Physics Laws and Forces Lecture

PHYSICS - 1 (Lecture - 2)
Santabrata Das
Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati

sbdas@iitg.ernet.in
August 6, 2014
Santabrata Das (IITG) PHYSICS - 1 (Lecture - 2) August 6, 2014 1 / 56

Section 1
Newton’s Law of Motion

First Law of Motion
Isolated Bodies Move With Uniform Velocity.
Common Notion: All moving bodies come to a halt.

Isolated Bodies
Inertial Frames

Second Law of Motion
d
F = dt (mv) = ma
It is a law, not a definition!

Mass is constant and additive
Force is in the direction of change of velocity
Force: a spring force
Force = L − L0
L
Force = L’ − L0
L’

Mass is a measure of inertia
External agency that alters the state of motion
Force is a vector quantity F = Fi
P
i
F1
1
0
0
1 F1 + F2
F2
Arises out of interaction between systems.

Therefore, isolated bodies ⇒ No interaction ⇒ No force ⇒ motion with
uniform velocity.
Question: Is there laws for the forces themselves?

Answer: YES, in some cases.
Gravity
Electrostatic
Mass on a spring
But, for comlex systems, it is difficult to have a complete idea about
laws of the forces
three body motion
collision of two automobiles
molecular motion of a gas

Third Law of Motion
Every action has equal and opposite reaction
Describes the nature of forces

Validates the concept that force is necessarily the result of
interaction between systems.
Is it always true?
There is some problem with electromagnetic forces.

Fundamental Forces
Gravitational Forces
Electromagnetic Forces
Weak Nuclear Forces
Strong Nuclear Forces

Gravitational Forces
Tycho Brahe and Kepler
Newton’s Law of Gravitation
mm0
F=G r
r2
b
Force is along the line of centres and is attractive

Inertial or gravitational Mass?
Explains planetary Motion (Large distances)
Cavendish Experiment (On Earth)

Electrical and Magnetic Forces
Coulomb’s Law (static charges)

qq 0
F= r
r2
b
Magnetic Force (moving charges)

Fields E and B
Lorentz Force
F = q (E + v × B)

Nuclear Forces
No known law for nuclear forces

Range of Nuclear Forces ∼ 10−13 cm
Scattering Experiments
Newtonian or Quantum Mechanics?
Quantum mechanical laws are valid with such small particles at a
tiny distance.

Applications of Newton’s Laws
Mentally divide the system into smaller systems, each of which can
be treated as a point mass
Draw a force diagram for each mass
Fix the coordinate system
Use third law whenever necessary
Find out constraints and construct the relevent equation
Use second law
Identify the number of unknown quantities. There must be enough
number of equations ( Equations of motion + third law pairs +
constraint equations) to solve for all the unknown quantities.

Everyday Forces
Tension in the ropes

Normal Forces
Frictional Forces
Viscous Forces
Springs
Atomic Forces

Forces
Normal Force
Force exerted by a surface on a body in contact with it can be
resolved into two components
Component perpendicular to the surface is called Normal force
N → equal & opposite to the resultant of all other forces
perpendicular to the surface
Frictional force
For bodies not in relative motion, 0 ≤ f ≤ µN ; f opposes the
motion that would occur in it’s absence
For bodies in relative motion, f = µN ; f is directed opposite to
relative velocity.

Constraints: Example I
A block moves on a wedge which in turn moves on a horizontal table.
The wedge angle is θ. How are the accelerations of the block and wedge
related?
Constraint - I: Vertical acceleration

is zero.
x
h Constraint - II:
y
X θ
x − X = (h − y) cot θ
ẍ − Ẍ = −ÿ cot θ
h−y
θ
Coordinates are fixed on ground
x−X Equations are independent of forces

Example 2
The two blocks M1 and M2 shown in the sketch are connected by a
string of negligible mass. If the system is released from rest, find how
far block M1 slides in time t. Neglect friction.
x
M1 Equations of motion:
g
M1 ẍ1 = T
M2
and
M2 ẍ2 = W2 − T
Constraint equations:
L − x1 + x2 = const ⇒ ẍ1 = ẍ2

Unknowns: ẍ1 , ẍ2 , T and three equations.

