They are also used in heavy curvature prone
to gage widening.
• This type of steel ties can cause problem to
signals control system
• Some problem of fatigue cracking have also
experienced.
Steel ties
Steel sleepers
• In the design of Steel sleeper, the following are
considered:
• It should maintain perfect gauge
• Can fix the rail and there should be no movement
longitudinally
• Should have sufficient effective area to transfer
load from rail to ballast.
• The metal of sleeps should be strong enough to
resist bending
• The design life should be 35 years
Sleepers density
• It is the number of sleepers per rail and is
expressed as n+x, n is the number yards in a
rail and x is the number of sleepers more than
n
• For the case of 42 feet (14 yard) rail, the
number of sleepers will be = 14+3= 17
• x may be 4, 9, or 11. In developed countries 9
or 11 is used
Rail Joints
• The purpose of the rail joint are to hold the
two ends of the rail in place and act as a
bridge between rail ends. Joint is made up of
two bars or more commonly called angled
bars.
• Joint bars prevent lateral or vertical
movement of the rail ends and permit the
longitudinal movement of the rails for
expanding or contracting.
Fish plates
Rail Joints
• Standard
• Compromise
• Insulated
• Standard joint bars connect two rails of the
same weight and section. They are typically 24
inch with 4 bolts ( for small rail section) or 36
inches with 6 bolts (for large rail section)
• Compromise bars connect two rails of
different weight or sections together.
Standard Joints
Compromise Joints
Joints
• Compromise joints are further classified into
directional (right or left) or non directional.
Directional compromise bars are used where a
difference in the width of the head between
sections requires the offsetting of the rail to
align the gage side of the rail
• Non directional are used where the difference
between sections is in the heights of the head
Joints
• Joints can also be classified as square joints
and staggered joints
• When the joints are exactly opposite to the
joint in the parallel rail, it is known as square
type of rail joint.
• When the joint in one rail is exactly opposite
to the centre of the parallel rail length, it is
known as staggered joints
Insulation joint
Joints failure
• Due to abrasion, the top surface is worn out
• Crack may start at bottom and extend toward
top
• Spikes: these are used to hold the rail to the
wooden sleepers, they are dog spikes, screw
spikes, round spikes and elastic spikes
Bearing plates
• These are the plates kept under the rail when it
touching the sleepers. This act as chair for rail.
• This increase the bearing area of load on sleepers
which reduce the stress intensity
• It stop the rail cutting of sleepers due to abrasion
of rail
• It prevent the concentrated pressure developed
on the side of head while the train is in the curve.
The concentrated pressure causes cutting of soil.
Bottom bearing flat and fastening
Crossing and points/turn out
• All railway required points or turn out to be able
to divert trains from one track to another track
and crossing to allow trains to cross other tracks
at an angle
• Points or turn out consists of elements called
crossing and switches
• Points consist of stock rail (fixed on either sides)
and switch rail (moveable rail)
• Switch rail is sharpened on one side, the tapered
side is called switch tongue
Crossing and points/turn out
Switch
Switch control
Ballast
• Provides a hard and level bed for the sleepers
• hold the sleepers in place during the passage of train,
• transmit and distribute the load from the sleepers to
the formation,
• allows for maintaining correct track levels without
disturbing the rail road bed,
• Protect the surface of formation,
• Drain the water immediately, and
• keep the sleepers in dry condition and discourage the
growth of vegetation
Ballast
Ballast material selection
• The ballast material should be elastic and should
be provided in enough thickness such that to
uniformly distribute the weight of train on the
formation
• The material should have sufficient grip over the
sleepers to prevent their horizontal movement
• The material should not allow rain water to
accumulate but it should drain off water without
absorbing the moisture
Ballast
• Broken stone
• Gravel
• Ashes
• Sand
• Kankar
• Moorum
• Brickbats
• Selected earth
Ballast
• Ballast maximum size is 1.9 to 5.0 cm with some
reasonable proportion of intermediate sizes. It
should be spread up to the top of the sleepers
and not on top of sleepers
• The slope will be 1:1 or 1.5:1
• The depth/thickness of ballast should be 6 inch to
24 inches. The depth is measured from top of sub
grade to bottom of sleepers
• The ballast top should be 0.5 to 1.0 inch below
the rail bottom to allow rain water flow
Ballast
• On curves the ballast quantity will be slightly
more to cover super elevation
• Screening of ballast: The ballast should be
renewed from time to time, because due to
continuous hammering the ballast converted
into the powder form. This powder along with
dust , sand ashes from locomotive form an
impervious layer and prevent the ease flow of
water through ballast
Screening of ballast
• The ballast are constantly press in the
formation. This reduce the quantity of the
ballast and also the elasticity of the railway
track is affected. The ballast is cleaned
regularly by means of screening.

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Certificate of Industrial Training

For the fulfillment of Bachelor of Technology Degree

Father’s Name: MASHAHOOR KHAN

Duration: (From: Till: ) Number of Month:

Name: Muhammad Ghiyas Uddin

This certificate is awarded to Mr. Muhammad Ghiyas Uddin S/O

Bridge inspector Technical

The bridge structure is divided into two major portions:

Bridges are classified on the basis of:

4) Type of super structure.

6) Relative position of floor of superstructure.

BRIDGES (SUB STRUCTURE) FOUNDATION:

Principal of foundation design:

Different types of foundation:

Father’s Name: MASHAHOOR KHAN

Duration: (From: Till: ) Number of Month:

Name: Muhammad Ghiyas Uddin

Bridge inspector Technical

A building is composed of mainly the following terms.

3) Single or multi storey:

4) Beams and columns:

Walls are constructed to support or create partitions in the building, to distribute it

6) Doors, Windows and Ventilators:

8) Sanitation and water supply:

9) Plaster and paints:

Definitions and Classifications of Building

Metal: Steel, Iron, Aluminum, Copper, Various Types of Alloys

organic Wood, Plastics, Synthetic Rubber, Petroleum Asphalt. etc.

Quality of good concrete:

The following apparatus is required for the slump test.

i) Smooth base plate, non water absorbent.

1) Concrete in wide area like road and dam. 1” to 2”.

Requirements of ingredients of concrete:

Father’s Name: MASHAHOOR KHAN

Duration: (From: Till: ) Number of Month:

Name: Muhammad Ghiyas Uddin

This certificate is awarded to Mr. Muhammad Ghiyas Uddin S/O

Bridge inspector Technical

Separation from Other Services and Water Course Crossings:

Father’s Name: MASHAHOOR KHAN

Duration: (From: Till: ) Number of Month:

Name: Muhammad Ghiyas Uddin

This certificate is awarded to Mr. Muhammad Ghiyas Uddin S/O

Bridge inspector Technical

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