Example 2
Solve three equations simulteneously and obtain the solution as,
M2 g = (M1 + M2 )ẍ1
M2 g
ẍ1 =
M1 + M2
After integration,
M2 gt2
x1 =
2(M1 + M2 )

Example 3
A particle of mass m slides without friction on the inside of a cone. The
axis of the cone is vertical, and gravity is directed downward. The apex
half-angle of the cone is θ.
υ0 m
The path of the particle happens to be a circle in a horizontal plane.

The speed of the particle is v0 . Draw a force diagram and find the
radius of the circular path in terms of v0 , g, and θ.

Example 3
Force diagram is self-explanatory.

Equations of motion:
N sin θ = W
N cos θ = mrω 2
Dividing them yields
W mg g
tan θ = = =
mrω 2 mrω 2 rω 2
Speed of mass m is v0 = rω
gr v02 tan θ
tan θ = ⇒ r =
v02 g

Example 4
Masses M1 and M2 are connected to a system of strings and pulleys as

shown. The strings are massless and inextensible, and the pulleys are
massless and frictionless. Find the acceleration of M1 .
M1
M2

Example 4
The fixed length of the string is a constraint.
M1 ẍ1 = T − M1 g
M2 ẍ2 = T 0 − M2 g
Unknowns: ẍ1 , ẍ2 , T, T 0 and we require four equations to solve the

problem.
Example 4
Net force is 0 ⇒ 2T 0 = T
Then, from Eqns of motion, we have
T = M1 ẍ1 + M1 g
T
M2 ẍ2 = − M2 g
2
Constraint: Fixed length of the string is a constraint.
(x2 + l2 + l20 )
x1 + l1 + l10 + = constant
2
ẍ2 = −2ẍ1

Example 4
Upon solving, we get
−4M2 ẍ1 = T − 2M2 g = M1 ẍ1 + M1 g − 2M2 g

(2M2 − M1 ) g
ẍ1 =
(4M2 + M1 )
Acceleration of M2 is twice the rate of M1 and the weight of M1 is

counterbalanced by twice the weight of M2 .
When
M1 M2 ⇒ ẍ1 ≈ −g and ẍ2 ≈ −2g
and if
g
M2 M1 ⇒ ẍ1 ≈ and ẍ2 ≈ −g
2

Example 5
A mass m is connected to a vertical revolving axle by two strings of
length l, each making an angle of 45o with the axle. Both axle and mass
are revolving with angular velocity ω. Gravity is directed downward.
Find the tension in the upper string, Tup , and lower string, Tlow .
l
45°
45°
l
√ √
Radial distance of m from the axle is l/ 2 as cos 45o = sin 45o = 1/ 2

Example 5
Tup Tlow
√ = mg + √ → V ertical
2 2
mlω 2 Tup + Tlow
√ = √ → Radial
2 2
Unknows: Tup , Tlow and two equations.

Solving we get,
mlω 2 mg
Tup = +√
2 2
mlω 2 mg
Tlow = −√
2 2
Example 6
A disk rotates with constant angular velocity ω. Two masses, mA and
mB , slide without friction in a groove passing through the center of the
disk. They are connected by a light string of length l, and are initially
held in position by a catch, with mass mA at distance rA from the
center. Neglect gravity. At t = 0 the catch is removed and the masses
are free to slide. Find r̈A immediately after the catch is removed, in
terms of mA , mB , l, rA , and ω.
mB w
ra l
mA

Example 6
Blocks are constrained by the groove
Tangential motion plays no dynamical role, neglected in force diag.
Force T on each mass is radially inward.
= mA r̈A − rA ω 2

−T
= mB r̈B − rB ω 2

−T
Constraints: rA + rB = l ⇒ r̈A = −r̈B
Solving,
r̈A − rA ω 2 = mB r̈B − rB ω 2 = mB −r̈A − (l − rA ) ω 2

mA
mB lω 2
r̈A = rA ω 2 −
(mA + mB )
Example 7: Whirling block
A horizontal frictionless table has a small hole in its center. Block A on
the table is connected to block B hanging beneath by a string of
negligible mass which passes through the hole. Initially, B is held
stationary and A rotates at constant radius r0 with steady angular
velocity ω0 . If B is released at t = 0, what is its acceleration
immediately afterward?
MA r̂
T θ
A T
MB z
z
B WB
Two movable bodies and their free body diagram

Example continued ...
−T = MA (r̈ − rθ̇2 ) Radial
0 = MA (rθ̈ + 2ṙθ̇) Tangential
WB − T = MB z̈ Vertical
Constrain equations: r + z = ` ⇒ r̈ = −z̈.

Unknowns: ar , aθ , z̈, T . Four unknowns and four Eqs.
WB − MA rθ̇2
z̈ =
MA + MB
Immediately after B is released, r = r0 and θ̇ = ω0 . Hence,

2
WB − MA r0 θ˙0
z̈(0) =
MA + M B
Example 8: Block on wedge with friction
A block of mass m rests on a fixed wedge of angle θ. The coefficient of
friction is µ. Find the value of θ at which the block starts to slide.
Constraint:
f
N y mÿ = 0
m
Eqns of motion:
x
mẍ = W sinθ − f
θ
W
θ mÿ = N − W cosθ
= 0
Coordinate system is fixed on

the wedge.

When sliding is about to start: f = fmax = µN ; ẍ = 0.
Eqns of motion:
W sin θmax = µN
W cos θmax = N
tan θmax = µ
As the wedge angle is gradually increased from zero, the friction force
grows in magnitude from zero to its maximum value µN , since before
the block begins to slide we have
f = W sin θ θ ≤ θmax

Now, the wedge is given horizontal acceleration a. Assuming that
tan θ > µ, find the minimum acceleration for the block to remain on the
wedge without sliding.
Horizontal acceleration of the block is
g mamin = N cos θ − f sin θ; f ≤ µN (1)

a
θ
In the limit f = µN , we have
mamin = N (cos θ − µ sin θ)
Block has zero Vertical acceleration
N sin θ + f cos θ − mg = 0
N (sin θ + µ cos θ) = mg (2)

Eleminating normal force N from Eqns (1) and (2) we get

cos θ − µ sin θ
amin = g
sin θ + µ cos θ
We can estimate the maximum acceleration also.

Horzontal acceleration of the block
mamax = N (cos θ + µ sin θ) ; f = µN
Vertical acceleration of the block
N sin θ − f cos θ − mg = 0
As earlier,
cos θ + µ sin θ
amax = g
sin θ − µ cos θ
Examples 9
A 4 Kg block rests on top of a 6 Kg block, which rests on a frictionless

table. Coefficient of friction between blocks is 0.25. A force F = 10N is
applied to the lower block.
4 Kg
F
6 Kg

Examples 9: Force Diagrams
F1
4 Kg
Wb
N’
F1 F
6 Kg
Wa N
N’

Examples 9: Coordinate System and
Constraints
Fix the coordinate system to the table.
xB
4 Kg
yB xA
yA 6 Kg
yA = const
yB = const
xA = xB + const

Examples 9: Equations
Equations of Motion in Y direction.
mA ÿA = N 0 − WA − N
mB ÿB = N − WB
Constraints
ÿA = 0
ÿB = 0
Solution
N 0 = WA + WB
N = WB

Equations of Motion in X direction.
mA ẍA = F − F1
mB ẍB = F1
Constraints
ẍA = ẍB
Solution
F
ẍA = ẍB = = 1 m/s2
mA + MB
F1 = mB ẍB = 4N

Examples 9: Example Continued ...
The force F1 < µN = 10 N, the maximum frictional force between

the blocks. Hence the solution is consistent with assumption.
What would be the motion if F = 40 N?
If the blocks move together then xB = 4 m/s and F1 = 16 N! More
than the maximum frictional force!

Equations of Motion in X direction.
mA ẍA = F − F1
mB ẍB = F1
But,
F1 = µN
Solution
F − µN
ẍA = = 5 m/s2
mA
µN
ẍB = = 2.5 m/s2
mB
Example 10
A block of mass m slides on a frictionless table. It is constrained to

move move inside a ring of radius l fixed to the table. At t = 0 the
block is touching the ring and has a velocity v0 in tangential direction.
1
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
1111
0000 0
1
0000
1111
0000
1111m 0
1
0000
1111 0
1
0
1
l
0000
1111
0000
1111 0
1
0000
1111 0
1
0
1
0000
1111
0000
1111 0
1

Example 10: Equations
Constraint Equation is r = l, that is ṙ = r̈ = 0.
Equations of Motion

m r̈ − rθ̇2 = −mlθ̇2 = −N

m rθ̈ − 2ṙθ̇ = mrθ̈ = −f
Eliminating N , we get
θ̈ = −µθ̇2
v(t) = lθ̇
v0
=
1 + µv0 t/l

Tension in a string
A string consists of long chains of atoms characteristic of the particular

material found in the string. When a string is pulled, we say it is under
tension. The long chains of molecules are stretched, and inter-atomic
forces between atoms in the molecules prevent the molecules from
breaking apart. A detailed microscopic description would be difficult
and unnecessary for our purpose. Instead, a macroscopic model would
be developed for the behavior of strings under tension.

Block and String
A string of mass m attached to a block of mass M is pulled with force
F . What is the force F1 that the string “transmits” to the block?
Neglect gravity.
Equations of motion are:
F1 = M aM ; F − F1 = mas
m F
String is inextensible: as = aM M
By Newton’s third law: F1 = F10
aM
F aS
a = as = aM = F1 F ′1 F
M +m M
and
M
F1 = F10 = F
M +m
Block and String
The force on the block is less

than F
The string does not transmit
m F the full applied force.
M
If the mass of the string is
negligible compared with the
aM block, F1 = F to good
aS
approximation.
F1 F ′1 F
M

Continued...
A string is composed of short sections interacting by contact forces.
Each section pulls the sections to either side of it, and by Newton’s
third law, it is pulled by the adjacent sections. The magnitude of the
force acting between adjacent sections is called tension. There is no
direction associated with tension. In the sketch, the tension at A is F
and the tension at B is F 0 .
A B
A B
F F F′ F′
Although a string may be under considerable tension, for example a

string on a guitar, the net string force on each small section is zero if
the tension is uniform, and the section remains at rest unless external
forces act on it. If there are external forces on the section, or if the
string is accelerating, the tension varies along the string.

Dangling Rope
A uniform rope of mass M and length L hangs from the limb of a tree.
Find the tension in the rope at distance x from the bottom.
The section is pulled up by a force

of magnitude T (x), where T (x) is
the tension at x. The downward
force on the section is its weight T(x)
W = M g(x/L). The total force on L
the section is zero since it is at rest. x

x
Mg
Hence T (x) = L x. W
At the bottom of the rope the tension is zero, while at the top where
x = L the tension equals the total weight of the rope M g.

The Spinning Terror
The Spinning Terror is an amusement park ride—a large vertical drum
that spins so fast that everyone inside stays pinned against the wall
when the floor drops away. What is the minimum steady angular
velocity ω that allows the floor to be dropped safely?
ω
ω
R Radial Equ. N = M Rω 2 .
f
By the law of static friction, M N
f ≤ µN = µM Rω 2
W = Mg
Since we require M to be in
vertical equilibrium, f = M g.
q
g g
Therefore, M g ≤ µM Rω 2 ⇒ ω2 ≥ µR
⇒ ωmin = µR

Example
Consider the force as a function of time, position, or velocity, and solve

the differential eq.
d2 x
m = F (x, t, v)
dt2
to find the position, x(t), as function of time
Since we need to solve second order differential equations, we must have

two initial conditions, usually x0 ≡ x(t0 ) and v0 ≡ v(t0 ), to obtain the
final solutions.
Three special cases: F is function of t only, function of x only, and

function of v only.

Example
F is a function of x only: F = F (x)

We will use
dv dx dv dv
a= = =v
dt dt dt dt
Following
dv
F = ma ⇒ mv = F (x)
dx
As example,
F = −kx or F = −k/x3

Example Continued ...
Now separate the variables and integrate both sides to obtain

ˆ v(x) ˆ x
m v 0 dv 0 = F (x0 )dx0
v0 x0
Separating variables in dx/dt ≡ v(x), yields

ˆ ˆ
x(t)
dx0 t
= dt0 .
x0 v(x0 ) t0

Inverse-cube force field
A particle of mass m starts from rest at x0 (> 0) in an attractive
inverse-cube force field F = −k/x3 (k is a positive constant). Calculate
the time taken to reach the origin.
The equation of motion is,
dv dv k
m = mv =− 3
dt dx x
ˆ v(x) ˆ x
dx
m vdv = −k 3
0 x0 x
s p
dx k x20 − x2
v(x) = =−
dt mx30 x
‘-’ sign for motion in ‘-’ x-direction.

Inverse-cube force field
Integrating the velocity Eq. with respect to t,
ˆ x(t)
s ˆ t
xdx k
= − dt
mx20
p
x0 x20 − x2 0
s
k 2
x(t) = x0 1− t
mx40
‘+’ root as particle is to the right

qof x > 0.
mx40
For t = T0 , x = 0, then T0 = k and
k 2 −1/2

k
v(t) = − t 1− t
mx30 mx40

Free motion in viscous medium
A body of mass m released with velocity v0 in a viscous fluid is retarded
by a force Cv. Find the motion, supposing that no other forces act.
dv
F = −Cv ⇒ −Cv = m
dt
dv C
= − dt
v m
ˆ v ˆ t
dv C
= − dt
v0 v 0 m
v C
log = − t
v0 m
v = v0 exp(−C/m)t
Let τ = m/C, then v = v0 e − t/τ . τ is a characteristic time for the

system; it is the time for the velocity to drop to e − 1 ≈ 0.37 of its
original velocity.
Free motion in viscous medium
Therefore,
dx
= v0 e−t/τ
dt
Hence,
ˆ t
x = v0 e−t/τ dt
0
−t/τ
x = v0 τ 1 − e
As τ → ∞, C → 0, means no resistance. Then x = v0 t.

−x 1 2 1 3
e = 1 − x + x − x + ...
2 6


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PHYSICS - 1 (Lecture - 2)

Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati

Santabrata Das (IITG) PHYSICS - 1 (Lecture - 2) August 6, 2014 1 / 56

Newton’s Law of Motion

Santabrata Das (IITG) PHYSICS - 1 (Lecture - 2) August 6, 2014 2 / 56

Isolated Bodies Move With Uniform Velocity.

Common Notion: All moving bodies come to a halt.

Santabrata Das (IITG) PHYSICS - 1 (Lecture - 2) August 6, 2014 3 / 56

It is a law, not a definition!

Santabrata Das (IITG) PHYSICS - 1 (Lecture - 2) August 6, 2014 4 / 56

Arises out of interaction between systems.

Santabrata Das (IITG) PHYSICS - 1 (Lecture - 2) August 6, 2014 5 / 56

Question: Is there laws for the forces themselves?

Santabrata Das (IITG) PHYSICS - 1 (Lecture - 2) August 6, 2014 6 / 56

Every action has equal and opposite reaction

Describes the nature of forces

Santabrata Das (IITG) PHYSICS - 1 (Lecture - 2) August 6, 2014 7 / 56

Santabrata Das (IITG) PHYSICS - 1 (Lecture - 2) August 6, 2014 8 / 56

Force is along the line of centres and is attractive

Santabrata Das (IITG) PHYSICS - 1 (Lecture - 2) August 6, 2014 9 / 56

Coulomb’s Law (static charges)

Magnetic Force (moving charges)

Santabrata Das (IITG) PHYSICS - 1 (Lecture - 2) August 6, 2014 10 / 56

No known law for nuclear forces

Santabrata Das (IITG) PHYSICS - 1 (Lecture - 2) August 6, 2014 11 / 56

Santabrata Das (IITG) PHYSICS - 1 (Lecture - 2) August 6, 2014 12 / 56

Tension in the ropes

Santabrata Das (IITG) PHYSICS - 1 (Lecture - 2) August 6, 2014 13 / 56

Santabrata Das (IITG) PHYSICS - 1 (Lecture - 2) August 6, 2014 14 / 56

Constraint - I: Vertical acceleration

Santabrata Das (IITG) PHYSICS - 1 (Lecture - 2) August 6, 2014 15 / 56

L − x1 + x2 = const ⇒ ẍ1 = ẍ2

Santabrata Das (IITG) PHYSICS - 1 (Lecture - 2) August 6, 2014 16 / 56

Santabrata Das (IITG) PHYSICS - 1 (Lecture - 2) August 6, 2014 17 / 56

The path of the particle happens to be a circle in a horizontal plane.

Santabrata Das (IITG) PHYSICS - 1 (Lecture - 2) August 6, 2014 18 / 56

Force diagram is self-explanatory.

Santabrata Das (IITG) PHYSICS - 1 (Lecture - 2) August 6, 2014 19 / 56

Masses M1 and M2 are connected to a system of strings and pulleys as

Santabrata Das (IITG) PHYSICS - 1 (Lecture - 2) August 6, 2014 20 / 56

Unknowns: ẍ1 , ẍ2 , T, T 0 and we require four equations to solve the

Constraint: Fixed length of the string is a constraint.

Santabrata Das (IITG) PHYSICS - 1 (Lecture - 2) August 6, 2014 22 / 56

−4M2 ẍ1 = T − 2M2 g = M1 ẍ1 + M1 g − 2M2 g

Acceleration of M2 is twice the rate of M1 and the weight of M1 is

Santabrata Das (IITG) PHYSICS - 1 (Lecture - 2) August 6, 2014 23 / 56

Santabrata Das (IITG) PHYSICS - 1 (Lecture - 2) August 6, 2014 24 / 56

Unknows: Tup , Tlow and two equations.

Santabrata Das (IITG) PHYSICS - 1 (Lecture - 2) August 6, 2014 26 / 56

Constraints: rA + rB = l ⇒ r̈A = −r̈B

Two movable bodies and their free body diagram

Santabrata Das (IITG) PHYSICS - 1 (Lecture - 2) August 6, 2014 28 / 56

Constrain equations: r + z = ` ⇒ r̈ = −z̈.

Immediately after B is released, r = r0 and θ̇ = ω0 . Hence,

Coordinate system is fixed on

Santabrata Das (IITG) PHYSICS - 1 (Lecture - 2) August 6, 2014 30 / 56

Santabrata Das (IITG) PHYSICS - 1 (Lecture - 2) August 6, 2014 31 / 56

g mamin = N cos θ − f sin θ; f ≤ µN (1)

mamin = N (cos θ − µ sin θ)

Block has zero Vertical acceleration

Santabrata Das (IITG) PHYSICS - 1 (Lecture - 2) August 6, 2014 32 / 56

We can estimate the maximum acceleration also.

mamax = N (cos θ + µ sin θ) ; f = µN